CHAPTER 4 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY AND DIGITAL HERBARIUM Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant . CHAPTER-4 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY AND DIGITAL HERBARIUM

4.1: INTRODUCTION:

Floral diversity indicates the variety of occurring in a particular region at a particular time. It generally refers to the diversity of naturally occurring indigenous or native plants. Angiosperms are the largest plant group in comprising a total of 17,817 species, constitutes 38.15% of floral diversity of the entire country, followed by fungi comprised of 14,698 species, representing 31.38%. The country also has high level of cryptogam (bryophytes and pteridophytes) diversity.

Diversity is the variability among different organisms. Significance of conservation of species cannot be perceived without properly knowing and documenting them. Floristic diversity is the unevenness of flowering plants. Diversity status of ecosystems like sanctuaries can be known and conservation of their biodiversity is possible by floristic inventory and diversity assessments. Though studies on inventory and diversity at different levels all over the world are available to fill the gap in the biodiversity knowledge, variations are found in sampling methods/ techniques, sample size, measurements taken in the field which hinder the compilation and comparison of results (Jayakumar et.al, 2011). To recognize floristic diversity an inventory is essential for fundamental research in tropical community ecology, such as understanding species distributions (Phillips et.al, 2003).

Vegetation in natural habitats not only comprises a single type/ groups of plant but a mere collection of different plants having great diversity. Ideally, forest plantations established in the arid zones should provide an array of products and services. While the tree and shrub species and techniques chosen must ensure soil and water conservation and provide shade and shelter, they also should yield the immediate requirements for fuel, fodder, and generally, multiple uses, whenever possible.

Many wild plants and animals, which are found in no other country of world, flourish and conserved in protected areas like sanctuaries. Plants form significant wealth of sanctuaries, which play a vital role in social, cultural, historical, economic and industrial development of any country and in maintaining its ecological balance. Plants are the resource base for sustenance of animal population of sanctuaries and sanctuaries are

29" Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. storehouses of biodiversity. They are an integral part of any sanctuary. It is our prime duty to protect and conserve the plants via ex-situ or in-situ ways on urgent basis (Salave et.al, 2011).

Mayureshwar Wildlife Sanctuary (MWS) and Rehekuri Blackbuck Sanctuary (RBS) are the most important arid zone wildlife sanctuaries in Maharashtra. The plant species forms fundamental and major supporting system of these sanctuaries. All organisms in any ecosystem directly or indirectly depend on its floristic components. The vegetation is represented by the total effect produced by abundance or scarcity or even diversity of the plant life whereas flora constitutes the sum total of different types and kinds of plants (Mahajan, 2001). Study of flora is necessary for knowing the composition of plant species and can be compared with previous records to know the change in floral composition. Flora is a systematic enumeration of plant species occurring in a given region and ideally provides keys, descriptions and often illustrations, which help in identification of plant species. It is totally botanical aspect but have ecological value. Flora can be defined as the assemblage of plant life in certain place or environment.

A Sanctuary is an ecosystem itself comprising of mainly the trees and varying assemblage of herbs, shrubs and climbers. Study of flora and ecology of sanctuary is very much essential as it forms supporting system to its minor and major fauna as well as it forms participating unit of environment maintaining its balance. It also useftil to record what actual plant wealth we have and also used to know its changes or loss in those areas.

Due to increasing pressure of various human activities and requirements our forests are gradually getting reduced. Any sanctuary is a powerflil ecological unit having vital environmental significance which plays a major role in balancing the biosphere-atmosphere energy flow. Sanctuaries are treated as, protected property resources, with limited access to tourists, researchers, schools, etc. for study purposes under the permission and supervision of sanctuary staffs. Floristic composition is chiefly a matter of quality and vegetation is a matter of quantity. For small-scale (large-area) studies and for habitat description ecological methods based on floristic composition are more useful (Goldsmith et.al, 1992).

As a key role for management of vegetation, exact documentation of plant species was necessary. This chapter deals with scientific floristic study and its documentation in the form of digital herbarium as well as plant ecological aspects with respect to MWS and RBS.

30 Plaiil Ecological Studies of Arid Zone WUdlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. 4.2: MATERIAL: Field diary, notebook, pen, pencil, rubber, Sony Digital Camera (12X optical zoom and 12.1 megapixel), GPS instrument, PVC pipes frame of Imx Im size, strings, tent nails, oil paint to mark quadrats, brush, cloth and metal tapes, ruler, herbarium sheets, computer. Picasa and other image viewer software, floras, compound microscope, etc.

4.3: LITERATURE: Literature survey was carried out by referring the libraries of Agharkar Research Institute Pune; Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune; Forest Department and Wildlife Department, Pune; Jaykar Library, and Environmental Science Department Library of Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune; MWS and RBS offices Literature, and from Internet sources.

4.4: METHODS: Ecological and floristic studies were carried out by periodic visits to the study area between 2007 and 2013. Listing of plant species was continued during field walks. Plants were classified on the basis of their habit (herbs, shrubs, climbers and trees) and habitat. Random walk method was used for field observations. The fi-equent field visits were made to document the seasonal variations. Digital camera was used to obtain digital photographs for preparation of digital herbarium. For the systematic observation the area of MWS was divided in five regions based on slope, drainage and roads (Figure 4.1). This was for ease of the observations. Region 1: Between new Supa-Saswad Road and Supa-Morgaon road (MWS Nature Interpretation Center). Region 2: West side area of Vadhane Road. Region 3: Between east side of Vadhane road and North tower road. Region 4: Between North Tower road, hills, rivulet and Chaufula Supa Road. Region 5: Between north tower road east, rivulet south side and Saswad Road north side. The area of RBS was divided in three regions for the convenience of study, based on slope, drainage and manmade roads (Figure 4.2). Region 1: Backyards of rest house (north of footpath track to Walvad Road). Region 2: Backyards of rest house (south of footpath track to south end of sanctuary). Region 3: North of Walvad road to North end of Sanctuary.

31 Plant Ecological Slndics of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Figure 4.1: Map of MWS showing study regions, co-ordinates and altitudes (Spot heights) roads, sampling (quadrat) location and drainage.

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32 Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. 4.4.1: Collection and identification of botanical material: The necessary permissions from forest and wildlife department of Maharashtra Government were obtained. As per the provisions of the Wildlife (Protection) Act. 1972 and Rules made thereunder, the conditions for research are mentioned. The collection of plants or their parts from the protected areas of both MWS and RBS was strictly prohibited by the PCCF Nagpur; hence the plants were only observed frequently and digitally photographed for their further identification. After observing plants and photographing it from sanctuaries, similar plant samples were collected from surrounding and nearby areas of both sanctuaries for proper identification. A number of localities within and surrounding areas of sanctuaries were visited for collection of data.

Identification of plant species was carried out with the help of floras and other relevant literature published by Botanical Survey of India from time to time. Floras such as •The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay" (Cooke, 1904-1908), 'Flora of Khandala" (Santapau, 1967), "Flora of Nasik District' (Laxminarasimhan, 1986), 'Flora of Maharashtra, (Almeida, 1996), 'Flora of Maharashtra State - " (Sharma et.al, 1996), 'Flora of Maharashtra State -Dicotyledons Vol.1 and 2' (Singh et.al, 2000. 2001). 'Flora of Dhule and Nandurbar Districts" (Patil, 2003), Grasses of Maharashtra (Deshpande and Singh (1986), and 'Flora of Baramati' (Bhagat et.al, 2008) were used. Collected plant specimens were identified, by comparing them with standard herbarium from Botanical Survey of India, Western circle. Regional Centre herbarium, Pune. Expert taxonomists were also consulted for identification of some species.

The digital photographs (images) were transferred to computer for ftirther observation and confirmation. The Picasa and other image viewers were used. Online databases such as International Plant Names Index (IPNI), Biodiversity Heritage Library (BHL), Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) and Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP) were also used for correct nomenclature, author citation and additional information.

Help of online Facebook groups like Indian Flora group, Plant Taxonomists groups, Flora of India, etc. was also taken for primary identification, then confirmed from floras. Databases such as Royal Botanical Garden, Kew online Herbarium Catalogue, New York Botanic Garden virtual herbarium, Tropicos, Catalogue of life, JSTOR Plant Science, EOL (Encyclopedia of Life), etc. were also referred for identification and comparison of characteristics of plant specimens and plant images. Wickispecies, Wikipedia, Google _ Plant Ecological Studies of Ariel Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. images, lUCN Red Data Book, Catalogue of life, etc. were used to get information about plants. All species of different habits found and thrived in these arid zones of MWS and RBS such as tree, shrub and herb etc. were listed.

The flora and vegetation of Mayureshwar Wildlife Sanctuary and Rehekuri Blackbuck Sanctuary has been studied on the basis of following guidelines. • Flora was studied for life form, duration and phenology. • Flora was scrutinized for native/ indigenous, exotic plant species, etc. • Voucher specimens of some species were observed, photographed within both Sanctuaries and the possible same were collected from surrounding and nearby areas of respective Sanctuaries to serve as permanent record of a species, as it occurred at a given time and place. • Flora of both Sanctuaries has been compared with each other and surrounding region.

In many ways, the field surveys undertaken in this study were rather different than the traditional botanical surveys. The present study gave more emphasis to ecological and economic characteristics of the individual plants than to morphological characters; those are not considered in the botanical surveys. Morphological characters of plants are available in many regional floras published by Botanical Survey of India and other institutes. The field surveys involve the preparation of an inventory of different species of plants including trees, shrubs and herbs in the plant community (Mahajan, 2001). The survey of the MWS and RBS followed the following pattern. A- Botanical name of plant B- Local or Vernacular Name C- Family D- Habit a) Herb b) Undershrub c) Shrub d) Tree e) Climber f) Grass E- Duration: a) Seasonal b) Annual c) Biannual d) Perennial F- Status (lUCN) G- Distribution- a) Native b) Exotic H- Life form. The floristic surveys were basically aimed to list plant species within both sanctuaries, to study their ecological and biological characters, to describe site specific relationship in terms of ecological characteristics etc. The other plant forms (algae, fimgi, bryophytes and pteridophytes) were also observed and identified.

34 Plant Ecological Studies of Ariel Zone Hlldlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species.

4.4.2: Fioristic Data Analysis: Field diary was maintained for noting the field observations and plant species. All the data was entered in computer for further analysis. The inventory of all plant species observed within and outside the MWS and RBS areas was prepared. The inventory was processed statistically by using Microsoft-Excel software. Charts and graphs were prepared to show floristic analysis. Exotic and native status of plant species was searched out from the referred floras and through authenticated online literature like JSTOR and lUCN, catalogue of life, etc.

4.4.3: Determination of Nativity: In assigning the native ranges to all the species, a bio-geographic approach has been followed. All species outside the political borders of India were considered as exotic, whose native ranges fall outside the borders of the Indian terrain. The native species from neighbouring countries, such as , , , and were included, because selected sanctuaries are having its own unique vegetation. The native range for each species was primarily obtained from the secondary literature; and to cross-check the native range records, the native ranges for all the species were verified with data from the internet sources (http://apfisn.net/countrv-reports: www.kfri.org: www.plantquarantineindia.org: www.fsiorg.net: www.envfor.nic.in), and some other recently published papers (Khuroo, et.al, 2012; Rajanna and Seetharam, 2012; Gattoo, 2012; Pergl, et.al, 2012; Chandra Sekar, 2012; Montero-Castan~o and Vila, 2012; Chaudhry, et.al, 2011; Zenni, et.al, 2011; Keith, et.al, 2011; Khuroo, et.al, 2011; Hua, et.al, 2011; Singh, 2011; Tewari, et.al, 2010; Strayer, 2010; Harini and Gopal, 2010; Singh, et.al, 2010; and Kumar, 2009). The exofic plants grown exclusively in pots, parks and gardens, indoors, and other such artificial conditions have also been included in the inventory. This was done so, because there is always a risk of escaping these species. Number of species recorded as exotics in different regions of the country and present in Pune urban area, have been included in the present study. The botanical names of species was updated using taxonomic online databases, such as International Plant Names Index (http://www.ipni.org), e-Floras (http://www.efloras.org). The Annual Checklist of World Plants (http://www.sp2000.org), and Germplasm Resources Information Network (http://www.grin.org). The taxa were considered at the taxonomic rank of species, subspecies, and variety.

35 Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. 4.3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: A preliminary survey reveals that basic forest type is deciduous forest and thorny scrub forests, but plants in MWS are sturdier than in RBS. This could be because of thin soil cover and soil type. The floristic surveys were made region wise and analyzed as follows.

4.3,1: Mayureshwar Wildlife Sanctuary (MWS): It was divided in to five regions based on man-made roads, terrain and rivulets (Figure 4.1, 4.2). Each region was explored for floristic composition. The flora represents mostly dry thorny scrub type jungle. It was due to scanty rainfall and thin soil cover. However, near the water percolation ponds and waterholes vegetation was dense. a. MWS Region 1: This region occupies area between new Supa-Saswad Road and Supa-Morgaon road (MWS Nature Interpretation Center). The slope is gentle and towards south, where a small rivulet takes its origin. A garden was maintained near the nature interpretation center, wherein many ornamentals were planted, including exotic species. This garden is well maintained and cared by sanctuary office staff. Many flowering garden herbs, few shrubs and tree plants planted here. Various herbaceous are introduced every year to enhance the beauty of office area.

The plant species listed from this region were Bauhinia variegatu, Moringa oleifera, Ziziphus mauritiana, Azadirachta indica, Ficus henghalensis, Ficus religiosa, Ficus elastica, Alstonia scolahs Allamanda hlanchetii, Allamanda catharitica, Acalypha wilkesiana form - circinata, Acalypha wilkesiana form - copperleaf, Acanthocereus tetragomis, Aloe vera, Barleria strigosa, Bougainvillea spectahilis, Breynia disticha, Carica papaya, Catheranthus wseus, Codiaeum variegatum, Codiaeum petra, Cordyline fruticosa, Dracaena deremensis, Annona squamosa, Plumeria ohtusa, Alhizzia lehhek, Opuntia dillenii, Geranium sp., Passiflora edulis, Duranta erecta, Echeveria diffractens, Epiphylum crenatum, Kalanchoe thyrsiflora, Leucaena latisiliqua, Livistonia chinensis, Nyctanthes arhor-tristis, etc. and gymnosperms like Thuja oxydentalis.

This region has roads surrounding on all sides, due to which the anthropogenic and grazing interventions are more, which affects the vegetation. The tree species planted by forest department before the establishment of sanctuary are well established, but the vegetation was sparse. The tree species were Azadirachta indica. Acacia tortilis, Ziziphus

36" Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. mauritiana, Prosopis juliflora, Leucaena latisiliqua, Acacia nilotica ssp. indica, Acacia nilotica ssp. astringens. Acacia nilotica ssp. cupressiformis, Cassia auriculata, Ciyptostegia grandiflora, Dalhergia latifolia. Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Ailanthus excelsa and Eucalyptus rohusta. The most abundant species of the region were Azadirachta indica. Acacia sp. and Ziziphus mauritiana, while secondary dominance is represented by Cassia, Prosopis, and Leucaena.

The ground flora comprises the species like Cynotis cristata, cordifolia, Oropetium thomaeum, Tonningia axillaris, Spermacoce pusilla, Zornia diphyla, Indigofera linifolia, Cyperus stoloniferus, Rostrellularia diffusa var. prostrata, Alysicarpus huplerifolius, Lepidogathis trinenis, Vigna trilobata, Leucas aspera, Parthenium hysterophorous, Pulicaria wightiana, Polygala an'ensis, Oropetium roxhurghinum, Striga densiflora, Polygala eriopteria, Farsetia jacquemontii, Alysicarpus longifolius, Crotalaria sagittalis, Evolvulus alsinoides, Euphorbia heyneana, Glossocardia bosvallea, Boerrhavia diffusa, Mollugo pentaphylla var. pentaphylla, Ziziphus mauritiana, Desmodium neomexicanum, Stylosanthes fruticosa, Vernonia cineria, Alternanthera sessilis, Lantana camera, Tridax procumhens, Cocculus hirsutus, Eragrostiella bifaria, Eragrostis ciliaris, Argemone mexicana, Pupalia lappacia var. lappacia, Echinops echinatus. Many of them are used as fodder.

The grasses occupy important status in the herbaceous flora. The important grass species comprising the region were Aristida setacea, contortus, Melanocenchris jacquemontii, Lophopogon tridentatus, Aristida mutabilis, Chiysopogon polyphyllus, Digitaria ciliaris, Aristida fiiniculata, Dichanthium annulatum, Aristida adscenscionis, Chloris barbata, pumilus, Urochloa panicoides, and Heteropogon triticeus. b. MWS Region 2: This region includes west side of Vadhane Road. Tree species recorded were Acacia tortilis, a most sturdy and dominant representative that forms homogenous planted stand in west side of this region. Other planted well developed as well as natural members were Azadirachta indica, Ziziphus mauritiana. Cassia auriculata. Acacia nilotica ssp. astringens, Prosopis juliflora. Eucalyptus robusta, Ctyptostegia grandiflora. Acacia nilotica ssp. indica, Santalum album. Balanites agyptiaca. Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Acacia campbelli, Albizzia lebbek, Leucaena latisiliqua, and Mimosa hamata.

37" Plant Ecological Sliidies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Ground flora comprises Aristida setacea, , Melanocenchris jacquemontii, Indigofera cordifolia, Cynotis fasciculata var. fascicidata, Pycreus flavidus var. tninimus, Oropetium villosulnm. Oropetium roxhurghinum, Zornia diphyla, Brachiaria ramosa, Boerhavia erecta, Kyllinga nemoralis, Chrysopogon polyphyllus, Digitaria longiflora, Eragrostis cUianensis, Commelina erecta, Tragus roxhurghii, Pulicaria wightiana, Commelina henghalensis, Rostrellularia procumhens, Andropogon pumilus, Xanthium indicum, Aristida redacta, Digera muricata, Euphorbia hirta, Digitaria ahludens, Tribulus terrestris, Polygala linarifolia, Leucas cephalotes, Cleome felina. Fagonia schweinfurthii, Lantana camera, Physalis minima. Cassia auriculata, Azadirachta indica (saplings), and Caralluma adscendens var. fimhriata. c. MWS Region 3: It is the region including area between east side of Vadhane road and north tower road. The major trees, shrubs and climber species of this region were Acacia tortilis, Ziziphus mauritiana, Azadirachta indica. Cassia auriculata, Cryptostegia grandiflora. Lantana camara. Acacia nilotica ssp. astringens. Acacia nilotica ssp. indica, Capparis decidua, Prosopis juliflora, Santalum album. Acacia nilotica ssp. cupressiformis. Acacia leucophloea, Daemia extensa, Annona squamosa, Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena latisiliqua, and Tinospora cordifolia. The Acacia karroo was reported in this region, which do not occur in other regions of sanctuary or its surrounding areas.

Ground flora of this region shows abundance of Heteropogon contortus, Aristida setacea, Melanocenchris jacquemontii, Cynotis fasciculata var. fasciculata and Indigofera cordifolia. These were followed by Sehima nervosum, Zornia diphyla, Brachiaria ramosa, Oropetium roxburghinum, Themeda quadrivalvis, Rostrellularia procumbens, Tragus roxburghii, Boerhavia erecta, Chiysopogon fulvus, Andropogon pumilus, Cenchrus pennisetiformis, Kyllinga tenuifolia, Heliotropium strigosum subsp. brevifolium, Pulicaria wightiana, Chlorophytum glaucum, Celosia argentea, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Eragrostis minor, Alternanthera pungens, Dinebra retroflexa, Polygala persicariifolia, Lavandula bipinnata var. hipinnata, Cynodon dactylon, Portulaca oleracea subsp. oleracea, Peristrophe paniculata, Tephrosia pumila, Aen'a javanica, Aer\'a lanata, Ocimum americanum, Sida cordifolia, Cleome viscosa, Setaria pumila, Sonchus asper, Rivea hypocrateriformis, Blumea lacera, Merremia emarginata, Tragia pluckenetii, Tribulus subramanyemii, Cocculus pendulus and Paspalum canarae.

38 Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. d. MWS Region 4: This was between north tower road, hills, rivulet and ChaufUla Supa Road. Besides trees and shrubs and climbers were abundant in this region, Gliricidia sepiiim was most abundant. It was followed by Acacia tortilis, Lcucacna latisiliqua, Azadirachta indica, Ziziphus mauritiana, Cassia auriculata, Ctyptostegia grandiflora. Acacia nilotica ssp. indicu, Balanites agyptiaca, Prosopis Juliflora, Capparis decidua. Few individuals were of Dalhergia sisoo, Daemia cxtensa. Acacia chundra, Santalum album, Alhizzia procera. Acacia nilotica ssp. astringens, Ailanthus excelsa, Tinospora cordifolia, Annona squamosa. Acacia leucophloea, Dalhergia latifblia, Lantana camaru and Securinega leucopynis. The ground flora was occupied grasses and other herbs i.e. Melanocenchris jacquemontii, Heteropogon contortus, Leucas aspera, Pycreus flavidus var. minimus. Kyllinga nemoralis, Mollugo pentaphylla var. pentaphylla, Chloris virgata, Brachiaria eruciformis, Alternanthera paronychioides, Eragrostis tenella, Indigofera cordifolia, Boerhavia repens, Dactyloctenium scindicum, Commelina diffusa, Themeda triandra. Cassia tora, Corchorus fascicularis, Trianthema portulacastrum, Oxalis corniculata var. corniculata, Croton honplandianum, Lophopogon tridentatus, Eragrostis unioloides. Brachiaria remota, Cassia italica, Portulaca quadrifida, Crotularia filipes, Ipomoea eriocarpa, Trichodesma indicum, Chenopodium murale, Solanum xirginiunum, Mukia maderaspatana, Tephrosia purpurea, Phyla nodiflora, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Sida acuta, Amaranthus spinosus, Commelina forskalaei, Cryptostegia grandiflora. Balanites agyptiaca, Chlorophytum tuberosum, Ipomoea obscura, Cucumis prophetarum and Polygala hulbothrix.

e. MWS Region 5: It includes area between north tower road east, rivulet south side and Saswad Road north side. The common trees were Acacia tortilis, Azadirachta indica, Leucaena latisiliqua, Ziziphus mauritiana, Gliricidia sepium, Cassia auriculata, Prosopis juliflora, Lantana camara, Acacia nilotica ssp. indica, Cryptostegia grandiflora, Albizzia procera, Annona squamosa, Dalbergia latifolia, Dalhergia sisoo. Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Limonia acidissima. Acacia nilotica ssp. astringens, Albizzia lebbek. Eucalyptus robusta and Hardwickia binata. This regions identity is dense stand of planted Leucaena latisiliqua. The ground flora comprises Heteropogon contortus, Lophopogon tridentatus, Aristida mutabilis, Aristida stockssi, Leucas aspera, Chloris gayana, Digitaria ciliaris, Chysopogon polyphyllus, Brachiaria eruciformis, Pulicaria wightiana, Oxalis corniculata var. corniculata, Desmodium neomexicanum, Chrysopogon serrulatus, Urochloa panicoides,

39" Plant Ecoloi;ical Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Cassia ohtusifolia, Chloris virgata. Lepiclogathis trinenis, Pennisetum pedicellatum, Polygala erioptcria, Vigna trilohata, Evolviilus alsinoidcs, Stylosanthes fruticosa, Apluda mutica. Boerrhaviu diffusa, Tridax procumhens, Sida rhombifolia ssp. rhomhifolia. Mnesithca clarkei, Iseileima anthcphowides, Achyrantlms aspera, Striga densiflora. Sida rhomhifolia ssp. retusa, Ipomoea criocarpa, Paspalidium flavidum, Euphorbia prunifolia, Caralluma adscendens var. Fimbriata, Amaranthus spinosus, and Tribulus lanuginosus.

4.3.2: Rehekuri Blackbuck sanctuary (RBS): The RBS was divided in to three regions based on man-made roads, terrain and rivulets (Figure 4.2). Each region was explored for documentation of floristic composition. Region 1: Backyards of rest house (north of footpath track to Walvad Road). Region 2: Backyards of rest house (south of footpath track to south end of sanctuary). Region 3: North of Walvad road to north end of Sanctuary a. RBS Region 1: This region includes backyards of rest house (north of footpathNi;^5y^^c^alvad Road). The prominent tree species of this region were Azadirachta indica. Acacia nUotica ssp. indica, Acacia leucophloea. Acacia chundra, Ziziphus mauritiana, Gliricidia scpium. Acacia nilotica ssp. astringens, Dalbergia latifolia, Haixhvikia hinata, and Santahim album. Small trees and shrub species were Dalbergia melanoxylon, Securinega leucopyra, Balanites agyptiaca, Cassia auriculata, Dichrostachys cineraria. Mimosa hamata, and Capparis aphylla; besides climbers like Tinospora cordifolia, adnata, Rivea ornata, Cryptostegia grandiflora, and Pergularia daemia growing in association of trees.

The ground flora includes different herbs and grasses such as Heteropogon contortus, Cenchrus ciliaris, Aristida setacea, Aristida adscenscionis, Indigofera cordifolia, Bidens biternata, Oropetium roxburghinum, Indigofera cordifolia, Aristida funiculata, Spermacoce pus ilia, Alternanthera pungens, Aristida mutabilis, Alysicarpus longifolius, Chloris gay ana, Lophopogon tridentatus, Indigofera linifolia, Polygala arvensis, Sehima nervosum, Mollugo nudicaulis, Digitaria ciliaris, Andropogon pumilus, Chlorophytum glaucum, Iseileima anthephoroides, Lavandula hipinnata var. bipinnata, Trichodesma indicum, Pulicaria wightiana, Peristrophc paniculata, Vernonia cinerea, Parthenium hysterophorus, Setaria pumila, Chrysopogon polyphyllus, Eragrostis ciliaris, Tridax procumbens, Achyranthus aspera, Santalum album, Boerrhavia diffusa, Evolvulus alsinoides, Heteropogon triticeus, Stemodia viscosa, Argemone mexicana, Melanocenchris jacquemontii, Lucas aspera,

40 Planl Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Corallocarpus epigaeus, Rhynchosia minima, Vicoa indica, Cocculus hirsutus, Acalypha indica, Acanthospermum hispidum, and Pulicaria wightiana. The trees and scrub species were Acacia leucophloea, Acanthocereus tetragonus, Dalhergia latifolia, Ziziphus mauritiana, Gliricidia sepium, Securinega leucopynis, and Urena lohata. b. RBS Region 2: Area of this region includes backyards of rest house (south of footpath track to south end of sanctuary). Trees and shrubs planted shows luxurious growth. These include Azadirachta indica. Acacia chundra. Acacia leucophloea. Acacia nilotica ssp. indica, Ziziphus mauritiana, Santalum album. Cassia auriculata, Dalhergia latifolia, Gliricidia sepium, Dalhergia melanoxylon, Hardwickia hinata. Acacia nilotica ssp. astringens, Securinega leucopyrus. Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Ficus henghalensis, Alhizia lehheck, Leucaena latisiliqua, Pithecelobium dulce, Baugainvillea spectabilis, Dichrostachys cineraria, Agave sisalana, Cissus adnata. Mimosa prainiana, and Triumfetta rotundifolia.

Ground flora occupied by dense growth of Heteropogon contortus, Pennisetum pedicellatum, Themeda quadrivalvis, Aristida stockssi, Cynotis fasciculata var fasciculata, Dichanthium annulatum. Cassia tora, Alternanthera sessilis, Eragrostis tenella, Tetrapogon tenellus, Mnesithea granulans, Lophopogon tridentatus, Polygala linarifolia, Brachiaria ramosa. Cassia ohtusifolia, Boerhavia erecta, Chloris virgata, Leucas aspera, Crotalaria herhecarpa, Digitaria ahludens, Chloris harhata, Digera muricata, Euphorhia hirta, Gomphrena serrata, Alysicarpus huplerifolius, Phyla nodiflora, Zephyranthes citrina, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Spermacoce pusilla, Amaranthus viridis, Boerhavia diffusa, Vicoa indica, Alysicarpus longifolius, Chlorophytum laxum, Caesulia axillaris, Crotalaria filipes, Brachiaria remota, Polygala elongata, Chlorophytum tuherosiim, Crotalaria sagittalis, Celosia argentea, Stemodia viscosa, Portulaca oleracea suhsp.oleracea, Polygala an'ensis, Lepidogathis cristata, Corchorus fascicularis, Eragrostiella hifaria. Balanites agyptiaca, Sida cordifolia, Indoneesiella echioides, Cleome viscosa, Alysicarpus vaginilis, Commelina erecta, Alysicarpus tetragonolobus var. tetragonolobus, Commelina henghalensis, Argemone mexicana. Boerhavia repens, Aristida funiculata, Andrographis paniculata, Commelina diffusa, Brachiaria platyphylla, Blumea lacera, Pupalia lappacia var. lappacia, Caralluma adscendens var. fimbriata, Cucumis prophetarum, Oldenlandia umbellate, Vigna trilohata, Rivea hypocrateriformis, Chlorophytum attenuatum, Commelina forskalaei, Euphrohia thymifolia, Calotropis procera. Cassia auriculata, Mukia maderaspatana, Dichrostachys cinerea, Cryptostegia grandiflora, and Lantana camera.

41 Pla?U Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. c. RBS Region 3: This region includes north side of Walvad road to north end of Sanctuary. Trees, shrubs and climbers occurred were Azadirachta indica. Acacia chundra. Acacia leucophloea, Ziziphus mauritiana, Dalhergia latifolia. Acacia nilotica ssp. iiidica, Luntana camera. Cassia awiculata, Tectona grandis, Gliricidia sepium, Rivea ornata, Wattakaka volubilis, Securinega leucopyrus, Leucaena latisiliqua, Cryptostegia grandiflora, Ficus heiighalensis, Millingtonia hortensis, Alhizzia lehhek. Acacia nilotica ssp. astringens. Prosopis juliflora, and Balanites agyptiuca.

Ground flora was similar to above two regions except that the height of grasses was comparatively smaller. Aristida setacea, Heteropogon contortus, Pennisetitm orientale. Cassia piimila, Chloris virgata, Brachiaria remota, Digitaria ahludcns, Zornia diphylla, Chloris harhata, Desmodium neomexicaniim, Heliotropium strigosum subsp. Brevifolium, Alysicarpus longifolius, Aristida stockssi, Lucas aspera, Polygala elongata. Desmodium neomexicanum, Cynotis cristata, Alysicarpus huplerifolius. Indigo/era linifolia. Alternanthera pungens, Alysicarpus vaginilis, Rostrellularia procumhens. Boerhavia erecta, Crotalaria filipes, Iseileima laxum, Commelina diffusa, Pulicaria ^vightiana, Vernonia cineria, Spermacoce pusilla, Blainvillea acmella, Vicoa indica, Lophopogon tridentatus, Caesulia axillaris, Trachyspermum ammi, Polygala an'ensis, Trianthema portulacastrum, Xanthium indicum, Crotalaria herhecarpa, Mnesithea granularis, Trihulus terrestris, Eragrostiella hifaria, Aer\'a lanata, Cissus adnata, Cajanus lineatus, Digera muricata, Lepidogathis cristata, Cocculus hirsutus, Vigna trilohata, Ziziphus mauritiana, Chiysopogon fulvus, Gomphrena serrata, Celosia argentea, Alternanthera sessilis. Euphorbia hirta, Paspalidium flavidum, Portulaca oleracea subsp. oleracea, Sonchus asper, Oldenlandia umbellata, Glossocardia bosvallea, Commelina benghalensis, Cleome viscosa, Ipomoea obscura, Lantana camara, Mukia madera.spatana, Trichodesma inaequale. Balanites agyptiaca, Echinops echinatus, Pupalia lappacia var. lappacia and Triumfetta rotundifolia.

4.3.3: Status of Floral Diversity: The floral diversity refers to the diversity of plants occurring in a specific region during particular time. It generally refers to the diversity of naturally occurring indigenous or native plants. This study was conducted to assess the floral composition and diversity of the Mayureshwar Wildlife Sanctuary (MWS) and Rehekuri Blackbuck Sanctuary (RBS). This is useful for characterization of the plant communities in these sanctuaries. Major floral diversity in both sanctuaries has represented by angiosperm flora. _ Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. The floristic data analysis resulted in floristic diversity documentation (Figure 4.3). Total of 599 species of angiospenns belonging to 344 genera and 83 families were documented taxonomically from within and surrounding areas of MWS and RBS. Out of 599 plant species 445 (74.29%) were dicotyledonous taxa and 154 (25.71%) monocotyledonous taxa (Figure 4.4). The documented floral elements are enumerated in Annexure-I.

Figure 4.3: Taxonomic distribution of plant species, genera and families. Taxonomic Distribution of Plant Species

600

500

^ 400 M- 0) J: E 300 z

200 ^ 100

Species Genera Families

Figure 4.4: MWS and RBS class-wise distribution of plant species. MWS & RBS: Classwise Distribution of Plant Species

43 PIciiil Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Suiictiiaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Among the top 20 genera. Euphorbia found to be the abundant representing 15 species, followed by Acacia (10), Cassia and Ficus (9 species each), Cyperus and Ipomoea (8 species each), Eragrostis (7 species), Alysicarpus. Aristida, Brachiaria, Cucumis, Polygala. and Portulaca (6 species each). The genera Amaranthus, Capparis. Commelina. Digitaha, Fimhristylis, Sida and Vigna were represented with 5 species each, while rest of the genera characterizes less than 5 species (Figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5: Top 20 genera of tlie sanctuaries.

Top 20 Genera

The documented plant species were classified as per Raunkiaer's life-form spectra (Figure 4.6). According to Raunkiaer's life-form spectra Therophytes contributed most (53%), followed by Phanerophytes (22%), Chamaephytes (8%), Hemicryptophytes (8%), Geophytes (5%), and Lianas (4%). The species were further analyzed on the basis of habit fonns (Figure 4.7); wherein the herbs represent maximum percentage (47%), followed by shrubs (16%), trees (15%), grass (11%), climbers (7%), twinners (2%), and undershrubs (2%). Trees were poorly represented mearly with 83 species, most of which belong to the genus Acacia which is characteristic of the arid and semi-arid ecosystems.

Out of 599 plant species, 383 were exotic while 216 are native (Figure 4.8). Total number of the plants species recorded within MWS were 325 and in its surrounding area 222; while total number of the plants species recorded within RBS were 301 and in its surrounding area 142 (Figure 4.9), excluding common species.

44 Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Figure 4.6: Raunkiaer's life-form MWS & RBS: Raunkiaer's Life-form spectra • Therophytes • Phanerophytes > Chamaephyte • Hemicryptophytes • Geophytes i Lianas

^sS^^^^^^^^^^

22% i ^^^pjHH^^^v

^^4%_ga^^, 8% ^

spectra

Figure 4.7: Distribution of liabit-forms.

MWS & RBS: Habit Forms

I Herbs • Shrubs • Trees • Grass • Qimbers : Twinners - Undershrubs

Figure 4.8: Proportion of exotic vs. native plant species.

45 Plant Ecoloiiical Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species.

Figure 4.9: Total number of species within and surrounding the sanctuaries.

No. of species in MWS & RBS

I o

MWS RBS I within 325 301 I Surrouning 222 142

The most abundant family was with highest number of species (88 species) showing the numerical dominance (Figure 4.10). It was followed by with 51 species, Euphorbiaceae (37 species), Asteraceae (30 species), Mimosaceae (22 species), Cyperaceae (20 species) Amaranthaceae (19 species) Caesalpinaceae and Malvaceae (18 species each), Acanthaceae and Convolvulaceae (16 species each) and Cucurbitaceae (15 species). Genera such as Euphorbia, Acacia, Cassia, Ficus, Cyperus, Ipomoea, Eragrostris, Alysicarpus, Ahstida, and Brachiaria were abundant, having utmost species diversity. The presence of Dalhergia melanoxylon was a unique feature. It was introduced by Britishers in Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune campus, and subsequently spread up to Vetal hills (Pune) only.

4.3.4: Endemic Species: The MWS and RBS represent few species that are endemic to India. The species that have been reported earlier as endemic to Indian sub-continent were Alysicarpus monillifer Aristida stocksii, Chlorophytum tuberosum, Cleome simplicifolia, Crotalaria filipes, Hardwickia binata, Dichrostachys cinerea var. indica, Glossocardia bosvallia, Iseilema anthephoroides, Lophopogon tridentatus, Oropetium roxburghianum, Oropetium villosulum, Sehima nen'osutn. Tragus roxburghii, and Tricholepis glaberrima. However, there were no local endemics.

46 Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species.

Figure 4.10: Top 20 abundant families with total number of genera and species.

4.3.5: Cryptogamic flora of the Sanctuaries:

The cryptogamic flora was also documented from the study area, especialy during monsoon. The algal species were reported from seasonal water bodies or microhabitats like ditches within sanctuary. The prominent algal species were Oscillatoria, Spirogyra, Zygnema, Hydwdictyon, Char a etc. The Chara was reported from the Well behind sanctuary office, in the ponds, water bodies and waterholes within the sanctuary.

As per the records of Ben et.al (2013), there were 15 microscopic fungal species within the sanctuary. These were Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger var. tieghem, Chaetomium globosum, Cladosporium oxysporum, Cun'ularia lunata, Fusarium monilifroma, Rhizopus oryzae, Rhizopus stolonifer, etc. These fiingi play significant role in the ecosystem, responsible for recycling the nutrients in animal faeces. During present investigations the fiingal forms like Agaricus hisporus, Volvoriella volvacea, Calvatia cyathiformis, Microporus xanthopus and Schizophylluni commune were reported. The Bryophytes form an interal part of monsoon vegetation. They have unique role in the ground flora. We documented only two species of Bryophytes i.e. Riccia (Liverworts), and Funaria (Moss). Two Pteridophytes such as Marsilea (aquatic) and Nephrolepis exaltata (cultivated) were reported.

47" Plunt Ecological Slmlies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. The cultivated species of Gymnosperms like Thuja compacta. Thuja oxidentalis, Araucaria and Cycas circinalis were also documented. These were planted in forest nurseries and garden areas of MWS and RBS.

4.3.6: Status of Grass Cover:

Grasses play pivotal role in arid zones. They are one of the important primary producers of grassland ecosystems. Being arid zone sanctuaries, MSW and RBS largly supports grasslands. The flagship species of these sanctuaries almost entirely depends on grass flora. Grasses are used as fodder by cattle and wild grazing animals. In all 81 species of grasses were reported from MWS and RBS. The food and agriculture organization suggested that the grass species that are are having fodder significance shall be protected and promoted. Sehima nen'osum (Pavnya) is most palatable grass species, and drought tolerant, and survives in the long dry seasons in India shall be conserved in the dry and arid zones. (http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/doc/gbase/data/pfD00313.htm). The others grass species includes Ischemum sp., Andropogon sp. etc are having good fodder value (Abhang, 2004).

The rainfall of this area is low and soil depth and quality is poor. This prevents the growth of forests but supports the growth of grass cover during the monsoon. Many of the grasses and other small plants become dry and die during the summer months. Grasslands have different forms under different geographical features, soil types and climatic conditions. Grasslands, scrubland and thorn forest are found in the semi-arid parts of India. Dry grasslands and thorn forest are sporadically located throughout the Deccan Plateau into Gujarat, Maharashtra, Kamataka and Tamilnadu. Grassland patches are located in clearings in several different types of forests in India and form important grazing areas for both wild herbivorous and domestic animals. The grasslands are highly threatened by development of agriculture and allied anthropogenic activities. In ancient times grasslands were gradually converted into our traditional rain fed croplands. The rest of the grassland was used as common grazing land by our rural communities.

There are few Grassland Sanctuaries in Maharashtra. These are the Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary at Nanaj; Rehekuri Blackbuck Sanctuary near Karjat; and Antrum Ghat- Gautala Wildlife Sanctuary near Kannad. During the recent past a few new grassland sanctuaries have been created to protect our residual grasslands and their flora and fauna.

During the present study 81 grass species were recorded from MWS and RBS. It

48 Plant Ecoloi;ical Sttiilies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. includes Acrachne racemosa (Heyne ex R.S.) Ohwi, Andropogon pumilus Roxb., Apludu mutica L., Aristida adscenscionis L., Aristida funiculata Trin.& Rupr., Aristidu mutahilis Trin. & Rupr., Aristidu rcdacta Stapf., Aristida setacea Retz., Aristida stockssi (Hook.f.) Domin, Arthraxon hispidus (Thunb.) Makino van hispidus, Brachiaria eruciformis Griseb, Brachiaria platyphylla (Munro ex Wright) Nash, Brachiaria remota (Retz.) Haines, Brachiaria reptans Gard & Hubb, Brachiaria semiundidata (A. Rich.) Stapf., Cenchrus ciliaris L.Mant., Cenchrus pennisetiformis Hochst.& Steud. ex Steud., Chloris harhata Swartz., Chhris gayana Kunth & ex Stapf, Chloris virgata Swartz., Chrysopogon fidvus (Spr.) Chiov., Chysopogon polyphyllus (Hack, ex Hook.f) Blatt & McC, Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin, Cymhopogon citratus (D.C.) Stapf Cymhopogon martini (Roxb.) W. Watson, Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Dactyh)ctenium aegyptium Willd. , Dactyloctenium scindicum Boiss. , Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk) Stapf Digitaria ahludens (R. & S.) Veldk, Digitaria hicornis (Lam.) R. & S. ex Loud, Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel, Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers., Digitaria sanguinaliis Scrp. var. ciliaris Prain, Dinehra retroflexa (VahL) Panz., Echinochloa colona (L.) Link. Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) P.Beauv, Echinochloa frumentacea Link., Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn, Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn., Eragrostiella hifaria (Vahl) Bor, Eragrostiella hrachyphylla (Stapf) Bor, Eragrostis cilianensis (AL) Vign., Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. Eragrostis minor Host., Eragrostis tenella (L.) P. Beauv, Eragrostis tenuifolia Steud, Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud., Eragrostis viscosa (Retz.) Trin., Eulalia fimhriata (Hack) O. Ktze, Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv ex R. & S., Heteropogon triticeus Craib, pilosum (Klein ex Willd) Wight, Iseileima anthephoroides Hack, Iseileima laxum Hack, Lophopogon tridentatus (Roxb.). Hack, Melanocenchris jacquemontii Jaub & Spach, Mnesithea clarkei (Hack.) Koning & Sosef., Mnesithea granulans (L.) Koning & Sosef, Oropetium roxhurghinum (Steud.) S.M. Phillips, Oropetium thomaeum (L.f) Trin., Oropetium villosulum Stapf Ex Bor, Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A. Camus, Paspalum canarae Veldk, Pennisetum hohenackeri Hoechst, Pennisetum orientale L.C. Rich, Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin, Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf, Pseudanthistria heteroclita (Roxb.). Hook.f, spontaneum L., Sehima nen'osum (Rotl.) Stapf Setaria italica (L.). P. Beauv, Setaria pumila (Poir) Roem & Schult, Setaria verticillata Beauv, Sporobolus coromandelianus (Retz.) Kunth, Tetrapogon tenellus (Koenig ex Roxb.). Chiov., Themeda quadrivalvis Ktze., Themeda triandra Forssk., Tragus roxhurghii Panigr.,and Urochloa panicoides P.Beauv.

49 Pkiiit Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. 4.3.7: Status of Threatened Species: The inventory of the floral list was compared with lUCN Red list of threatened species, 2015-3 (http://www.iucnredlist.org/search), which reveals that there are no endangered species in the areas of MWS or RBS. However Santalum album L. has been put under vulnerable category of threatened species, which was observed occasionally in both sanctuaries. Its timber export is banned from India. Threats in sanctuary are due to burning of grass, natural fires, disturbance of grazing in vicinity of roads, canals, etc. Two individuals of Dalbergia melanoxylon were reported from RBS, which has been included in near threatened or lower risk category. This species occurs in a range of woodland habitats. As a species there is no imminent threat of extinction. Its timber is widely used in the wood carving industry and in musical instrument manufacture. Its levels of exploitation are very high at world level and larger or suitably exploitable individuals are becoming increasingly scarce. There is cause for concern over genetic erosion in many populations (The lUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015-3). It is exotic in Maharashtra, and growing luxuriously in Savitribai Phule Pune University campus and Vetal Hills in Pune (Punalekar et.al, 2010; Hamed et.al, 2011). The species that falls in 'Data Deficient' category of lUCN were also documented from MWS and RBS. These "Data Deficient" species includes Euphorbia milii, and Opuntia ficus-indica. The 'Least Concern' category species (as per lUCN) were also reported, these were Acanthocereus tetragonus, Brachiaria eruciformis, Brachiaria reptans, Caesulia axillaris, Ceratophyllum demersum, Chlorophytum tuberosum, Chrysopogon polyphyllus, Commelina diffusa, Commelina erecta, Commelina hasskarlii, Crotalaria sericea, cristata, Cyanotis fasciculata var. fasciculata, Cyanotis fasciculata var. glabrescens, Cyperus castaneus, Cyperus iria, Delonix elata, Dichrostachys cinerea, Epiphyllum crenatum, Eragrostis unioloides, Euphorbia tirucalli, Fimbristylis bisumbellata. Fimbristylis cymosa, Fimbristylis dichotoma, Hygrophila schulli, Indigofera linifolia, Kyllinga nemoralis, Lipocarpha chinensis, Merremia emarginata, Opuntia striata var. dillenii, Polypogon monspeliensis, Pycreus Jlavidus var. minimus, Pycreus pumilus, Rhynchosia minima, Saccharum spontaneum, Schoenoplectus lateriflorus, Tephrosia tinctoria, and Urochloa panicoides. Rest of other species in are not assessed (NA) in lUCN Red List 2015. Some species like Acacia karroo. Cassia italica, Limonia acidissima, Chlorophytum sp. Tragia pluckenetii are locally rare in MWS; whereas Acacia cornigera. Asparagus racemosus, Dichrostachys cinerea, Hardwickia binata, Chlorophytum sp. and Urena lobata were localy rare in RBS.

50 Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. 4.3.8: Status of Disturbance Threats: A large proportion of our arid and semi-arid grasslands are converted into irrigated croplands, in very recent past a large number of industrial projects have been developed in these arid belts to provide job opportunities for local people. The residual "common" grazing land has been overused and is degraded. Natural grasslands have nearly disappeared. Many of the wild animals and birds of the grasslands are now threatened. The grassland used as pastures are degraded by different threats (http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ y8344e/y8344e0j.htm). The plants and animals of arid zone sanctuaries have adapted through centuries of evolution to survive in these rather adverse conditions. In MWS, measures have been taken up to improve the habitat under pasture development scheme. The grass species like Paspalidium flavidum (Shedya), and Sehimu nen'osum (Pavnya); and the leguminous species Stylosanthes fruticosa (Hamata) were sown. Grass sowing, however, has had limited success owing to the impoverished soil, erratic and scanty rainfall besides grazing, browsing and trampling by Chinkara (Abhang, 2004). The grassland has great variations in moisture levels during different seasons. Thus, the amount of available grass varies drastically in different seasons. The grassland ecosystem has a rapid productive growing phase during the monsoon, a fully grown winter phase and a very dry dormant summer phase in which grass biomass is very low. The lives of the various grassland animals are closely linked to these seasonal variations. The food preferences are depend upon availability of food (Jaipal, 2015). The critical period for the animals of the grasslands is during summer months when both fodder and water become scarce. The grassland ecosystem has a large 'producer' base of the green grass and other vegetation. This is utilized as food by the large number of herbivorous animals such as blackbuck, Chinkara, hare and a large number of insects. The herbivorous animals are food for the carnivorous such as the wolf, jackal, fox, snakes and lizards. The ecosystem is greatly dependent on the availability of water (ponds, streams, lakes and rivers). The grasslands are also affected by repeated fires. The grassland has a limited ability to support domestic animals and wildlife together. Increase in this pressure reduces the "naturalness' of the grassland ecosystem leading to its degradation. Most grassland ecosystems in Maharashtra are highly modified by human activities. Cattle, sheep and goat grazing, repeated fires and change in land use such as agriculture, tree plantations, construction of roads, water canals such as Janai Sirsai Lift Irrigation Project through MWS etc. are a serious threat to this ecosystem. While permiting any activity in such protected areas, it should be taxonomically assessed, before the — Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. enactment of any work. Thus, some of the grassland patches that are rather undisturbed shall be retained for its unique plants and animals.

4.4: SEASONAL VARIATIONS: Plants show seasonal variations. These were recorded through frequent field visits to the sanctuaries and by keeping surveillance in different seasons. Seasonal variations influence the overall appearance and survival of various plants. The species composition of herbaceous flora on the onset of rainy season was typically ephemeral type; and once the ephemerals flush recedes, the other seasonal invades the place and continues for a complete season. However, some of the species can even prolong its survival till the end of next season (winter). The highest number of species generally present during monsoon (August to October) and smallest during summer (especially April to May). During monsoon, the whole area of MWS and RBS gets carpeted with a variety of herbaceous plants and creepers. The geophytes (member of Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae) make their appearance by producing the leaves followed by flowers and subsequently fruits. The most frequent and abundant annuals belong to the families Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae, Amaranthaceae, Cyperaceae, Convolvulaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Acanthaceae, , and Tiliaceae. The species that can be easily noticed in monsoon were Alysicarpus sp., Amaranthus sp. Aristida sp., Kyllinga nemoralis, Pycreus flavidus var. minimus, Paspalidium flavidum, Hetewpogon contortus, Sehima nen'osum, Echinochloa sp. Brachiaria sp., Boerhavia sp., Commelina sp., Indigofera cordifolia, I. linifolia, Desmodium sp., Polygala sp., Leucas sp., Lavandula bipinnata, Cassia pumila, Melanocenchris jacquemontii, Bidens hiternata, Biophytum sensitivum, Spermacoce sp., Polygala sp., Vernonia cinerea, Parthenium hysterophorus, Cenchrus sp., Tetrapogon tenellus, Chloris sp., Mollugo sp., Digera muricata, Crotalaria sp., Digitaria sp., Eragrostis sp., Farsetia jacquemontii, Evolvulus alsinoides, Glossocardia bosvallia, Gomphrena sp. Iseilema sp., Mnesithea sp., Portulaca sp., Sida sp., Tribulus sp., Trichodesma inaequale, Tephrosia strigosa, Zornia diphyla and some others. Some short lived monocotyledonous and ephemeral dicotyledonous plants disappear by the end of September. At the end of monsoon, numbers of species attains the highest peak. A large number of herbs, some shrubs, twinners and climbers belonging to the families Cucurbitaceae, Convolvulaceae, , Fabaceae, and Asclepiadaceae are of common occurrence. Many species grows in thick pure stands, e.g. Achyranthus aspera, Alternanthera sp., Parthenium hysterophorus, Xanthium strumarium. Cassia tora, C 52" Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies ft)r Native Plant Species. ohtusifolia, Mesosphaerum suaveolens, especially in surrounding waste places of both MWS and RBS. These species shows invasiveness. Seasonal variations throughout the year are important for the study of vegetative and reproductive phases.

4.5: PHENOLOGICAL STUDIES: Phenology, like all environmental sciences, uses quantitative methods to measure and to describe the occurrence of events and patterns in the natural world (Haggerty and Mazer, 2008). Almost all plant communities of the temperate, subtropical and tropical dry zones have more or less prominent seasonal aspects (Muller-Dombois, 1974). Recurrent events such as flowering, fruiting and leaf fall are followed for specific plants from year to year so that comparisons and trends can be analysed. Observations are generally made at the same site and sometimes from the same individual plant. Perceptibly, there is a requirement for exact record keeping of phenological data. Phenological studies are important for understanding the influence of weather dynamics on vegetative growth, flowering and fruiting (Rajan et.al, 2011). Phenology is defined as a branch of science dealing with the relations between climate and periodic biological phenomena. It is generally described as observation of the life cycle phases of plants and their relationship with the environment, especially climatic factors. One could also explain phenology as the study of the response of living organisms to seasonal and climatic changes to the environment in which they live. Phenological changes are due to seasonal changes. Seasonal changes include variafions in duration of sunlight, precipitation, temperature and other life controlling factors (Mahajan 2001; Rajan et.al, 2013). Data from the same site can be studied from year to year for seasonal comparisons and the climatic factors like varying temperature, moisture, sunlight, etc. and their influence on the plant phenology. While planning the seasonal timing of data collection, vegetation phenology must be taken into account. The systemafic collection of phenological records started in Britain in 1736 when Robert Marsham began to collect 'indicators of spring', particularly flowering and leafing dates which were related to long term climate records. Carolus Linnaeus and Robert Marsham now considered the 'fathers' of modem plant phenology (Rajan et.al, 2013). Natural ecosystems are changing due to changing global climate in timings of phenological events. Among all the studies and evidence on changing natural ecosystems considered by the IPPC third assessment report (IPPC TAR 2001) on climatic impacts, major findings

53" Plant Ecological Studies of.Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. come also from changes in phenological events. Growth and flowering behavior around the world indicated that phenological events have changed in many plants; for example early or delayed flowering, multiple reproductive flushes, variations in fruit maturity, abnormal fruit set and transformation of reproductive buds in to vegetative one are becoming common. Phenological studies target on the periodicity in the life-cycle events of plants and are influenced by seasonal variations due to weather factors mostly temperature and precipitation (Kushwaha and Singh, 2008). Flowers of different wild plants enhance natural beauty of those areas. Flower's colour is an important feature in nature. Blooming and flower colour attracts bees, it helps in pollination. The Apiaries can be managed depending on phenological studies. The seasonal variations throughout the year are important for the study of reproductive phases. The prominent seasonal aspects of listed plant species were observed in study areas. However, due to limitation of time only broad phenl-phases such as flowering and fruiting of the species have been recorded.

4.5.1: Methodology: The phenological aspects of sanctuaries were assessed quantitatively in MWS and RBS through frequent field visits and periodic observations. The observations were made twice or once a week or depending on the local conditions and convenience. There are no standard methods for phenological studies as well as there is no requirement of any kind of equipment. The observations are made manually and recorded in field diary. The year was divided in to three seasons; monsoon (June to September), winter (October to January) and summer (February to May). Most of the herbaceous plants flowers in late monsoon and prior to the winter. Seed germination, growth of saplings, leaf fall, flower blooming, fiTjiting and death are all stages of life cycle in plants that we experience every year. Keeping tracts of cyclical events like these from year to year the observations are made for fiarther research and making phenological calendar. Phenological calendars were used by the ancient Chinese and the Romans to guide the agricultural operations. Observations can also be shared among phenologists during the same year from different sanctuaries across the country. The data from the same site of both sanctuaries can be studied from year to year for seasonal comparisons and the role that varying temperature, moisture, sunlight, etc. plays on plant phenology. In this regards in the present study, flower colour, flowering and fruiting period for almost all species (Annexure I) were recorded.

54 Planl Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. 4.5.2: Results and Discussion: If one periodically observes the flora for the whole year, changes in the appearance of vegetation may be apparent with the change in the season. This is known as aspection. Almost all plants in both sanctuaries were lush green during monsoon because of ample availability of water. Though the natural vegetation setting is arid, it appears lush green alomost throughout monsoon. Trees and shrubs start leafing at the beginning of the monsoon and reach at peak in leaf production in the months of August-September. Generally leafing of maximum species was continuous throughout the monsoon season. Flowering and fiaiiting period of total 503 plants were monitored during the entire study period (Table 4.1). The field observations were made within sanctuary and its surrounding regions. Out of these, 236 were herbs, 78 trees, 86 shrubs, 57 grasses, and 45 climbers. Maximum number of plants start flowering from August and continues till October; while minimum number of plants flower between May and July. Majority of the trees and shrubs were leafless during the dry season. In the months of February and March leaf fall was highest in Azadirachta indica. Acacia sp. and Alhizzia sp. A peak leafing in Azadirachta indica occurs at the beginning of April; and almost all grass shoots becomes dry and its perrennating buds goes almost below soil. The species like Lantana camara, Pupalia lappacia, Cocculus sp., Justicia sp. AhutiUm sp. Cassia auriculata, Cadaha fndticosa, Capparis sp., Calotropis, Cryptostegia, Ocimum sp. Corchorus sp., Tephwsia sp., Aerva, and Solunum surattense extends the greenness till the end of April. Herbaceous community had a sharp peak of flowering at the middle of the monsoon season; while in contrast, the trees and shrub community had its major flowering at the end of the winter and onset of summer season. The flowering in trees and shrubs showed a pronounced seasonal pattern. Most of the dry scrub forest species flowers synchronously once or twice each year (Paul et.al, 1980). The length of the leafing period plays an important role for the interannual variation of carbon fixation of terrestrial ecosystems. Observational data analysis has indicated that the length of the leafing period was large enough. Plants are finely tuned to the seasonality of their environment, and shifts in the fiming of plant activity (i.e. phenology) provide some of the most compelling evidence that species and ecosystems are being influenced by global environmental change (Cleland et.al, 2007). The timing of the shift between vegetative and reproductive phases that occurs in concern with flowering is crucial to optimal seed set for individuals and populations (Bemier, 1988); variation among species in their phenology is an important mechanism for

5? Plani Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. maintaining species coexistence in diverse plant communities, by reducing competition for pollinators and other resources (Rathcke and Lacey, 1985); the timing of growth onset and senescence also detennine growing season length, thus driving annual carbon uptake in terrestrial ecosystems (Gu et.al, 2003).

Table 4.1: Phenological observation of MWS and RBS. Flowering and Botanical Name Family Habit Fruiting period Abelmuschits ficiilneus Wight & Am. Malvaceae Shrub September-February Abelmoschits manihot (L.) Medicus Malvaceae Shrub August-January September- Abiitilon hiclentatitm Hochst. Malvaceae Shrub December Ahiitilon indicum (L.) Sweet ssp. indicum Malvaceae Shrub September-April Abiitilon pannosinn (G. Forst.) Schlecht. Malvaceae Shrub November-April Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex. Bth. Mimosaceae Tree December-April Acacia catechu (L.f )Willd Mimosaceae Tree August-February Acacia chuudra (Roxb. ex Rottl) Willd Mimosaceae Tree April-September Acacia coniigcra (L.) Willd. Mimosaceae Tree November-March Acacia karroo Hayne. Mimosaceae Tree January-March Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Mimosaceae Tree August-February Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del. subsp. Mimosaceae Tree June-March indica (Benth) Brenan Acacia nilotica ssp. astringens (Schum & Mimosaceae Tree July-March Thonn.) Robert. Acacia nilotica ssp. cupressiformis (J.L. Mimosaceae Tree August-February Stewart) Ali & Faruqi. Acacia tortilis (Forskk) Hayne Mimosaceae Tree January-June Acanthocereus tetragonus (L.) Humm. Cactaceae Shrub August-November Acanthospermum hispidiim DC. Asteraceae Herb July-October Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Herb August-February Acrachne racemosa (Heyne ex R.S.) Ohwi Poaceae Herb July-December Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa Rutaceae Tree February-June Aen'a lanata (L.) Juss.ex Shult. Amaranthaceae Shrub November-February Agave siscdana Perrine. Agavaceae Shrub January-March Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae Herb July-February Ailanthiis excelsa Roxb. Simaroubaceae Tree December-May Albizia lebbeck (L.) Bth. Mimosaceae Tree March-December Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth. Mimosaceae Tree May-December AUamanda blanchetii A. DC. Apocynaceae Shrub July-December Allamanda cathartica L. var. cathartica Apocynaceae Shrub July-December Aloe vera (L) Burm.f. Liliaceae Shrub December-May

56 Plani Ecolo^cal Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Flowering and Botanical Name Family Habit Fruiting period Alstonia schohiris (L.) R.Br. Apocynaceae Tree December-March Altcrnanthera ficoidea (L.) P. Beauv Amaranthaceae Herb September-March Alteniaiilhcraparouychioides A.St. Hil. Amaranthaceae Herb October-March September- Alysicarpus longifoUus Wight & Am. Fabaceae Herb November September- Alysicarpiis lulcovexillatiis Naik & Pokle Fabaceae Herb November Alysicaipiis inonilifer (L.) DC. var. Fabaceae Herb August-November monillifer Alysicarpus tetragonolohiis Edgew.var. Fabaceae Herb August-November tetragonolohiis Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. Fabaceae Herb September-October Amarauthus hiitum L.var. oleraceus (L.) Amaranthaceae Herb Throughout the year Hook.f. Amaraiillius crucntus L. Amaranthaceae Herb July-December Amaraiithus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae Herb Throughout the year Amarcmthus tricolor L. Amaranthaceae Herb Throughout the year Amaraiitlius viridis L. Amaranthaceae Herb August-February Andrographis paniculata (Bunn.f.) Wall. Acanthaceae Herb December-April Aristida adscensionis L. Poaceae Grass September-February September- Aristida fuiiiculata Trin. & Rupr. Poaceae Grass December Aristida mutahilis Trin. & Rupr. Poaceae Herb August-December Aristida redacta Stapf. Poaceae Grass September-October September- Aristida setacea Retz. Poaceae Grass November September- Aristida stockssi (Hook.f.) Domin Poaceae Grass November Azadirachta iiidica A.Juss Meliaceae Tree March-June Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. Balanitaceae Tree October-June Barleria prioiiitis L. Acanthaceae Shrub October-March Barleria strigosa Willd. Acanthaceae Herb September-January Bauhinia racemosa Lamk. Caesalpiniaceae Tree April-October Bidens hiternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff Asteraceae Herb August-December Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. Oxalidaceae Herb August-October Blainvillea acmclla (L.) Philip. Asteraceae Herb August-November Blepharis repens (Vahl) Roth Acanthaceae Herb October-March Blumea lacera (Burm f.) DC. Asteraceae Herb October-May Blumea oxyodonta DC. Asteraceae Herb December-March Almost throughout Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae Herb the year Bocrhavia repens L. Nyctaginaceae Herb July-March Bougainvillea glabra Choisy in DC Nyctaginaceae Climber Almost throughout '^^s: 57 Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zoitc Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Flowering and Botanical Name Family Habit Fruiting period the year Boiigaiiivilleci spcctabili.s Willd. Nyctaginaceae Climber February-June Brachiaria enicifonms Griseb. Poaceae Grass September-.Ianuary Bnichiaria miitica (Forssk.) Stapf Poaceae Grass July-November Brachiaria platyphylla (Munro ex Wright) Poaceae Grass August-November Nash. September- Brachiaria remota (Retz.) Haines Poaceae Grass December Brachiaria rcptans Gard & Hubb Poaceae Grass September-October Brassica jiincea (L.) Czem. & Coss. Cruciferae Herb December-March Brcynia disticha J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. Euphorbiaceae Shrub September-October Butea monospcrma (Lam.) Taub. var. Fabaceae Tree March-June monosperma Cadaha fruticosa (L.) Druce Capparaceae Shrub November-August Caesalpinia ptilchcrrima (L.) Swartz. Caesalpiniaceae Shrub September-January Caesulia axillaris Roxb Asteraceae Herb August-January Cajainis liiieatiis (Wight &Am) van der Fabaceae Climber October-April Maesen Calotropis gigantca (L.) Ait. Asclepidaceae Shrub October-July Calotropis proccra (Ait.) R.Br. Asclepidaceae Shrub August-March Caiiavalia gladiata (Jacq.) DC Fabaceae Climber September-October Almost throughout Canna iiidica L. Cannaceae Herb the year Capparis decidiia (Forslc.) Edgew. Capparaceae Shrub December-June Capparis grand is L. Capparaceae Shrub November-June Capparis scpiaria L. Capparaceae Climber January-July Capparis spitwsa L. Capparaceae Shrub January-March Capparis zeylanica L. Capparaceae Shrub February-July CaraUiima adsceiidens (Roxb.) Haw. var. Asclepiadaceae Herb March-September fimbriata Cardiospermiim halicacahum L. Sapindaceae Herb July-December Carthamus tinctoriiis L. Asteraceae Herb November-February Cascahela thevetia (L.) Lippold Apocynaceae Shrubs June-October Cassia auriculata L. Caesalpiniaceae Shrub January-July Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae Tree April-October Cassia italica (Mill.) Spreng. Caesalpiniaceae Shrub November-February Cassia obtusifolia L. Caesalpiniaceae Shrub September-October Cassia occidcntalis L. Caesalpiniaceae Herb July-December Cassia pitmila Lam. Caesalpiniaceae Herb August-December Cassia siamea Lamk. Caesalpiniaceae Tree August-June Cassia tora L. Caesalpiniaceae Herb August-February

58 Plan! Ecological Studies of Ariel Zone midlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Flowering and Botanical Name Family Habit Fruiting period Cassia tiniflora Mill.Gard. Caesalpiniaceae Herb August-November Castiarina eqidsetifolia L. Casuarinaceae Tree Throughout the year Catharaiuhiis roseiis (L.) G.Don Apocynaceae Herb Throughout the year Celosia argentea L.var. cristata (L.) 0. Amarantliaceae Herb September-January Kuntze-Bailey Celosia argentea Linn. var. spieata Amaranthaceae Herb August-February Chenopodium album L. Chenopodiaceae Herb November-April Chenopodiiim miirale L. Chenopodiaceae Herb August-November Chloris harhala Swartz. Poaceae Grass August-December Cbloris gayaiia Kunth & ex Stapf Poaceae Grass July-October September- Chloris virgata Swartz. Poaceae Grass December Chlorophytiim attemiatum (Wight) Baker. Liliaceae Herb June-August Chlorophytiim glaneiim Dalz. Liliaceae Herb September-October Chlorophytiim la.xiim R. Br. Liliaceae Herb July-september Chlorophytiim tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker in Liliaceae Herb June-september J.Linn. Chrozophora rottleri (Geis) A.Juss ex Euphorbiaceae Shrub December-February Spreng Chrysopogon polyphyllus (Hack, ex Hook, September- Poaceae Grass f.) Blatt & McC.' December Chiysopogon serrulatusTnn. Poaceae Grass July-December Cicca aeida Merr. Euphorbiaceae Tree October-March Cissus adnata Roxb Vitaceae Climber December-March Cissus quadrangidaris L.Mant. Vitaceae Shrub January-June Cissus repanda Valil. Vitaceae Climber September-January September- Clematis heynei M.A.Rau Ranunculaceae Climber November Cleome felina L.f. Cleomaceae Herb August-September Cleome gynandra L. Cleomaceae Herb July-December September- Coeeinia grandis (L.) Voigt. Cucurbitaceae Climber November Coceulus hirstttus (L.) Diels Menispermaceae Climber November-April Coceulus pendulus{].R. & G. Forst) Diels Menispermaceae Climber November-February Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae Tree Throughout the year Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Bl. Bijdr. Euphorbiaceae Shrub October-February Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth. Lamiaceae Herb August-December Colocasia escidenta (L.) Schott in Schott & Araceae Herb Throughout the year Endl. Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae Herb June-December Commelina diffusa Burm. Commelinaceae Herb July-February Commelina erecta L. Commelinaceae Herb August-October

59 Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Flowering and Botanical Name Family Habit Fruiting period Convoh'iihis an'ensis L. Convolvulaceae Climber October-February Conyza honariensis (L.) Cronq. Asteraceae Herb February-April Corallocarptis epigaeus (Rottl. & Willd.) Cucurbitaceae Climber August-October Hook.f. September- Corchonis aestuans Forsk. Tiliaceae Herb November Corchorus depressus (L.). Tiliaceae Herb September-October Corchonis fascicularis Lam. Tiliaceae Herb July-November September- Corchonis oJitoriiis L. Tiliaceae Herb December Cordia dichotoma Fros. f Ehretiaceae Tree February-June Cordia gharaf (Forsk.) Ehrenb & Asch. Ehretiaceae Tree April-December Cordyline fniticosa (L.) A. Chev. Agavaceae Shrub February-May Coriandnim sativum L. Apiaceae Herb Throughout the year Crotalaria filipcs Benth. Fabaceae Herb October-December Crotalaria hirsuta Willd. Fabaceae Herb August-November Crotalaria sagittalis L. Fabaceae Herb July-November Crotalaria scricca Retz. Fabaceae Herb July-December Almost throughout Croton honplandiamis Baill. Euphorbiaceae Herb the year Cryptostegia grandiflora R.Br. Asclepiadaceae Shrub Throughout the year September- Ctcnolepis cerasiformis (Stocks) Hook. f. Cucurbitaceae Climber December Ciicumis melo L. Cucurbitaceae Climber August-October Ciicumis prophetantm L. Cucurbitaceae Climber August-October Cucumis sativus L. Cucurbitaceae Climber Throughout the year Ciicumis sativiisv&r.hardwickii (Royle) Alef. Cucurbitaceae Climber August-October Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik Fabaceae Herb August-December Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Convolvulaceae Climber November-May Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub. Fabaceae Herb Throughout the year September- Cyanotis cristata (L.) D. Don Commelinaceae Herb November Cyanotis fascicidata (Hyene ex Roth) Schult September- Commelinaceae Herb var. fasciculata December Cyanotis fascicidata (Hyene ex Roth) Schult September- Commelinaceae Herb var. glabrescens C.B.Cl. November Cymhopogon citratiis (D.C.) Stapf Poaceae Grass June-November Cyperus compressus L. Cyperaceae Herb September-October Cyperiis difformis L. Cyperaceae Herb August-January September- Cyperus exaltatus Retz.var. exaltatus Cyperaceae Herb December September- Cyperus iria L. Cyperaceae Herb November

60 Plant Ecological Sliidies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Flowering and Botanical Name Family Habit Fruiting period Cypenis rotiindus L.ssp. rotundus Cyperaceae Herb June-October Cyperus nibiciindus Vahl Cyperaceae Herb July-September Cyperus stolotuferiis Ritz. Cyperaceae Herb August-November Dactyloctenium aegyptiiim Willd. Poaceae Grass August-February Dalhergia latifolia Roxb Fabaceae Tree August-December Dalhergia tnelanoxylon Guill. & Perr. Fabaceae Tree April-June Dalhergia sissoo Roxb ex DC Fabaceae Tree February-October Datura iiio.xia Mill. Solanaceae Shrub September-March September- Datura metel L. Solanaceae Herb December Datura suaveoletis Humb. & Bonpl. ex Solanaceae Herb January-July Willd. Delonix rcgia (Bqj ex Hook) Raf. Caesalpiniaceae Tree March-August Dcndrocalamus strictus Nees Poaceae Shrub October-March Desmaiithus vUgatus var. depressus Mimosaceae Herb August-December B.L.Tumer Desmodium tteomexicamint A.Gray Fabaceae Herb August-October Dichanthhim anmdatum (Forssk) Stapf Poaceae Grass October-March Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Am. Mimosaceae Shrub July-December Dicoma tomeutosa Cass. Asteraceae Herb August-April Digera muricata (L.) Mart. Amaranthaceae Herb August-November Digitaha hicortiis (Lam.) R. & S. ex Loud Poaceae Grass August-December Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel. Poaceae Grass August-February Digitaria longifJora (Retz.) Pers. Poaceae Grass August-December Digitaria saiigiiiiialiis Scrp.var. ciliaris Prain Poaceae Grass October-November Dinchra retroflexa (Vahl.) Panz. Poaceae Grass September-February Diplocyclos pcilmatus (Linn.) Jeffrey Cucurbitaceae Climber August-November Dodotuiea angustifolia L. Sapindaceae Shrub September-March September- Dolichos uniflorus Lam. Fabaceae Herb November Almost throughout Duranta erecta L. Verbenaceae Shrub the year Echevcria diffractens Kimnach & A.B. Lau Crassulaceae Shrub January-April Echinochloa colona (L.) Link. Poaceae Herb July-February Echinochloa frumcntacea Link. Poaceae Herb August-February Echinops echinatus Roxb. Asteraceae Herb September-May Eichhoriiia crassipes (Mart) Solms. Pontederiaceae Herb June-December September- Eleusiue coracana (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae Herb November Eleiisine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae Herb September-February Emhlica officinalis Gaertn. Euphorbiaceae Tree February-October

61 Plant Ecoloiiical Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Flowering and Botanical Name Family Habit Fruiting period Enicoslema axillare (Lam.) Raynal Gentianaceae Herb July-December Epiphylliim crenatum (Lindl.) G.Don Cactaceae Shrub March-May Eragrostiella hifarict (Vahl) Bor Poaceae Grass August-January Eragrosticlla hrachyphylla (Stapf) Bor Poaceae Grass August-March Eragrostis cilianensis (Al.) Vign. Poaceae Grass August-May Erugrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. Poaceae Grass September-January September- Eragrostis minor Host. Poaceae Grass December Eragrostis lenella (L.) P.Beauv. Poaceae Grass September-October Eragrostis teniiifoUa Steud. Poaceae Grass September-October Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poaceae Grass August-February Eragrostis viscosa (Retz.)Trin. Poaceae Grass July-December Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Myrtaceae Tree December-March Eucalyptus rohusta Sm. Myrtaceae Tree November-July Eulalia fhnhriata (Hack) O.Ktze Poaceae Grass October-February Euphorbia cyathophora Murray Euphorbiaceae Herb September-March Euphorbia granulata Forssk Euphorbiaceae Herb July-september Euphorbia heyneaita Spr. Euphorbiaceae Herb Throughout the year Euphorbia hirta Linn. Euphorbiaceae Herb Throughout the year Euphorbia iiidica L. Euphorbiaceae Herb July-February Euphorbia ligularia Roxb. Euphorbiaceae Shrubs November-April Euphorbia milii Desmoul. Euphorbiaceae Shmb Throughout the year Euphorbia nivulia Buch. Euphorbiaceae Shrub December-April Euphorbia prostrata Ait. Euphorbiaceae Herb July-February Euphorbia prunifolia Jacq. Euphorbiaceae Herb Throughout the year Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotz. Euphorbiaceae Herb November-February Euphorbia tirucalli L. Euphorbiaceae Slirub August-September Euphorbia trigona Mill Euphorbiaceae Shrub February-May Eiiphrobia thymifolia L. Euphorbiaceae Herb Throughout the year Evolvulus alsiitoidcs L. Convolvulaceae Herb August-December Fagonia schweinfurthii (Hadidi) Hadidi ex September- Zygophyllaceae Shmb Gafoor December Farsetia jacquemontii Hook.f. & Thomson Cruciferae Herb August-October Ficus amplissima J.E. Sm. Moraceae Tree Throughout the year Ficus beiighalensis L. Moraceae Tree Throughout the year Ficus bcujamiiia L.yarjuida (Miq.) Barrett Moraceae Tree April-May Ficus carica L. Moraceae Tree March-October Ficus microcarpa L.f. Moraceae Tree March-June Ficus racemosa L. Moraceae Tree Almost throughout

62 Plain Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Flowering and Botanical Name Family Habit Fruiting period the year Ficiis religiosa L. Moraceae Tree December-May Fimhristylis hisiimhellata (Forssk.) Bubani Cyperaceae Herb May-December Fiinhristylis cymosa R.Br. Cyperaceae Herb May-December Fimhristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl. Cyperaceae Herb July-March Fimhristylis tenera Roem. & Schultes Cyperaceae Herb August-December Fimhristylis woodrowii Clarke Cyperaceae Herb July-October Flaveria trinenia (Spreng.) C.Mohr. Asteraceae Herb August-December Fiircraea foelida (L.) Haw. Agavaceae Shrub August-December Gliiiiis oppositifolia (L.) A.DC. Molluginaceae Herb Throughout the year Gliricidia sepiiim (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp Fabaceae Tree January-June Glossocardia bosvallia (L.f.) DC Asteraceae Herb July-October Glycine max (L.) Merr. Fabaceae Climber August-November Gmclina arhorea Roxb. ex Sm. Verbenaceae Tree March-August Gomphrena glohosa L. Amaranthaceae Herb Throughout the year Gomphremi serrata L. Amaranthaceae Herb June-January Goniogyiui hirta (Willd.) Ali Fabaceae Herb August-April Gossypiitm hirsutiim L. Malvaceae Shrub August-Februai7 Hardwickia hincila Roxb. Caesalpiniaceae Tree December-July September- Helianthus annniis L. Asteraceae Herb December Heliotropiiim strigosiim Willd. subsp. Boraginaceae Herb Throughout the year hrcvifoliiim (Wall.) Kazmi Heteropogon contortiis (L.) P.Beauv ex R.& Poaceae Grass August-February S. September- Heteropogon triticeus Craib Poaceae Grass November September- Hibiscus cannabimis L. Malvaceae Herb December Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Malvaceae Shrub Tliroughout the year Hygrophila sclmlli (Buch-Ham) M.R.& Acanthaceae Shrub Sept ember-April S.M.Almaida Impatiens balsamina L. Balsaminaceae Herb July-September Indigofera cordifolia Hyena ex Roth. Fabaceae Herb August-December Indigofera linifolia (L.) Retz. Fabaceae Herb July-December Indigofera linnaei Ali. Fabaceae Herb August-December Almost throughout Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet Convolvulaceae Climber the year Ipomoea carnea Jacq sspfistiilosa Mart.ex Convolvulaceae Shrub Throughout the year Choisy Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br. Convolvulaceae Climber August-December September- Ipomoea hederifolia L. Convolvulaceae Climber December

63 Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zotie Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Flowering and Botanical Name Family Habit Fruiting period Ipomoea obsciira (L.) Ker.-Gawl. Convolvulaceae Climber August-December Ipomoea sinensis (Desv.) Choisy in Mem. Convolvulaceae Climber August-December Ipomoea tiirhinata Lagasca. ex Choisy Convolvulaceae Climber September-March Ischaemum pilosum (Klein ex Willd) Wight Poaceae Grass September-March Iseilema anthephoroides Hacl;. Poaceae Grass August-December Iseilenui laxtim Hack Poaceae Grass August-December Jacaranda actilifolia Humb Bignoniaceae Tree March-May Jacqiietnontia panicidata (Burm.f) Hall.f. Convolvulaceae Climber August-November Jasminutn midtifloriim (Bunn.f.) Andr. Oleaceae Shrub December-.Iune Jasmimtm officinale L.var. officinale Oleaceae Climber February-November Jasmimim samhac (L.) Ait. Oleaceae Shrub March-May Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae Shrub Throughout the year Jatropha glandidifera Roxb. Euphorbiaceae Shrub August-November Jatropha gossypiifolia L. Euphorbiaceae Shrub Throughout the year Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae Herb October-April September- Kalanchoe luciae Stickpen Crassulaceae Shrub December Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pres. Crassulaceae Shrub December-February Kyllinga nemorcdis (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Cyperaceae Herb July-December Dandy ex Hutch. & Dalziel. Kyllinga tenuifolia Steud. Cyperaceae Herb July-September Lahlahpiirpweus (L.) Sweet. Fabaceae Climber October-April Lagascea mollis Cav. Asteraceae Herb July-December Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standi. Cucurbitaceae Climber August-November Almost throughout Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae Shrub the year Launaea procumhens (Roxb.) Ramayya & Asteraceae Herb August-October Rajagopal Lavandula Lamiaceae Herb October-February hipimiata(L.)O.Ktze.vaT.hipinnata Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae Shrub January-April Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br. Lamiaceae Herb November-March Lepidagathis cristata Willd. Acanthaceae Herb October-May Lepidagathis trinen'is Wall, ex Nees. Acanthaceae Herb August-February Leucaena latisdiqua (L.) Gillis. & Steam. Mimosaceae Tree September-March Leiicas aspera (Willd) Link Lamiaceae Herb July-December Leiicas cephalotes (Koenig ex Roth) Spreng Lamiaceae Herb August-February Leiicas longifolia Bth. Lamiaceae Herb August-October Limonia acidissima L. Rutaceae Tree March-December September- Lipocarpha chinensis (Osbeck) Kern Cyperaceae Herb December

64 Plant Ecoloi;ical Studies of Arid Zone midlife Sanetiiaries and Restoration Strategic s for Native Plant Species. Flowering and Family Habit Botanical Name Fruiting period Livistona cliineiisis R.Br. Arecaceae Tree January-February Lophopogon tridentatiis (Roxb.) Hack. Poaceae Grass August-December Lycopersicon lycopersicitm (L.) Karsten Soianaceae Herb Throughout the year Malvastriiin coromaiuieUamim (L.) Garcke Malvaceae Herb August-February Mciiigifera iitdica L. Anacardiaceae Tree January-June Manilkara zapota (L.) van Royen Sapotaceae Tree Throughout the year Mayteniis scnegalensis (Lam.) Excell. Celastraceae Shrub September-February Medicago sativa L.subsp. sativa Fabaceae Herb Throughout the year Melanocenchris jaapiemontii Jaub & Spach Poaceae Grass August-December Melici cizedarach L. Meliaceae Tree July-August Melilotus imlica (L.) All. Fabaceae Herb August-December September- Mentha piperita L. Lamiaceae Herb November September- Merremia aegyptia (L.) Urb. Convolvulaceae Climber December Merremia emargiiiata (Bunn.f) Hall.f. Convolvulaceae Climber August-November Michelia champaca Linn.var. alba Magnoliaceae Tree September-February Millingtonia hortensis L.f. Bignoniaceae Tree Throughout the year Mimosa hamata Willd. Mimosaceae Shrub August-March Mitttosa prainiana Gamble Mimosaceae Shrub August-October Mimosa pudica L. Mimosaceae Shrub September-January Mimtisops eletigi L. Sapotaceae Shrub January-March Almost throughout Mirahilisjalapa L. Nyctaginaceae Herb the year September- Mnesithea elarkei (Hack.) Koning & Sosef. Poaceae Grass November Mnesithea graindaris (L.) Koning & Sosef. Poaceae Grass August-October Molliigo imdicaidis Lamk. Molluginaceae Herb July-October Molhigo pentaphylla L. var. pentaphylla Molluginaceae Herb July-November Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringaceae Tree November-July Morns alba L. Moraceae Tree July-December Mukia maderaspatana (Linn.) M. Roemer Cucurbitaceae Climber August-November Murraya koenigii (L.) Spr. Rutaceae Tree March-June Almost throughout Musa paradisiaca L. Musaceae Herb the year Neriiim indicitm Mill.Gard Apocynaceae Shrub Throughout the year Nyctanthes arhor-tristis L. Oleaceae Shrub June-December Ocimiim americaniim L. Lamiaceae Shrub September-February Almost throughout Ocimum basilieiim L.var. thyrsiflora Bth. Lamiaceae Herb the year Almost throughout Ocimum tenuiflontm L. Lamiaceae Shrub the year

65 Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zotie Wildlife Satictiiaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Flowering and Botanical Name Family Habit Fruiting period Oldenhmdia iimhellata L. Rubiaceae Herb August-October Opuntia ficiis-indica Mill. Gard Cactaceae Shrub November-July Opimtia stricta (Haw.) Haw. var. dillenii Cactaceae Shrub March-May (Ker Gawl.) L. Benson Oropetium roxhurghiamim (Steud.) S.M. Poaceae Grass August-November Phillips September- Oropetium thomaeum (L.f.) Trin. Poaceae Grass December Oropetium villosulum Stapf. Ex Bor Poaceae Grass October-February O.xalis coniiculata L. var. cornicidata Oxalidaceae Herb August-December Pancratium pan'tim Dalz. Amaryllidaceae Herb June-August Parkinsonia acideata L. Caesalpiniaceae Tree January-June Partlienium hysterophorus L. Asteraceae Herb September-January September- Passiflora edulis Sims L. Passifloraceae Climber December Pedikmthus tithymaloides (L.) Poir. Euphorbiaceae Shrub March-May Pelargonium inquiiians (L.) Geraniaceae Shrub December-February Pcltophorum pterocarpiim (DC).Baker ex K. Caesalpiniaceae Tree March-June Heyne Pennisetiim hohenackeri Hochst. Poaceae Herb September-February Pennisctum orientate L.C.Rich Poaceae Herb August-December Pennisetiim pedicellatum Trin. Poaceae Grass August-October Pentanema indicum (L.) Ling Asteraceae Herb November-February Pergularia daemia subsp. daemia (Forsk.) Asclepiadaceae Climber September-March Chiov. Peristrophe paniculata (Forssk.) Brummit Acanthaceae Herb October-February Phaseohis vulgaris L. Fabaceae Climber August-December Phoenix dactylifera L. Arecaceae Tree March-October Almost throughout Phyla nodiflora (L.) Green Verbenaceae Herb the year Phyllanthus amarus Schum & Thonn. Euphorbiaceae Herb August-December September- Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. Euphorbiaceae Herb November Phyllanthus virgatus Forst.f. Euphorbiaceae Herb August-February Physalis angulata L. Solanaceae Herb August-November Physalis minima L. Solanaceae Herb July-January Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae Herb October-January Pithecellohium dulce (Roxb.) Bth. Mimosaceae Tree January-June Almost throughout Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spr. Lamiaceae Herb the year Plumeria alba L. Apocynaceae Tree June-October Plumeria rubra L. Apocynaceae Tree March-September Polianthes tuberosa L. Amarillidaceae Herb July-November

66 Plain Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Flowering and Botanical Name Family Habit Fruiting period Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner) Thw. Annonaceae Tree December-August Polygahi ar^•eltsisW\\\(^. Polygalaceae Herb July-October Polygahi hiilhothrix Dunn Polygalaceae Herb .lune-September Polygahi elongata Klein. Polygalaceae Herb July-October Polygahi erioptera DC. Polygalaceae Herb September-January Polygahi linariifolia Willd. Polygalaceae Herb August-October Polygahi persicariifolia DC. Polygalaceae Herb August-October Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf. Poaceae Grass July-Febmary Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pirre Fabaceae Tree March-June Portulaca oleracea L.subsp.o/c^/Y/cea Portulacaceae Herb Throughout the year Portulaca oleracea L.subsp.ir/^/va Portulacaceae Herb August-October Poftulaca pilosa L.ssp. grandiflora (Hook) Portulacaceae Herb Throughout the year Geesink Portulaca qiiadrifida L. Portulacaceae Herb Throughout the year Portulaca umbraticola Kunth Portulacaceae Herb Throughout the year Portulaca wightiana Wall, ex Wight & Am Portulacaceae Herb July-October Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce Mimosaceae Tree March-June Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) DC. Mimosaceae Tree August-May September- Pseudanthistiria heteroclita (Roxb.) Hook.f. Poaceae Herb November Pseuderanthemum hicolor (Schrank) Radlk. September- Acanthaceae Shmb ex Lindau December Psidium guajava L. var. pomifera Myrtaceae Tree October-June Pulicaria wightiana (DC) Clarke Asteraceae Herb August-December Pupalia lappacea (L.) A.L.Juss. var. Amaranthaceae Herb August-March lappacia Pycreus flavidus (Retz.) T.koyama var. Cyperaceae Herb September-October miinmus Pycreus pumilus (L.) Nees ex Clarke Cyperaceae Herb August-Febmar)' Quisqualis indica L. Combretaceae Climber Throughout the year Raiivolfia verticillata Baillon in Bull Apocynaceae Shmb March-May Almost throughout Rhoeo spathacea (Swartz.) Steam Commelinaceae Herb the year Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. Fabaceae Climber August-December Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Shmb Throughout the year Rivea hypocrateriformis (Desr.) Choisy Convolvulaceae Climber August-December Rivea laotica Ooststr. Convolvulaceae Climber July-September Rosa canina L. Rosaceae Shmb Throughout the year Rosa indica L. Rosaceae Shmb Throughout the year Rosa multiflora Thunb. Rosaceae Shmb Throughout the year Rostellularia diffusa (Willd.) Nees var. Acanthaceae Herb October-March diffusa

67 Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies fur Native Plant Species. Flowering and Botanical Name Family Habit Fruiting period RosteUiilaria diffusa (Willd.) Nees var. Acanthaceae Herb August-May prostrata Ellis. RosteUiilaria prociimhens L. Acanthaceae Herb August-November Riimc'x vesicariiis L. Polygalaceae Herb August-March Riingia repeiis (L.) Nees Acanthaceae Herb August-February Sacchanim spoiitcmeum L. Poaceae Grass September-March Samanea saiiuin (Jacq.) Merr. Mimosaceae Tree March-April Saiisevieria trifasciata Prain Agavaceae Herb March-August Saiikihim album L. Santalaceae Tree March-October Sarcostemma viminale (L.) R.Br. Ssp. Climbin Asclepiadaceae June-October viminale g Schoenoplcctus kiteriflorus (Gmel.) Lye Cyperaceae Herb August-May Scirpus micheUamts L. Cyperaceae Herb October-November Securiiiega leucopyrus (Willd.) Muell. Euphorbiaceae Shrub June-October Sehima nen'osiim (Rotl.) Stapf Poaceae Grass September-October Sesamum orientale L. Pedaliaceae Herb August-November Seshania grandiflora (L.) Poir. Fabaceae Tree October-February Seshania sesbati (L.) Merr. Fabaceae Shrub October-March Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauv Poaceae Herb September-February Selaria pumila (Poir) Roem & Schult Poaceae Grass July-November Setaria verticillata Beauv Poaceae Grass September-January Almost throughout Setcreasea purpurea Boom Commelinaceae Herb the year Sida acuta Burm.f. Malvaceae Herb September-February Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae Herb April-November Sida rhombifolia L. ssp. rhombifolia Malvaceae Herb September-January Sida rhombifolia L.ssp.retusa (L.) Borss. Malvaceae Herb October-February Sida spinosa L. Malvaceae Herb August-December September- Sohunim nigrum L. Solanaceae Herb December Solamim virginiamim L. Solanaceae Herb Tliroughout the year Sonchus asper (L.) Hill. Asteraceae Herb January-March Sonchus oleraceus L, Asteraceae Herb August-March Spathodea campamdata P.Beauv. Bignoniaceae Tree January-June Spermacoce articularis L. Rubiaceae Herb August-November Spermacoce pusilla Wall. Rubiaceae Herb August-November Spillacia oleracea L. Chenopodiaceae Herb November-January Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleid Lemnaceae Herb November-June Sporobohis coromaiideliamis (Retz.) Kunth. Poaceae Grass November-January Stemodia viscosa Roxb. Scrophulariaceae Herb October-April

68 Plan! Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategic s for Native Plant Species. Flowering and Botanical Name Family Habit Fruiting period Slriga dcnsiflora Benth. Scrophulariaceae Herb August-October Striga gcsncrioides (Willd.) Vatke Scrophulariaceae Herb August-October Stylosanthes fhiticosa (Retz.) Alst. Fabaceae Herb August-November Syzygiiim ciimitti (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae Tree May-July Tagetes erect a L. Asteraceae Herb Throughout the year Tagetes pcituJa L. Asteraceae Herb Throughout the year Tamarindiis iiuUcci L. Caesalpiniaceae Tree November-April Tecoma stuns (L.) H.B.& K. Bignoniaceae Shrub Throughout the year Tectona grandis L. Verbenaceae Tree August-December Tephrosia pumila (L.) Pers. Fabaceae Herb September-February Tcphrosici purpurea (L.)Pers. Fabaceae Shrub, Throughout the year Tephrosia strigosa (Dalz.) Santapau & September- Fabaceae Herb Maheshw December Tephrosia tinctoria (L.) Pers. Fabaceae Shrub September-February Termincdia catappa L. Combretaceae Tree April-October Tetrapogon teiielltis (Koenig ex Roxb.) Poaceae Grass August-December Chiov. Themeda qiuidrivalvis Ktze. Poaceae Grass September-February Themeda triaiidra Forssk. Poaceae Grass September-February Thespesia pupidnea (L.) Soland.ex Correa Malvaceae Tree Tliroughout the year Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Menispennaceae Climber August-April Hook.f. & Thoms. Tonningia axillaris (L.) Kuntze. Commelinaceae Herb July-December Touningia cucuUata (Roth) O.Ktze. Commelinaceae Herb August-October Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague Umbelliferae Herb January-November Tragia plukenetii A.R.Sm. Euphorbiaceae Herb July-March Tragus roxhurghii Panigr. Poaceae Grass August-September Trianthema portidacastrum L. Aizoaceae Herb August-December Trihulus nuicropterus Boiss. Zygophyllaceae Herb Throughout the year Tribuhts lanuginosus L. Zygophyllaceae Herb February-December Trihulus subramanyemii P.Singh, Giri & V. Zygophyllaceae Herb July-January Singh Trihulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae Herb February-November Trichodesma inaequale Edgew Boraginaceae Herb August-January Trichodesma iiuiicutn (L.) Lehm. Boraginaceae Herb October-February Tricholepis glaberrima DC Asteraceae Herb September-January Tridax procitrtihens L. Asteraceae Herb Throughout the year Trigonella foemim-graeciim L. Fabaceae Herb Throughout the year Triumfetta rotundifolia Lam. Tiliaceae Shrub July-November Typha angustifolia L. Typhaceae Herb September-February

69 Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wlkllife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. Flowering and Botanical Name Family Habit Fruiting period September- Urena lobata L. Malvaceae Shrub December Vrochioa panicoides P.Beauv. Poaceae Grass May-September Verbena hipinnatifida Schau. Verbenaceae Herb December-February Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. Asteraceae Herb July-February Vicoa iihlicci (L.) DC. Asteraceae Herb July-December Vigna acotutifolia {Jacq).Marechal Fabaceae Herb September-January Vigna aiigtilans (Willd.) Ohwi & Ohashi Fabaceae Herb September-October Vigna miiiigo (L.) Hepper Fabaceae Herb August-October September- Vigna trilohata (L.) Verde. Fabaceae Herb December Almost throughout Vitex negiindo L. Verbenaceae Shrub the year Vitis vinifera L. Vitaceae Climber November-May Wattakaka vohihilis (L.f.) Stapf. Asclepiadaceae Climber May-September Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. Solanaceae Shrub March-July Wolffia atrhiza (L.) Horkel ex Wimmer Lemnaceae Herb November-July Xanthiitm stnimarium L Asteraceae Herb October-May Zea mays L. Poaceae Herb July-March Zephyranthes eitrina Baker Amaryllidaceae Herb June-August September- Ziziphiis jitjiiha Mill. Rhamnaceae Tree December Ziziphus mauririana Lanik. Rhamnaceae Tree September-January Ziziphiis mimmidaria (Burm.f.) Wight & Am Rhamnaceae Shrub August-January Ziziphus xylopyra (Retz.) Willd. Rhamnaceae Tree July-February Zornia diphylla (L.) Pers Fabaceae Herb August-November

4.6: DIGITAL HERBARIUM: Herbaria are collections of preserved plants specimens, some of which date back to the 16' century. They are essential for botanical research, especially in systematics. They can also be important historical documents. The collections of Lewis and Clark, Carolus Linnaeus, and Charles Darwin, to name a few, are primary sources for the study of these individuals' work. Now many of these herbarium specimens are being scanned and the images are freely available on the Web (Flannery, 2013). The Digital Herbarium is a database with specimen images and data assisting as an album of the flora. It is collection of photographs of traditional collected and preserved plants forming online compendium of flora such as Royal Herbarium catalogue and New York Botanic Garden virtual herbarium. It may be the collection of digital photographs or

70 Plant Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Wildlife Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. images of In-Situ live plants with their intangible information as in present study. Image specimen sets include standardized high resolution digital images of taxonomically important features of the plants. It helps to study the plants without destructing or harming them.

4.6.1: Methodology: Primary data generation was done by the frequent field visits between 2007 and 2012 and later intermittently up to 2015. Each plant species found in MWS and RBS were photographed with the help of Sony Digital Camera. Digital photographs of entire plant, vegetative parts, floral parts and/or fruits of each plant species were taken. As per the rules of Wildlife Protection Act 1972, we were not allowed to collect the plants or its parts from the protected area. The PCCF, Nagpur, has givem the pemiission only on this condition; hence the plants were only observed frequently and digitally photographed for their further identification. Digital images of plants and their parts were identified, by comparing them with standard herbarium from Botanical Survey of India, Western circle, Pune and Botany Department Herbarium, University of Pune. For identification, the digital photographs were transferred to computer for observation. Floras such as 'The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay (Cooke, 1904-1908), "Flora of Khandala' (Santapau, 1967), 'Flora ofNasik District" (Laxminarasimhan, 1986), 'Flora of Maharashtra" (Almeida, 1996), "Flora of Maharashtra State - Monocotyledons" (Sharma et.al, 1996), 'Flora of Maharashtra State-Dicotyledons Vol.1 and 2 (Singh et.al, 2000, and 2001), 'Flora of Dhule and Nandurbar Districts" (Patil, 2003), 'Flora of Baramati' (Bhagat et.al, 2008) were used. Some of the digital specimens were identified by consulting the taxonomists. The online facebook groups like 'Indian Flora group', 'Plant Taxonomists groups", 'Flora of India', etc were also consulted. Databases such as Royal Botanical Garden, Kew online Herbarium Catalogue, New York Botanic Garden virtual herbarium, Tropicos, Catalogue of life. Global Biodiversity Information facility, JSTOR Plant Science, EOL (Encyclopedia of Life), etc were also used for identification and comparison of plant specimen characteristics. Wicki-species, Wikipedia, Google images, etc were used to get information about plants.

4.6.2: Results and Discussion: The selected plant photographs were used to prepare the digital herbarium. Each specimen carries the information about the plant such as botanical name, synonyms (if any),

1\ PUinl Ecological Studies of Arid Zone Hlldlift' Sanctuaries and Restoration Strategies for Native Plant Species. common name (if any), local or vernacular name (if any), family, habit, life-form, nativity, status, sanctuary, flowering and fruiting period, and flower color. These digital images of plants will serve as and educational tool and reference material. It can be made available widely through recently-developed electronic delivery methods such as the Internet and portable electronic devices. Digital specimen images and data will fonn a part of digital information that can be retrived. This web-accessible plant database will greatly facilitate the study of floristic and environmental changes over time. It will be the collection available to researchers throughout the world. Creating the online compendium of the flora will contribute towards preservation of the collection. Each database record contains specimen data trom the herbarium labels and other available records. This digital herbarium database comprises more than 150 specimens (Annexure-II). It will be useful for scientists and students of botany, agriculture, conservation biology, ayurveda and allied disciplines from the state and outside. These digital photographs of plants with information will be made available on-line. It will serve as an easy referral system for confirmation of correct identity. Basic infonnation i.e. the scientific (Botanical) name, synonyms, family, local (Marathi) name, habit, origin, flowering and fhiiting period, important uses, locality, etc. of the plant will be shared.

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