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Fugitive Slave Advertisements and the Rebelliousness of Enslaved People in Georgia and Maryland, 1790-1810

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Fugitive Slave Advertisements and the Rebelliousness of Enslaved People in Georgia and Maryland, 1790-1810 1 Fugitive Slave Advertisements and the Rebelliousness of Enslaved People in Georgia and Maryland, 1790-1810. Shaun Wallace Date of Submission: September 2017 This thesis is submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Arts and Humanities University of Stirling 3 Abstract This dissertation is a systematic investigation of fugitive slave advertisements aiming to understand the nature of fugitives’ rebelliousness in Georgia and Maryland between 1790 and 1810. Hitherto, historical inquiry pertaining to slave fugitivity has focused on other states and other times. This study provides a close reading of 5,567 advertisements pertaining to runaway slaves and analyses extracted data pertaining to the prosopography of 1,832 fugitives and their fugitivity. Its main research questions focus on advertisements as manifest records of rebellion. Who were the fugitives? What do the fugitive slave advertisements reveal about enslaved people’s contestation of slaveholders’ authority? The principal findings are as follows. First, the typography and iconography of fugitive slave advertisements were expressly intended to undermine the individualism and agency of enslaved people. Second, with regard to Georgia and Maryland, while there were spikes between 1796 and 1798 and 1800 and 1801, fugitivity was a daily occurrence, and thus a normative act of rebellion distinct from insurrection. Third, quantitative analysis indicated fugitives were typically young males, in their twenties, likely to escape at any time of the year; Georgia fugitives were more likely to escape in groups. Fourth, qualitative analysis of advertisers’ descriptions of fugitives revealed evidence of challenges to their authority. Depictions of fugitives’ character and remarks or notes on their behaviour constitute evidence of observed characteristics. From the advertisers’ perspective slaves were at their most dangerous when they could read and write or when they were skilled in deception. The “artful” fugitive in particular possessed many skills, sometimes including literacy, which could be used to defy the power that kept him or her in subjection. Fifth, further investigation established clear linkages between literacy and fugitives’ rebelliousness. Qualitative studies to date speak of slave literacy’s theoretical liberating and empowering effects but do not provide tangible accounts of who the literate slaves were or consider literacy as a factor in rebelliousness. The dissertation identified 36 literate slaves in Maryland and 9 in Georgia, and statistical analysis suggested 3.6 percent of US fugitive slaves were literate. Finally, it was evident that literacy was part of a larger contest to circumvent slaveholder authority and attain self-empowerment. Fugitivity itself was the outcome of a history of contestation that might be hidden from history were it not for the advertisements themselves. 5 Acknowledgements This project and my well-being throughout owes much to my family. My fiancé, Rachel, has been a rock, picking me up when times were hard and sharing the special moments. My parents, Brian and Karen, and my sister, Samantha, have given me the freedom, encouragement, and solid foundation from which to pursue the career I have long dreamt. Celia and Hughie have been with me every step, lending an ear and offering their support, and to them I owe immense gratitude. My entire family has always encouraged and supported me, especially my gran, Molly, who passed away shortly before this work was completed. This dissertation is for her. I hope I did you proud. This project has been influenced, shaped, and strengthened by my supervisory team. Ben Marsh has been a mentor, encouraging and supporting my work since I was an undergraduate. So too has Colin Nicolson. His methodical approach to research and passion for history have been a source of inspiration. My gratitude is also extended to Emma Hart, for her guidance and advice, and Emma McLeod, for her invaluable feedback and expertise. My appreciation is extended to the entire history department at the University of Stirling for all their support over the years and the archival staff in both the United Kingdom and United States who assisted my research. The entire project was funded by the Economic and Social Research Council and to them I am also thankful. During the course of this project I have been fortunate to have been part of a truly remarkable and special postgraduate community at the University of Stirling. My brother in arms, Ben Fanstone, has done a wonderful job of keeping my spirits high. Helen Young has encouraged and supported me throughout as has Vicki Hodgson, my coffee buddy, and Katy Jack. Thanks also to Jamie McPherson and Laura Salmon. The support of the old B19 cohort has been amazing. Stuart Salmon, a gentleman and a scholar, has been an immense friend and colleague, as has Mark Nuyken, whose wit and observations never fail to amuse. Thanks must also be extended across the pond to Chris Minty, for his encouragement and assistance throughout. Researching and writing a PhD is an endeavour of mixed emotions but my friends, family, and colleagues have ensured that, at least most days, it has been a wonderful and rewarding experience; one which will live with me forever. 7 Contents Abstract………………………………… …………………………………………3 Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………….5 Contents…………………………………………………….........................................7 List of Tables and Figures………………………………………………………...9 Introduction……………………………………………………………………….11 Research Aims and Objectives………………………………………………………….11 Research Questions and Hypothesis……………………………………………………..12 Historiography………………………………………………………………………..12 Methodology…………………………………………………………………………..21 1. The Fugitive Slave Advertisement in American Print Culture…………….....47 American Print Culture: Before the Early National Era…………………………………...55 American Print Culture: Print During the Early National Era…………………………......59 Advertisements………………………………………………………………………...66 Fugitive Slave Advertisements…………………………………………………………...70 Circulars…………………………………………………………..................................78 The Decline of Fugitive Slave Advertisements…………………………………………......88 2. A “Jack” of all Trades or any “Tom, Dick, and Harry”? The Fugitive Slaves of Georgia and Maryland, c. 1790-1810.………………………………………………95 Slave Fugitivity………………………………………………………………………...96 The Fugitive Slaves……………………………………………………………………120 Spectrum of Observed and Perceived Slave Behaviour………………………………………144 Slave Skillsets………………………………………………………………………...151 The “Value” of Enslaved People…………………………………………………….......156 3. The Contestation of Authority: Reading, Writing, and Literate Enslaved People.…………………………………………………………………………….....171 Slave Codes…………………………………………………………………….174 Anti-Literacy Laws………………………………………………………….......177 Slave Learning………………………………………………………………….185 The Significance of Becoming Literate………………………………………………193 8 Literate Enslaved People: An Unfounded Fear?...................................................................201 4. Theatres of Rebellion: Literacy, Performance, and Slave Resistance……...…..205 Literacy and Rebelliousness………………………………………………………...209 Resistance and Slave Type Models……………………………………………….......213 The Archetypal Confidence Man …………………………………………………....216 Endeavouring to Pass as a Free Person: Artful Slaves……………………………….....223 “Rogues” and “Villains”: Bad Characters (Artful Slaves).....................................................227 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….235 Appendix 1. The Fugitive Slave Database (FSdb)…………………………………..243 Appendix 2. Newspaper Sources……………………………………………………..245 Appendix 3. Database Fields…………………………………………………………247 Appendix 4. Georgia Slave Population by County, 1790-1860………………………249 Appendix 5. Advertisers and Fugitives, by County, 1800……………………………259 Appendix 6. Contingency Table for Fugitivity and Age…………………………….261 Appendix 7. Contingency Table for Age and Method of Escape…………………..263 Appendix 8. Regression Analysis for Reward Values in FSP………………………265 Appendix 9. Slave Revolt Common Leadership Structure………………………….267 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………..269 9 List of Tables and Figures Table I.I. Advertisements, 1790-1810. Table I.II. Fugitives by State of Escape, 1790-1810. Table I.III. Fugitives and Advertisements, 1790-1810. Table I.IV. Fugitives in Advertisements, 1790-1810. Table 1.1. Newspapers published in the United States, 1790. Table 1.2. Newspaper numbers by state, 1810-1840. Table 2.1 Month of Escape. Table 2.2. Methods of Escape. Table 2.3. Fugitivity Statistics, 1790-1810. Table 2.4. Fugitivity (in days). Table 2.5. Contingency Table of Fugitivity and Method of Escape. Table 2.6. Sex Statistics. Table 2.7. Contingency Table for Sex and State of Escape. Table 2.8. Age Statistics. Table 2.9. Contingency Table for Age and Sex. Table 2.10. Contingency Table for Height, Age, and Sex. Table 2.11. Dominant Physical Features. Table 2.12. Colour. Table 2.13. Fugitives’ Origins. Table 2.14. Contingency Table of Origins and Language Quality. Table 2.15. Advertisers’ Observations. Table 2.16. Advertisers’ Perceptions. Table 2.17. Contingency Table for Work Setting. Table 2.18. Contingency Table for Trade Classification [FSP]. Table 2.19. Contingency Tables for Literacy and Fugitives (FSP). Table 2.20. Literacy Statistics. Table 2.21. Contingency Tables for Literacy and Advertisers' Perceptions and Observations (FSP). Table 2.22. Utility of Fugitives. 10 Table 2.23. Reward Values. Table 2.24. Contingency Table
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