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Storage of Solar Energy

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Storage of Solar Energy Prec. Indian Acad. Sci., Vol. C2, Part. 3, September 1979, pp 319-330. ~ Printed in India. Storage of solar energy THEODORE B TAYLOR Princeton University and Independent Consultant, 10325 Bethesda Church Road, Damascus, Maryland 20750, USA MS received 6 July 1979 Abstract. A framework is presented for identifying appropriate systems for storage of electrical, mechanical, chemical, and thermal energy in solar energy supply systems. Classification categories include the nature of the supply system's setting; the type of energy supplied; the type of solar energy collection system used (including ' indirect ' solar energy, such as wind and hydropower); the type of energy stored; and some other characteristics of the storage system. A global insolation summary is used to exhibit the diversity of requirements for solar energy storage in different settings. Comments are then made on the need and opportunities for 24 hr storage of electrical energy in batteries; backup systems that use stored chemical fuel derived from solar energy; storage of intermediate temperature heat as heat of hydration of compounds such as sulfuric acid; annual storage of low temperature heat in fresh water ponds or aquifers; and annual storage of ice produced in places with cold winters. Arguments are presented for using a systems approach to the selection of solar energy storage methods appropriate for use in specific types of settings. Keywords. Appropriate technology; chemical energy; electrical energy; energy; hydration energy; ice; insolation; morphological outline; pond; storage; solar energy; thermal energy. 1. Introduction Solar energy in this paper means any type of energy renewably derived from solar radiation. The types of solar energy considered are electrical or mechanical energy; chemically stored energy; gravitational energy in material that has been lifted; and both sensible and latent heat at temperatures that are high (T >/500~ intermediate (500~ > T >/100~ andlow (T < 100~ It is also useful to distinguish between two different categories of solar energy. 'Direct' solar energy requires human intervention in the initial absorption of solar radiation (as in thermal energy collectors, solar electric cells, or cultivation of plants). 'Indirect' solar energy involves human intervention at some point in a natural cycle after solar radiation has been absorbed (such as hydroelectric, wind, or wave energy). This paper has three primary purposes. The first is to set forth a logical framework for classifying various types of solar energy storage systems. The second is to display the wide ranges of requirements for energy storage that are determined by the local availability of natural solar energy and by the local energy end-use patterns in different settings. The third is to point out a number of opportunities, constraints, and prob- lems, associated with. several specific types of solar energy storage systems. This paper should not be considered as a review or assessment of all major types of energy storage systems that are now available or under development. 319 320 Theodore B Taylor Energy storage systems can often play important roles between the initial collection of solar energy and its conversion to the type of energy that is to be delivered for end use. Heat or chemical energy, for example, cart be stored for ultimate conversion to electric power. Furthermore, two or more different types of energy may be advant- ageously stored sequentially in the same system. In a system for converting animal or crop wastes to biogas to electric power, for example, both the organic material and the gas could be stored to produce gas or electric power as needed. A solar energy supply system should be appropriate for its setting. It should be adapted to the local availability of natural solar energy and to the basic energy needs of the people it serves (Reddy 1978). Energy storage components of the system, in turn, should be appropriate for the system as a whole. In general, therefore, the choice of methods for storage of solar energy within a particular system should depend on the setting's geophysical, economic, demographic, cultural, political and other characteristics. 2. Framework for classifying solar energy storage systems There is a wide variety of different types of solar energy that can be extracted from the natural environment in different places on earth--solar radiation; kinetic and thermal energy in wind, fresh water and seawater; gravitational energy in lifted water; stored chemical energy in wild plants; osmotic energy in seawater relative to fresh water. There are also many different ways to collect such natural sources of solar energy for subsequent conversion to some useful type of energy. The best choices of methods for storage of solar energy often depend on the type of solar energy that is to be collected from the natural environment, and on the specific method used for collection. A large number of different types of energy can be derived from natural solar energy, often from a single source. Appropriate conversion of collected solar radia- tion, for example, can yield electric power; dozens of different types of chemical fuels; heat at temperatures ranging from less than 100~ to nearly 6000~ mechanical energy; and cold media that, by absorbing energy, can be used for energy manage- ment. All other types of naturally available solar energy can also be converted to each of these types of energy, although the conversion efficiencies or costs may in many cases be unacceptable. There are many different conceivable options for storing energy in a system design- ed to supply any particular type of energy derived from solar energy collected by any particular type of collector. The product energy itself can generally be stored in a variety of different ways, as can any intermediate types of energy between the initial collection and final output. In short, one can conceive of a huge number of different types of solar energy storage methods, each characterised by the nature of the setting, the final solar energy product, and the type of solar energy collection system. Table 1 is a morphological outline that can be used to characterise a very large number of different types of solar energy storage systems. A morphological outline is a set of lists of alternative attributes, under various major categories, that are conceivable for a specific object, event, or process in somebroad category, such as energy storage (Zwicky 1951). It has the property that random selection of attributes Storage of solar energy 321 Table 1. Morphological outline of solar energy storage systems 1. Type of setting for solar energy supply system of which storage system is a part 1.1 Demographic characteristics 1.1.1 Urban 1.1.2 Suburban 1.1.3 Rural 1.1.4 Not specified 1.2 Development stage of country 1.2.1 Industrialised 1.2.2 Developing 1.2.3 Not specified 1.3 Economic category of population served by energy system 1.3.1 Average per capita income ~1/2 national average 1.3.2 Average per capita income < 1/2 national average 1.3.3 Not specified 1.4 Geophysical characteristics 1.4.1 Latitude 1.4.1.1 Tropical 1.4.1.2 Temperate 1.4.1.3 Arctic 1,4.1.4 Not specified 1.4.2 Annual average cloudiness 1.4.2.1 Sunshine =>70yo of maximum possible 1.4.2.2 Sunshine between 30% and 70% of maximum possible 1.4.2.3 Sunshine <30% of maximum possible 1.4.2.4 Not specified 1.4.3 Winter air temperatures 1.4.3.1 Degree (C)-hours below freezing ;~2000 1.4.3.2 2000>degree-hours below freezing ;~300 1.4.3.3 Degree-hours below freezing <300 1.4.3.4 Not specified 1.4.4 Warm season air temperatures 1.4.4.1 Degree (C)-hours above 25~ 1.4.4.2 20,000>degree hours above 25~ 1.4.4.3 Degree-hours above 25~ 1.4.4.4 Not specified 1.5 Setting's annual demand for energy produced by solar energy system 1.5.1 10le joules 1.5.2 10x~-10xej 1.5.3 101ll01* j 1.5.4 1010-1012j 1.5.5 <1010j 1.5.6 Not specified 2. Type of energy product of solar energy supply system of which storage system is a part 2.1 Radiation (e.g. visible light) 2.2 Electric power 2.2.1 Alternating current 2.2.2 Direct current 2.2.3 Other 2.2.4 Not specified 2.3 Mechanical energy 2.4 Chemical fuel 2.4.1 Hydrogen 2.4.2 Gaseous hydrocarbon (e.g. methane) 2.4.3 Carbon monoxide 2.4.4 Other gaseous fuel (e.g. ammonia) 2.4.5 Ethanol 2.4.6 Methanol 2.4.7 Liquid hydrocarbon 2.4.8 Other liquid fuel 2.4.9 Solid carbon (e.g. charcoal) 2.4.10 Cellulose 2.4.11 Other solid fuel 2.4.12 Not specified 2.5 Heat 2.5.1 Type of heat 2.5.1.1 Sensible 2.5.1.2 Latent Prec. C--3 322 Theodore B Taylor Table 1 (contd.) 2.5.2 Temperature 2.5.2.1 High (T;~500~ 2.5.2.2 Intermediate (500~ > T ;~ 100oC) 2.5.2.3 Low (T<100~ 2.5.2.4 Not specified 2.6 Heat sink 2.6.1 Cold water 2.6.2 Ice 2.6.3 Other 2.6.4 Not specified 2.7 Not specified 3. Type of solar energy collection system 3.1 Direct solar energy 3.1.1 Pure radiation (e.g. interception and channelling of visible light) 3.1.2 Photovoltaic 3.1.3 Photoeleetrochemical (e.g. photogalvanie batteries) 3.1.4 Non-biological photochemical (e.g. photodissociation of water to hydrogen and oxygen) 3.1.5 Cultivated plants 3.1.6 High temperature heat (T;~500~ 3.1.7 Intermediate temperature heat (500~ > T ;D 100*C) 3.1.8 Low temperature heat (T<100~ 3.1.9 Other 3.1.10 Not specified 3.2 Indirect solar energy 3.2.1 Kinetic energy of flowing water (not including surface waves) 3.2.1.1 Fresh water (e.g.
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