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Separate Modifiability and the Search for Processing Modules SternbergA&P XX: Separate Modifiability & Modules 8/8/03 Page 1 . Separate Modifiability and the Search for Processing Modules Saul Sternberg* Abstract One approach to understanding a complexprocess or system starts with an attempt to divide it into modules:parts that are independent in some sense, and functionally distinct. In this chapter Idiscuss a method for the modular decomposition of neural and mental processes that reflects recent thinking in psychology and cognitive neuroscience. This process-decomposition method, in which the criterion for modularity is separate modifiability,iscontrasted with task comparison and its associated subtraction method. Four illustrative applications of process decomposition and one of task comparison are based on the event-related potential (ERP), transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). * E-mail: [email protected] Tel: 215-898-7162 Fax: 215-898-7210 Address: Department of Psychology University of Pennsylvania 3815 Walnut Street Philadelphia, PA19104-6196, USA SternbergA&P XX: Separate Modifiability & Modules 8/8/03 Page 2 Separate Modifiability and the Search for Processing Modules Saul Sternberg 1. Modules and Modularity The first step in one approach to understanding a complexprocess or system is to attempt to divide it into modules:parts that are independent in some sense, and functionally distinct.12In the present context the complexentity may be a mental process,aneural process,the brain (an anatomical processor), or the mind (a functional processor). Four corresponding senses of ‘module’ are: Module1:Apart of a mental process,functionally distinct from other parts, and investigated with behavioral measures, supporting a functional analysis. Module2:Apart of a neural process,functionally distinct from other parts, and investigated with brain measures, supporting a neural-process analysis. 3 Module3:Aneural processor (part of the brain), a population Pa of neurons that is functionally specialized to implement a particular neural process aa .Ifitisalso localized (the sole occupant of a delimited brain region) and the only population that implements aa ,one may find selective task impairment from localized damage of Pa ,and selective activation of Pa by tasks that require aa . 4 Module4:Amental processor or faculty (part of the mind), functionally specialized (‘domain specific’), informationally isolated from (some) other processors (‘encapsulated’), and a product of evolution (see Spelke, Chapter 2, this volume). Most of the present discussion will be concerned with the first twosenses. In what follows I describe and illustrate an approach to the decomposition of mental and neural processes into 5 Modules1 and Modules2 that reflects recent thinking in psychology and cognitive neuroscience. This process-decomposition method and three illustrations based on the event-related potential (ERP) are described in Section 2. Icontrast process decomposition with the more familiar task- comparison method in Section 3, describe an example of the latter based on the effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), and discuss the subtraction method as an embodiment of task comparison. Unliketask comparison, which is often used in a way that requires modularity to be assumed without test (Shallice 1988, Ch. 11; Sternberg2001, Appendix A.1.), the process-decomposition method incorporates such a test. Iconsider the use of fMRI activation maps in process decomposition for the discovery of Modules2 in Section 4, list some 1. Heuristic arguments for the modular organization of complexbiological computations have been advanced by Simon (1962) and, in his ‘principle of modular design’, by Marr (1976). 2. Amodule may itself be composed of modules. 3. Processes occur overtime; their arrangement is described by a flow-chart. Theyare often confused with processors (parts of a machine), whose arrangement can be described by a circuit diagram. 4. By ‘selective impairment’ I mean impairment of tasks that require aa and not of tasks that don’t. By ‘selective activation’ I mean activation of Pa by tasks that require aa and not by tasks that don’t. In practice, selective activation is sometimes taken to mean the weaker differential activation (Kanwisher et al. 2001), akin to the tuning curves for simple features. 5. In Sternberg(2001) I discuss and defend the method, describe its antecedents, illustrate it with a dozen applications to mental and neural processes, and explicate its inferential logic. SternbergA&P XX: Separate Modifiability & Modules 8/8/03 Page 3 desiderata in such applications, and present an example. I briefly consider the question of task- general modules (Section 5) and the relation between Modules2 and Modules3 (Section 6), and close with a fewquestions (Section 7). 2. The Process-Decomposition Method 2.1 Separate Modifiability Much thinking by psychologists and brain scientists about the decomposition of complex processes appeals implicitly to separate modifiability as a criterion for modularity: two (sub)processes A and B of a complexprocess (mental or neural) are modules iffeach can be changed independently of the other.Todemonstrate separate modifiability of A and B,wemust find experimental manipulations (factors) F and G that influence them selectively,i.e. such that A is influenced by F butisinv ariant with respect to G,whereas B is influenced by G butisinv ariant with respect to F.6 Such double dissociation of subprocesses should be distinguished from the more familiar double dissociation of tasks (Sternberg2003). 2.2 Processes and Their Measures, Pureand Composite Howdowedemonstrate that a process is influenced by a factor,orinv ariant with respect to it? We knowonly about one or more measures MA of process A,not about the process as such. Depending on the available measures, there are twoways to assess separate modifiability of A and B.Suppose we have puremeasures MA and MB of the hypothesized modules: Apure measure of a process is one that reflects changes in that process only.Examples include the sensitivity and criterion parameters of signal-detection theory (reflecting sensory and decision processes), and the durations of twodifferent neural processes. To showthat F and G influence A and B selectively,wemust demonstrate their selective influence on MA and MB.The influence and invariance requirements are both critical. Unfortunately,itisseldom appreciated that persuasive evidence for invariance cannot depend solely on failure of a significance test of an effect: such afailure could merely reflect variability and lowstatistical power.7 Instead of pure measures, suppose we have a composite measureMAB of the hypothesized modules — a measure to which theyboth contribute. Todemonstrate selective influence in this case we must also knoworconfirm a combination rule —aspecification of howthe contributions of the modules to the measure combine. Examples of composite measures are the ERP at a particular point on the scalp (which may reflect several ERP sources), and mean reaction time, RT (which may depend on the durations of several processes). Whereas factorial experiments are desirable for pure measures8 ,theyare essential with a composite measure; unfortunately theyare rare. Agiv enmeasure may be pure or composite, depending on the hypothesized modules of interest. However, rather than being determined a priori, this attribute of a measure is one of the components of a theory that is tested as part of the process-decomposition method.9 6. Separate modifiability of A and B is also evidence for their functional distinctness (Sternberg2001, p. 149); information about what a process does is provided by the sets of factors that do and don’tinfluence it. 7. In evaluating a claim that an effect is null, it is important to have atleast an indexofprecision (such as a confidence interval) for the size of the effect. An alternative istoapply an equivalence test (Berger and Hsu 1996; Rogers, Howard, and Vessey1993) that reverses the asymmetry of the standard significance test. In either case we need to specify a critical effect size (depending on what we knowand the particular circumstances) such that it is reasonable to treat the observed effect as null if, with high probability,itisless than that critical size. 8. See Sternberg(2001), Appendix A.9. SternbergA&P XX: Separate Modi®ability & Modules 8/8/03 Page 4 2.3 Three Examples of Decomposition of Neural Processes with ERPs Here I provide brief summaries of three applications of these ideas, in which the brain measures are derivedfrom ERPs.10 2.3.1 Parallel Modules for Selecting a Response and Deciding Whether to Execute It. Osman et al. (1992) investigated a task in which a speeded response was required to twooffour equiprobable stimuli. The location of the stimulus (left versus right) indicated the correct response (left hand versus right hand); its category (letter vs digit) determined whether that response should be executed (Go versus NoGo trials). The twofactors were the stimulus- response mapping (SRM,spatially compatible versus incompatible), and Go-NoGo (letter-digit) discriminability (GND,easy versus hard). The twohypothesized pure measures depend on the lateral asymmetry of the motor-cortexvoltage versus time for Go and NoGo trials, AMC (t, Go) 11 and AMC (t, NoGo). One measure (Ma )isthe time interval from stimulus onset to when the sum AMC (t, Go) + AMC (t, NoGo)exceeds zero, which re¯ects the duration of aa ,the hypothesized response-selection module. The other measure (Mb )isthe interval from stimulus onset to when the difference AMC (t, Go) − AMC (t, NoGo)exceeds zero, which re¯ects the duration of bb ,the hypothesized execution-decision module. Theyfound that Ma is in¯uenced by SRM (effect = ∆= ± = ∆= ± = 12 121 17 ms, n 6) but negligibly by GND ( 2. 5 5. 0 ms, n 6) ,whereas Mb is in¯uenced by GND (∆=43 ± 14 ms) but negligibly by SRM (∆=3. 3 ± 8. 8 ms), evidence for the separate modi®ability of aa and bb . 13 Other aspects of the data indicate that aa and bb operate in parallel. 2.3.2 Serial Modules for Interpreting a Stimulus and Initiating the Response. Smulders et al. (1995) investigated a task in which a digit stimulus indicated which hand had to execute a speeded response.
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