THE WORSHIP OF ASKLEPIOS*

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE AND TIIE THEATER

By IRA S. WILE, M.D.

NEW YORK, N. Y.

HET cult of Asklcpios began with a Asklcpios, although its use as a sacred sym- man and ended with a god. Raus- bol antedates the Pythian . The cher estimated that more than 300 serpent was an emblem of an earth cult; its Asklepieia existed; there are well worship was common during antiquity. authenticated references to 207, although Cretans and accepted serpents as 161 arc assumed from figures of Asklcpios companions of gods or as their favorite on coins. Obviously numismatic evidence is earthly manifestations. In Egypt healing suggestive rather than conclusive of his values were ascribed to serpents and the worship at all of the places of issue. There Nagars of Kashmir serve serpent gods deemed can be no doubt, however, that Asklcpios to possess unusual medical powers. The was honored widely in the ancient world. snake has a mystic significance in rites of The principal centers included , Cos, many sorts; it is especially held to be a Pcrgamos, , , , magic agent of healing. The serpent became and Smyrna. a symbol of prudence, of the renewal of in considering various problems concern- life, and of the power to discover medicinal ing the origin, development, expansion and or healing plants. It is evident that the meaning of Asklcpios worship at different serpent attribute of Asklcpios symbolized periods certain facts merit review: the healing potentials of nature which (1) Apollo, god of light, youth, music and Asklcpios personified. healing, was the father of Asklcpios by Serpents also received veneration be- Coronis, daughter of Phlegas. cause they were variously regarded as the (2) , protectress of women, was a dwelling of the soul, the soul itself, or the goddess of unspoiled nature: of mountains, symbol of the soul. Hence they became groves and springs. manifestations of the dead, the symbols of (3) presided over wine and its earth gods renewing life, of the earth itselE pleasures but also over all vegetation, and, and of gods. The intensity of these beliefs in addition, he was patron of the drama. is represented in the identification of the (4) During Homeric times, Asklcpios was serpent and Asklcpios when his worship was not known as a god but merely as a Thessa- transferred to Rome (293 b .c .) by means of lian chieftain, the father of those “good” a serpent. A was erected in his name military physicians, and Podali- at the place where the serpent landed on the rius. and regarded him as a Tiber’s shore, after gliding away from the boat “leader of men,” and “a hero.” Among his that was bearing it to stay Rome’s pestilence. other children by Epione were and This phase of Asklcpios’ symbolic charac- . teristic is important, and especially so when (5) The early education of this son of related to the serpent themes in the life of Apollo was entrusted to the wise the earlier healing god, Apollo, his father. , teacher of and . The earth spirit concept is further supported (6) The serpent is an essential attribute of by the fact that the principal sacrificial * Read before the American School of Classical object in the Asklepieia was the cock, Studies, at its Summer Session, Athens, Aug. 8, 1925. usually a to underground spirits. (7) Originally Asklepios was a dream differences between the first Asklepieion at . The duality of man’s nature as body Tricca, in Thessaly, and the magnificent and spirit has been recognized in modern as series of buildings at Epidaurus. Admittedly well as ancient times. The objective tangible the course of the progressive development of body to be seen and felt was the dwelling of the cult and its marmoreal expression is an unseen spirit that came and went for conjectural, but there are sufficient evidence, periods of time, thus giving rise to sleep, testimony and opinion to support the idea

protracted unconsciousness or death. To that the worship of Asklepios passed through consult a god with reference to one’s spirit four definite stages. Each stage involved an was not unusual and oneiromancy became a expansion of methods, if not of purpose, reasonable procedure. Thus, not merely and demanded a material enlargement of the Asklepios but Dionysus and were working plant together with an increased frequently consulted in dreams. The pres- and more differentiated personnel. ence of statues of Sleep and Dream in The earliest worship of Asklepios, the of Asklepios strengthens the idea healing power of Nature personified, was that fundamentally Asklepios was an earth simple. A grove, a spring, an for spirit, who primarily manifested himself to sacrifice were all that was requisite, with a those who sought him through the wizardry priest, so called, in attendance. From the of sleep and dreams. spring there developed baths and fountains. Cults do not arise suddenly with com- An early cave may have sufficed for the plete programs and fully developed embel- priest until temple building began. The lishments. The Asklepios cult formed no earth with its beauty, productivity and exception to the rule. There were wide water demanded only an altar for worship. Protection of the earth spirit was solicited The altar of sacrifice was no longer adequate through sacrifice to Asklcpios. to meet the concept of Asklcpios and tem- An established place of worship attracts ples were constructed in which incubation attention and worshippers. Familiarity with was practiced. The increase in devotees human frailties broadens experience, height- required an enlarged priestly staff, for whom ens judgment and increases therapeutic homes were erected. potentials. The priests of Asklcpios evolved Increased reputation for health service

a simple technique and became better promotes popularity. The priestly astute- informed concerning procedures helpful to ness recognized the value of specialization the mental well-being of their patrons. and some of the priests devoted their full The grove and surrounding grandeur of attention to therapeutic arts, while others natural scenery were continued as impor- retained their original devotional and sacri- tant, while the spring expanded to baths ficial functions. With increasing insight into and waters with vaunted medicinal qualities. human psychology, the priestly and secular administrations expanded their program height of development, possessing a staff of and added necessary buildings. This period priests and physicians to meet man’s gave rise to the theater and the gymnasium demands for protection against diseases or within the sanctified area. Other temples relief from them. The sanctuary remained were added, especially those erected in but it no longer constituted the entire place honor of Artemis. Hotels were built to of worship which now had spread over a accommodate the increasing host of visitors. large sanctified area.

Asklcpios worship was evolving along There is ample support for this somewhat therapeutic lines. formal theory of evolution of the sanctified The health resort idea proved successful, areas of Asklcpios worship. Apollo averted and priests, though helpful in the sanctuary, illness and an Apollo temple preceded the were no longer capable of carrying on all the Asklepieion at Epidaurus. As FarncII sug- developing undertakings. Physicians entered gests, the early idea of demoniac possession the sacred places and served the ever- made it rational to appeal to a god to avert growing clientele, while the priests devoted death. An approach to retain health was themselves to the functions involved in the appropriately spiritual and supernatural direct relations to the god as in sacrifice and rather than a recourse to physical methods. incubation. The already numerous struc- Upon Asklepios fell the healing mantle of tures were insufficient in number and his father, Apollo; and his temple at extent, so there was further expansion by Epidaurus, for example, was built upon the means of colonnades, solaria, exedrae, stadia site of an earlier Apollo temple. Cavvadias and so forth. The Asklepieion was now at its in his monumental work on Epidaurus, states of the Asklepieion, “c’etait un lieu the failure of to refer to the sacre.” But he also adds: “La reputation de . Hippocrates, born of Asklepiad ce sanctuaire vient done de la credulite des family, 460 b .c ., and living at Cos where a hommes au miracle.” He implies that the highly reputed Asklepieion flourished in his numerous structures had a precedence in day, ignores its existence in his writings, need by recognizing an order of erection: though it was alleged that he secured the the altar followed by the temple, the foundations of his medical knowledge from

theater, the tholos, the abaton, to which Cos. It is striking that he does not dwell were added other temples, the stadium, upon the practice of incubation at the houses for priests and hotels. As Asklepios Temple at Cos, because during his age worship developed, revenues increased and there was a widespread belief in the super- the administrations were enabled to embel- natural origin of dreams which played a lish the sanctuary and to make the visits significant part in the diagnosis and treat- of the worshippers more agreeable. ment of disease. On the other hand one is Whibley notes that the temple ritual was struck by the fact that one of Hippoc- only a part of the methodology involved in rates’ main books is devoted to airs, waters the splendid apparatus of the Asklepios cult. and places, which constituted the physical He suggests that temple medicine was built and psychological foundation of Asklepios upon earlier secular medicine. This is worship. unlikely in view of the fact that Cclsus gives The first temple of Asklepios was probably credit to Hippocrates for separating medi- at Tricca, Thessaly, where Ziehen reports cine from philosophy and makes no refer- the discovery of a spring and a temple but ence to the combination of medicine and no further structural accessions. The most religion. Nor indeed does refer to celebrated place of worship was at Epidau- the supernatural origin of pathological rus and its expansiveness merits special states. There is further suggestion that attention. At Epidaurus there had been a secular medicine as such played little part well-known shrine to the Maleatos Apollo, in the early practices of the Asklepios cult in which served as the physical and spiritual foundation of the Asklepieion. But an altar lessly frequented by the sick as a diversion.” to Asklepios was erected virtually two Incidentally he mentions that the stadium generations before the temple was con- also was visited by convalescents. structed (Lechat). In its complete organiza- There is little doubt that the combination tion Epidaurus presented a grove, an altar, of a scries of structures consecrated to the the temple, a sacred well (tholos), a theater, name and honor of one god and not noted in gymnasium, baths, colonnades, exedrae and the worship or rites of another divinity speaks for their being at some time an integral part of the machinery of that special worship. Hence I regard these elements, including the theater, gymnasium, stadium, colonnades, as representing the evolution of structural means of giving increasingly complex methods for yielding results from the worship of Asklepios. Hence all these structures may be regarded as belonging within the sanctified area as distinguished from the sanctuary. This holds true at Epidaurus just as at one differentiates the sacred temple limits from the entire area sacred to Apollo. It is logical, therefore, to conceive Asklepios worship as dynamic, expansive and evolutionary in a stadium, together with temples to other structure and function. Worship over a divinities. The sanctified area of Apollo at period of centuries undergoes alterations, as Delphi also possessed a grove, spring, does the art of healing. The combination of temple, theater, gymnasium and stadium. spiritual and natural healing called for The similarity of structures utilized in constant modification in methods. The these two localities attests a close relation- needs of man and the worship of a god ship between Apollo and Asklcpios. This is varied during the centuries and led to the emphasized by noting that at Olympia, induction of new rites, methods, forms and was honored by a grove, altar and purposes, involving larger revenues and temple, a gymnasium and stadium. Games extensive building programs. were held at Delphi and Olympia. A Among the structures at Epidaurus which theater, however, does not appear within have provoked discussion none possesses the sanctified areas of Zeus, or any the speculative charm of the tholos, “La other of the Olympian host. In Athens, Rotunde.” Its unusual structure raises Asklepios worship, on the south side of the definite questions as to its purpose and Acropolis, presented a sacred spring, an meaning. The central portion of its ruins altar, a temple, baths, gymnasium and consists of three concentric circular walls, colonnades, while a theater was nearby and broken by arched entrances. The three walls a stadium was not far distant. Frazer in his are joined by two walls in a line so that commentaries records that the Asklcpios while it is possible to go from one circular sanctuary was reached by a ramp from the space into the next inner one, a complete theater of Dionysus, in which the priest of traversal of either of the two outer circles is Asklepios had one of the reserved seats of impossible (Fig. i). Outside of these three honor. Caton, writing obviously under the circular connected and connecting walls is influence of Cavvadias, referring to the another circular wall to carry the cover of theater of Dionysus, states it “was doubt- the subterranean structures, while a fifth supporting circular wall exists to carry a partial substantiation of his concept he colonnade. The third and fourth walls are quotes Desmonccaux, who visited the place also joined together in the same manner as in 1669, and referred to “un rond avcc un the second and third walls and in the same puit au milieu.” Cavvadias rejected the line. What was this strangely constructed idea that the Tholos was a water source and building and why did it possess its unique deemed it to be a place for statues and for structural form? I am proposing an answer or secret rites. Caton, revealing

to these questions which appears to account the influence of Cavvadias, suggests that adequately for its form, location and the wcfl-Iikc structure between the temple purpose. and the spring at the Asklepieion on the H. Lechat regarded La Rotunde as a south side of the Acropolis in Athens was a spring or sacred well flowing through pas- serpent pit “similar to the Tholos at sages to a central shaft, which he supposed Epidaurus.” Patently neither of these to be open at the level of the floor. In explanations casts light upon the reason for the peculiar structure. It is noteworthy shows a magnificent circular marble temple that springs formed an essential part of with many Doric and Ionic columns sup- Asklcpios worship just as they were porting a beautiful casseted ceiling. Inter- employed in connection with twined serpents are freely used in the scheme ( at Oropus or at of decoration. A glance at Figures 3 and 4 Lcbadcia). The first act of worship was suffices to demonstrate that the Tholos was bathing in sacred water and Asklepieia were no ordinary structure, but possessed a

usually located near springs alleged to position of honor and probably was closely possess medicinal qualities. Bearing this bound up with the worship of Asklepios. in mind, it will be recalled that the Tholos There was need for a spring or well near was located near the Temple at Epidaurus the sanctuary under the control of the and indeed was reached by a ramp from the priests. The Temple itself contained none, Temple, indicating frequent usage and save the water source connected with the facility of approach. Further the Tholos sacred image of the god to prevent its faced east, as did the Temple, but it also shrinkage. The Tholos with its ramp sug- faced the ancient altar which was slightly gests its usefulness as a sacred well and this west by south of the Temple (Fig. 2). The appears to harmonize with the quoted Tholos was within the sacred enclosure of observations of Dcsmonceaux. This pur- the temple, connected with it, and faced pose, however, does not account for the size, east toward the great altar of Asklepios. grandeur or form of the Tholos, which This important position becomes more merit careful consideration. significant when its size and appearance are The Asklepieion at Epidaurus, as men- considered. The restoration at Epidaurus tioned above was located on the site of an old Apollo temple. Asklepios was Apollo’s The Tholos probably contained a well, if son and the serpent was an attribute to one accepts the testimony of Desmonceaux both of them. The serpent played a larger and the idea of Lechat. A sacred well or part in the Asklepios worship than at the spring in a serpentine structure would not of Pythian Apollo. It is evident that be unnatural at the Asklepios shrine at at Epidaurus a serpent shrine would have a Epidaurus, not merely because serpents dual force at a shrine of Asklepios built were common there but because the ser-

upon foundations of Apollo worship. Hence I believe that the Tholos was a symbolic serpent structure. This hypothesis will account for its position facing east toward the altar of Asklepios and connected directly pent was the symbol of the earth god and with the main Temple within the sacred the healing god Asklepios. The splendor of limits. the temple as reconstructed suggests that Several factors lend support to this point it was of particular importance. Psychologi- of view. Serpents were frequently employed cally, what could be of greater potential aid as guardians of wells and especially those than a sacred well in the honored serpent possessing real or alleged salutary powers. form? The unusual building type proves upon well there could be little increase of current closer observation to be serpentine in form. without a free access of air, which these There are few complete spiral turns, to be partitions hampered. The idea of the Tholos sure, but there is a suggestion of continuous being a place for mummery is not strength- coils. As traced in Figure 5, there appears ened by the presence of the joining walls, to be at least one complete turn and then a inasmuch as hollow sounds would be louder curling back upon itself to a point of egress and more vibrant in unbroken compart-

from the outermost of the three inner con- ments. If there had been no well, and mum- centric walls. Possibly the serpent form may mery had involved wandering through a have been carried out further, as I have labyrinth to a spring, the serpent form indicated between the third and fourth would have had a greater mystical and walls. This interpretation, at least, takes terrifying meaning for the suppliant. There account of the connections between the four is little evidence to sustain the theory that concentric circular walls. This arrangement the Tholos was a place of sacrifice. Firstly, is not found elsewhere than at Epidaurus it faced a great altar; secondly, the and must possess a definite purpose, and restoration from ample material yields no that purpose does not lie in the direction of trace of a sacrificial altar or pit or marks of supporting weight or buttressing walls. It drainage. Nor would its use as a place of would appear rather to affect internal sacrifice explain its unusual fundamental contours for some specific end. structure. It assuredly never was utilized It has been urged that the breaking-up for incubation. of the circular channels produced currents If it was a serpent pit, which is of course within the well. This is unreasonable because possible, its serpentine form would be easily the entrances from one channel to the next understood. Its subterranean walls are outer already provided for free water move- higher than usual for a serpent pit, but that ment. And indeed in a close subterranean is not of serious moment, as entrances existed to all parts of the underground the serpent makes around the staff. It is corridors. As a serpent pit it was possibly patent that the largest group (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9) somewhat removed from the temple proper makes but a single turn and then recurves wherein the priests were wont to utilize the along the staff. The next to largest group serpents during the times when their sym- presents two full coils (Figs. 10, 11, 12) and bolic therapeutic arts were developing. The the smallest group offers three twistings serpent pit idea, however, is not out of (Figs. 13, 14). All groups demonstrate the

harmony with my interpretation of the form reversed coiling of the serpent at some of the Tholos, though I am inclined to point; the most of them present it toward accept the idea that there was “un puit au the head end at the top of the staff. If milieu.” Figure 6 or Figure 7 were drawn as viewed As mute witnesses to the similarity of the from above, the outline would parallel that Tholos form to the serpents of Asklepios I of the assumed serpent form of the Tholos present a series of pictures of the serpent of subterranean chamber. To represent almost Asklepios as noted in statues of the god or on any of the single coil group in building form votive offerings to the god. Most of the would result in a Tholos-Iike conformation. photographs were made at the National The serpent of Asklepios was not only a Museum at Athens, without any selection symbol of the god but at times was identi- save that of order of observation. In con- fied with him. Does it not appear reasonable, nection with this article they were arranged then, to regard the Tholos form as purpose- according to the number of complete turns ful: a symbolic manifestation of Asklepios facing his altar, a serpent form housed in a although the topography of the situation magnificent, ornate, columned building? would have permitted its facing away from The physical evidence certainly sustains the it. At a distance of one-quarter of a mile hypothesis, and the theory is in accord with sounds or disturbances could scarcely pene- the tangible facts concerning Asklepios and trate the essentially sacred precincts. At his serpent. Athens the situation likewise was protective The theater at Epidaurus in its splendid of the quietude of the healing temple.

preservation faces the sanctuary of Asklc- While theaters were numerous through- pios, although it is approximately one- out , I believe that their presence in quarter of a mile distant from it. On the combination with the worship of Asklepios south side of the Acropolis in Athens the indicates a purpose beyond the mere enter- theater of Dionysus faces away from the tainment of visitors. I am suggesting that temple of Asklepios, but it is noteworthy the theater formed an integral part of the that the two are connected by a ramp. It is mental hygiene phases of Asklepios worship, important also that the priest of Asklepios and that it was not merely a place for art, had an inscribed special seat in the theater but was utilized for improving the morale of Dionysus along with other notables. and spirit so as to better the art of living. These facts would seem to indicate that the Admitting that the worship of Asklepios relationship between the theater and the fundamentally involved the use of fine air, temple was close, particularly in view of pure water and exalting scenery, and often the presence of the ramp. At Epidaurus, as was located at or near medicinal springs, noted, the theater faces the sanctuary, does not exclude the introduction of man- made institutions in the course of its develop- and the elimination of introspection were ment. As Whibley comments: “Besides valuable aids in securing relief from mental religious rites were physical and moral disturbances. influences, as dreams, games, social amuse- There is a certain impressiveness in the ments, diets, gymnastics, and perhaps a few fact that the theaters were not actually drugs.” And again: “Air, water, place, accompaniments of the worship of other regimen, mental exaltation, diversion or gods. There is evidence that theaters were

repose were later distinguished from priestly frequently located in the neighborhood of ritual.” In our earlier suggestion concerning the precincts of Asklepios and were more the evolution of the cult practices, distinc- commonly found there than within the tion was made between the essentially precincts of Apollo. It is not a mere accident priestly methodology and other instrumen- that the theater was utilized to some talities designed to improve physical well- extent in connection with Apollo worship being by procedures even to this day and to a still greater extent in Asklepios recognized as diverting, stimulating and worship. One feels an inherent truth in inspiring. Those responsible for the good Whibley’s comment: “By pomp, splendor name of Asklepios probably were not slow and ancient enchantments senses were to appreciate that this medicatrix naturae captured and the springs of nervous was enhanced by every effort to perfect the energy unsealed; sorceries and impostures stability of the body and the equilibrium of may have entered more or less into their the mind. Certainly, mental diversion, repose system.” The theater with its practical value for capturing the senses and unsealing available, it did not become necessary to energies was not sorcery or imposture, erect a special structure. In a sense, there- but was indeed religious with a healing fore, the theater at Epidaurus may be re- power reflecting credit upon the worshipped garded as within the sacred domain of Ask- Asklepios. lepios, even though located somewhat The presence of the theater could not remote from the sacred precincts. It is violate traditions, or lower somewhat analogous to the sacred olive the dignity of the powerful god. Greek grove at Delphi which was even more dis- education had its traditions of gymnastics tant from the shrine of Apollo. and music utilized for moral effect. The The presence of gymnasia, stadia, theater was thoroughly in consonance with baths, colonnades and hospices indicates thespirit and motivation of Greek education. further extensions of applied hygienic prin- It made use of principles which were psy- ciples. Asklepios tells Agistratus in a dream chologically sound in adapting educational that in order to cure his headache and practices to the healing art. The singing of insomnia he should take exercise. Personal hymns and dancing were not uncommon in hygiene was of importance and thoroughly celebrations attendant upon the worship of in accord with the Greek idea of worship of Delphic Apollo, as referred to by the body beautiful, vigorous and self-con- and in the Hymns to Apollo. Hesiod refers trolled. Strabo describes athletic games at to the adoration of Apollo in Crete through Cos in honor of Asklepios. the medium of the dance. This is thoroughly It is unnecessary at this time to enter into understandable, as dances were first an further details concerning the purpose of inseparable part of the religious ceremonies the colonnades, the exedrae, solaria, the of the Greeks. Consequently the theater at medicinal springs and the baths. Their Epidaurus represented a rational utilization relationship to the development of the body of the dance and chorus, possibly as an and the spirit is exemplified in the proce- outgrowth of religious ceremony, but cer- dures at modern sanatariums and spas. tainly as part of a natural form of worship. A general resume of the theurgical stages This view is further supported by the of development of Asklepios worship will Greek concept of dancing as a method of reveal its natural evolution from the promoting the harmony and beauty of the simplest to the most complex form: body. Dances represent emotional states The first period began with the personifi- that have a contagious influence upon the cation of the healing power of Nature, lead- beholders. It is not difficult, therefore, to ing gradually to the development of temple reconcile the emotional demonstrations at medicine. The belief in the supernaturalncss the theater as part of a design to influence of dreams was common earlier in Egypt and the emotional attitudes of those bent upon pervaded the shrines of Apollo, securing relief at the hands of Asklepios and . It was natural, therefore, for the through the medium of his priests. Even Greeks to seek a supernatural god for assuming that the theater was generally assistance in and through dream manifesta- open to the populace, it is patent that its tions. Hence arose the method of incubation, function would logically be to promote the during which Asklepios worked as a god health-yielding spirit within the domain of and not as a physician. Asklepios. From this point of view one is The procedure of this first stage was not illogical in assuming that the theater simple. The suppliant bathed in the sacred was not a mere incident, but a practical waters, made the sacrifice and then went device. Where no other theater existed one through the process of incubation for one or was built near the Temple, but when, as at two nights. The success of the god depended Athens, a theater to another god was upon the credulity of those who sought his aid. This first stage was one of miracle work- began to play upon the imagination of the ing. Records of cures indicate the wonderful suppliants by recourse to mummery and works of the god: Cleo had been with child through the utilization of sacred animals. for five years; after one night in the dormi- Previously, sacred serpents had been used, tory a son was born, who on the morn as described in , and they consti- washed himself in the sacred waters and tuted an attribute of Asklepios, and in a betook himself from the shrine. A skeptic, sense an animalization of him. It was all of whose fingers save one were paralyzed, logical and impressive, therefore, to employ came to the shrine and during his period of serpents along with the interpretation of incubation dreamed of playing dice, during the dreams of those seeking the aid of which process the god straightened out his Asklepios. Similarly sacred dogs were of serv- fingers. There was also the interesting tale of ice, because, as alleged by Festus and Pandarus, who came to the shrine seeking to Lactantius, Asklepios had been suckled by have removed some letters branded upon a bitch, although states that he his forehead. He dreamed that Asklepios had been suckled by a goat and guarded by bound a fillet about his head and bade him a dog. The employment of such sacred take it off and dedicate it to the god. Lo I in animals, combined with the special atten- the morning the brands were no longer upon tion of the priests, resulted in cures that his troubled forehead, but had been trans- have been attested by votive inscriptions. ferred to the fillet. There was Thyson, the blind boy, whose These are illustrations of recorded mira- eyes were licked by a dog of the temple and cles, possibly not to be taken too literally, his sight was restored. Also there was the but nevertheless serving at the time to man with the ulcer of the toe who was enhance the reputation of Asklepios, regard- healed by the lick of the sacred serpent, less of the extent to which the priests were while he lay asleep. responsible for the tales. It is obvious, in It is apparent that with priests making the light of present-day experiences, that special therapeutic efforts, supplementing the mere attribution of miraculous cures their ritual activities, new factors would attracts large numbers of those who suffer enter into the development of worship from functional and organic diseases. An within the sacred domains. The personal influx of suppliants would give the priests a reputations of the priests for effective ser- large degree of experience in the manage- vice added to the reputation of the god. ment of disease and more particularly of Again an increase in popular favor followed the individuals disturbed, whether com- and larger numbers of people applied for plaining of the body or of the mind. It is relief, particularly for functional difficulties, but natural, therefore, that the original it being a principle that no one might die functions of the priests should expand within the sacred precincts. somewhat from the original ritual basis; The third stage of development brought and the second stage of development about a division of priestly functions. One naturally followed. or more priests retained the control and The second period represented worship of direction of the purely ritual, incubational Asklepios under the direction of priests, who and animalized assistance, while another were now beginning to make special efforts one or group devoted themselves to the to cure their clientele by advice and guid- practical application of the principles that ance. With the limitations of the human had been evolved in order to achieve cures mind, credulity with blind faith in the god along lines less theistic, though in the name became modified to faith in the priests, who, of the god. Through experience their medi- in a sense, became guides in mental hygiene. cal knowledge had accumulated. With the To supplement their personalities they enhancement of their reputation for cura- tive power there was an influx of the sick medical attention. Physicians are now found and the maimed. In all likelihood those working in harmony with the priests during seeking aid were not of the most prominent the first or second century a .d . and or reasoning type. Temple medicine or the use of drugs began to supplement to a recourse to the shrine of Asklepios was never large extent hypnotism, miracle working recommended by Hippocrates, even though and oneiromancy. From this time there he recognized the virtues of air, water and began the establishment of the Asklepiadae, places, and he lived within influence of the a caste or order of priests possessing a con- sacred shrine at Cos. Faith in the god and siderable knowledge of medicine which was the priests was strengthened by the increas- held to be secret and passed only from father ing lay reputation. The secular and lay to son. This Asklepiadic point of view was administrators of the sacred precincts were thoroughly out of harmony with the dic- virtually obliged to establish and maintain tates of the free teaching of medicine so ably a sanitarium. Those seeking relief were espoused by Hippocrates. psychically aided by the presence of votive Originally Asklepios was not the god of offerings and testimonials, not merely from medicine; his worship throughout the those who had been cured but from those ancient world was a normal response of who had earlier solicited aid. The broadened Nature-fearing people to the majesty and type of treatment now afforded is well power of Nature. Asklepios, the hero father illustrated by the experience of Apellas who of valiant physicians, became heralded as underwent nine days of treatment for the son of the god of light, youth and heal- indigestion. The first item of advice was not ing. The wise man, tutored in healing arts to get angry, and then followed directions by Chiron, became a dream oracle. The as to diet, exercise, bathing, the making of evolution of his worship was subject to the sacrifices and last, but not least, the influences of natural phenomena, including necessity of paying the honorarium. No man’s own reaction to Nature and to him- comment is required upon the belief that self. Asklepios in the sanctuary was trans- even as the cure had been wrought the formed into Asklepios, the guiding spirit of disease and suffering of the patient could be a health resort, and finally into Asklepios, returned to him in the event of his failure to the godly patron of a hospital. But he ever make an adequate monetary compensation. remains a god of healing, a specialized During the course of time the reputation Apollo Alexikakos, reflecting the reverential for healing reached a peak. There was no attitude of the Greeks toward supernatural real need for miracle cures alone and indeed medical skill. He might have voiced the miracles no longer made a great appeal to words of of Agrigentum; those who sought relief. The ill flocked in . . . But unto ye I walk still larger numbers and the necessity for a As god immortal now, no more as man, greater variation in treatment gave rise to On all sides honored fittingly and well, a more extensive institution than could be Crowned both with fillets, and with flowering wreaths. characterized as a sanitarium. Hence, there When with my throngs of men and women I come came about the final stage of evolution into To thriving cities I am sought by , a hospital. And thousands follow me that they may ask The path to weal and vantage, craving some In the fourth period priests retained their For oracles, whilst others seek to hear position of prominence but their services A healing word ’gainst many a foul disease were restricted to lines not requiring definite That all too long hath pierced with grevious pains.