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Aviation Fuels Technical Review Aviation Fuels Technical Review Chevron Global Aviation Chevron Products Company 1500 Louisiana Street Houston, TX 77002 www.chevronglobalaviation.com/ga/ga_operational.asp Chevron Products Company is a division of a wholly owned subsidiary of Chevron Corporation. © 2006 Chevron Corporation. All rights reserved. Chevron is a trademark of Chevron Corporation. Recycled/RecyclableRecycled/recyclable paper paper 2M CBRES GIDC 5723 10/06 MS-9891 (10/06) Table of Contents Notes General Introduction ..................................................... i 8 • Aviation Gasoline Performance.............................. 45 Performance Properties 1 • Aviation Turbine Fuel Introduction ........................... 1 Cleanliness Types of Fuel Safety Properties Fuel Consumption 9 • Aviation Gasoline 2 • Aviation Turbine Fuel Performance ........................... 3 Specifications and Test Methods ............................ 54 Performance Properties Specifications Cleanliness Future Fuels Safety Properties Test Methods Emissions 10 • Aviation Gasoline Composition ............................. 63 3 • Aviation Turbine Fuel Composition Specifications and Test Method ..............................14 Property/Composition Relationships Specifications Additives Test Methods 11 • Aviation Gasoline Refining ................................... 66 4 • Aviation Turbine Fuel Composition ..........................24 Alkylation Base Fuel Avgas Blending Property/Composition Relationships 12 • Aircraft Piston Engines ......................................... 68 Chemistry of Jet Fuel Instability Internal Combustion Engines Water in Jet Fuel Engine Development Additives A • Aviation Fuel Distribution and Handling ..................74 5 • Aviation Turbine Fuel Refining ................................33 Fuel Distribution System Raw Material Receiving Fuel at Airports Refining Processes Contamination and Cleanup The Modern Refinery Quality Control 6 • Aviation Turbine Engines ........................................38 B • About Hydrocarbons ..............................................85 Principle of Operation Hydrocarbon Chemistry Engine Types Combustion in the Engine Sources of More Information ....................................... 89 7 • Aviation Gasoline Introduction .............................. 43 Abbreviations ............................................................ 90 Grades of Fuel Fuel Consumption Please note: This information is accurate as of fall 2004. It may be superseded by new regulations, specifications, or advances in fuel or engine technologies. Written, edited, and designed by employees and contractors of Chevron: Greg Hemighaus, Tracy Boval, John Bacha, Fred Barnes, Matt Franklin, Lew Gibbs, Nancy Hogue, Jacqueline Jones, David Lesnini, John Lind and Jack Morris. The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to Steve Casper (United Airlines), Cesar Gonzalez (consultant), Oren Hadaller (Boeing), Rick Moffett (Textron Lycoming), Roger Organ (Caltex), Jerry Scott (UVair), Stan Seto (GE Aircraft Engines), Rick Waite (Velcon Filters), and Ron Wilkinson (Electrosystems) for reviewing a draft version of this publication and making many helpful suggestions. Any remaining errors or omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors. Aviation Fuels Technical Review (FTR-3) © 2006 Chevron Corporation. All rights reserved. Cover image provided courtesy of, and copyright by, Boeing. All rights reserved. General Introduction Man has long been captivated by the possibility of flight. From Icarus’ wings to DaVinci’s flying machines to lighter-than-air balloons, inventive minds worked to turn the dream into a reality. But what was lacking was a means of propulsion. This finally became available in the early years of the 20th century with the development of the internal combustion engine. This engine provided a compact and portable source of power that allowed man to overcome the pull of gravity. The early aircraft engines were similar to those used in automobiles and burned the same fuel. The need for increased power led to the development of specialized engines and aviation gasolines (avgas) tailored to their requirements. In the 1940s, the turbine engine emerged as the answer to the quest for still more power. In a replay of avgas development, kerosine – the fuel used in the first aircraft turbine engines – was eventually replaced by specialized aviation turbine fuels (jet fuels). In the last 90 years, aviation has grown from a novelty to an essential, even defining, element of modern society. It enables people and goods to move around the globe in hours, rather than the weeks or months that used to be required. Aviation is powered by petroleum fuels. This is not an accident; the choice is based on petro- leum’s recognized advantages. Liquid fuels have higher energy contents per unit volume than gases, and are easier to handle and distribute than solids. Among liquids, liquid hydrocarbons offer the best combination of energy content, availability, and price. This Review covers the performance, properties, specifications, composition, and manufacture of aviation fuels, both turbine fuel and aviation gasoline. Since engine and fuel are interdependent components of a single system, it also touches on engine basics. And it addresses the special precautions incorporated in the distribution system to ensure quality and cleanliness as fuel is moved from refinery to aircraft. i Table of Contents General Introduction ..................................................... i 8 • Aviation Gasoline Performance.............................. 45 Performance Properties 1 • Aviation Turbine Fuel Introduction ........................... 1 Cleanliness Types of Fuel Safety Properties Fuel Consumption 9 • Aviation Gasoline 2 • Aviation Turbine Fuel Performance ........................... 3 Specifications and Test Methods ............................ 54 Performance Properties Specifications Cleanliness Future Fuels Safety Properties Test Methods Emissions 10 • Aviation Gasoline Composition ............................. 63 3 • Aviation Turbine Fuel Composition Specifications and Test Method ..............................14 Property/Composition Relationships Specifications Additives Test Methods 11 • Aviation Gasoline Refining ................................... 66 4 • Aviation Turbine Fuel Composition ..........................24 Alkylation Base Fuel Avgas Blending Property/Composition Relationships 12 • Aircraft Piston Engines ......................................... 68 Chemistry of Jet Fuel Instability Internal Combustion Engines Water in Jet Fuel Engine Development Additives A • Aviation Fuel Distribution and Handling ..................74 5 • Aviation Turbine Fuel Refining ................................33 Fuel Distribution System Raw Material Receiving Fuel at Airports Refining Processes Contamination and Cleanup The Modern Refinery Quality Control 6 • Aviation Turbine Engines ........................................38 B • About Hydrocarbons ..............................................85 Principle of Operation Hydrocarbon Chemistry Engine Types Combustion in the Engine Sources of More Information ....................................... 89 7 • Aviation Gasoline Introduction .............................. 43 Abbreviations ............................................................ 90 Grades of Fuel Fuel Consumption Please note: This information is accurate as of fall 2004. It may be superseded by new regulations, specifications, or advances in fuel or engine technologies. Written, edited, and designed by employees and contractors of Chevron: Greg Hemighaus, Tracy Boval, John Bacha, Fred Barnes, Matt Franklin, Lew Gibbs, Nancy Hogue, Jacqueline Jones, David Lesnini, John Lind and Jack Morris. The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to Steve Casper (United Airlines), Cesar Gonzalez (consultant), Oren Hadaller (Boeing), Rick Moffett (Textron Lycoming), Roger Organ (Caltex), Jerry Scott (UVair), Stan Seto (GE Aircraft Engines), Rick Waite (Velcon Filters), and Ron Wilkinson (Electrosystems) for reviewing a draft version of this publication and making many helpful suggestions. Any remaining errors or omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors. Aviation Fuels Technical Review (FTR-3) © 2006 Chevron Corporation. All rights reserved. Cover image provided courtesy of, and copyright by, Boeing. All rights reserved. 1 • Aviation Turbine Fuel Introduction Jet propulsion can be traced back to the 1st century B.C. when an Egyptian, Hero, is credited with Figure 1.1 inventing a toy that used jets of steam to spin a sphere. Sixteen centuries later, Leonardo da Vinci Hero’s Toy sketched a device that used a flux of hot gas to do mechanical work. By the 17th century, inventors were beginning to develop simple turbine systems to operate machinery. The development of a turbine engine for aircraft began independently in Germany and Britain in the 1930s. In Germany, Hans von Ohain designed the engine that powered the first jet flight in 1939. Germany deployed the jet-powered Messerschmitt 262 late in World War II. In Britain, Frank Whittle obtained a patent for a turbine engine in 1930. An aircraft powered by an engine he designed first flew in 1941. The first British jet fighter, the Gloster Meteor, also flew late in World War II. Water contained in the sphere is heated and Types of Fuel the steam escaping through the jets causes the sphere to turn in the opposite direction. Illuminating kerosine, produced for wick lamps, was used to fuel the first turbine
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