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Individual and Combined Use of Ultraviolet (UV) Light with Hydrogen Peroxide, Peracetic Acid, and Ferrate(VI) for Wastewater Disinfection

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Individual and Combined Use of Ultraviolet (UV) Light with Hydrogen Peroxide, Peracetic Acid, and Ferrate(VI) for Wastewater Disinfection Individual and combined use of ultraviolet (UV) light with hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid, and ferrate(VI) for wastewater disinfection by Natalie Linklater A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Engineering Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2017 Natalie Linklater Abstract This work explores the use of chlorine-free chemicals hydrogen peroxide (HP), peracetic acid (PAA), and ferrate(VI) as well as physical disinfection method, ultraviolet light (UV), alone and combination for wastewater disinfection. To evaluate treatments the culturability of indicator-organism Escherichia coli was compared to that of spore- forming Bacillus subtilis and C. perfringens. Remaining culturable and viable E. coli were studied using a method combining propidium monoazide (PMA) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Changes to culturability were monitored for up to 48 hours after treatment to evaluate regrowth, reactivation and resuscitation levels. In Chapter 4 culturable and viable E. coli were studied following disinfection with sodium hypochlorite (NaClO), HP, PAA, ferrate(VI), and ultraviolet light (UV). All methods reduced culturable E. coli to below 2 log CFU/mL but 3-6 log CCE/mL of E. coli remained viable following chemical treatments. The largest reduction of viable cells was achieved with Ferrate(VI) followed by PAA, NaClO, and HP. In Chapters 5 and 6 the use of UV and ferrate(VI) both alone and in combination was studied. The combination of 40 mJ/cm2 UV and 9 mg/L ferrate(VI) provided an additional 80% reduction in coliform bacteria compared to the use of UV alone. The use of ferrate(VI) increased turbidity by up to 95.6%. UV fluence of 40 mJ/cm2 reduced C. perfringens 95.5% but neither ferrate(VI) nor combining UV and ferrate(VI) offered further reductions. A concentration of 9mg/L of ferrate(VI) reduced viable E. coli by 0.9 i log CCE/mL and by 2 logs CCE/mL when combined with 40 mJ/cm2. No regrowth following ferrate(VI) was observed, however regrowth and reactivation were observed after 40 mJ/cm2 UV as well as following combined treatment. In Chapter 7 the use of UV and PAA were studied. Combining 40 mJ/cm2 UV and 2.3 mg/L PAA allowed for an additional 1.7 log reduction in culturable E. coli but no additional reduction in B. subtilis was observed when compared to the use of UV alone. The combined treatment offered an additional 0.8 log reduction in viable E. coli. Regrowth was observed after a lag period between 6 and 24 hours without additional nutrient supplementation. ii Acknowledgements I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Professor Banu Örmeci, who has expertly guided and mentored me throughout this process. Her attention to detail and depth of knowledge never ceases to amaze me. To the members of my defence committee, I thank you for your comments and your review of this body of work. My appreciation and thanks also extends to my lab colleagues who have entertained, encouraged, listened, tolerated, and stimulated me throughout. In particular, a special thank you is owed to Rich Kibbee who has guided me through the world of microbiology and microscopy. Thank you for always taking the time to answer my questions and show me a different point of view. Thank also to Dr. Audrey Murray. I am so thankful to have been able to learn with and beside you for so many years. Your advice and friendship are very dear to me. Thank you to the faculty and staff of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. Your kindness and good humor were always appreciated. I would also like to thank my friends and family for their love and support. In particular I would like to thank Ryan, Lisa, Breah, and Danika Simon-Linklater, Lisanne and Bobby Boileau, Katie and Nick Frappier-Pankhurst, Marlene Power, Kate Iob, Rim Khazall, and Dr. Dana Foss. This list would also be remiss without a special acknowledgement to Estelle Mayer, my mom, who has a way of calling just when I needed it the most. Thank you. Thank you to those that I have not been named. To you I wish to express my deepest apologies and an even greater amount of gratitude. iii "Morning, boys. How's the water?" ̶ David Foster Wallace, This is Water: Some Thoughts, Delivered on a Significant Occasion, about Living a Compassionate Life iv Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. iii List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... xii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xix Nomenclature .................................................................................................................... xx 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Thesis Outline and Hypotheses ........................................................................................ 5 1.3 References ....................................................................................................................... 9 2 Background and Literature Review ............................................................................ 25 2.1 Ultraviolet light .............................................................................................................. 26 2.2 Ferrate(VI) ...................................................................................................................... 31 2.3 Hydrogen peroxide ........................................................................................................ 33 2.4 Peracetic acid ................................................................................................................. 34 2.1 Combined and sequential disinfection treatment ......................................................... 37 2.2 Viable but nonculturable bacteria ................................................................................. 41 2.3 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 45 2.5 References ..................................................................................................................... 47 3 Materials and Methods .............................................................................................. 63 3.1 Disinfection with ultraviolet light .................................................................................. 63 3.1.1 Ultraviolet light fluence calculation ....................................................................... 64 v 3.2 Chemical disinfection ..................................................................................................... 67 3.2.1 Sodium hypochlorite .............................................................................................. 67 3.2.2 Ferrate(VI) .............................................................................................................. 68 3.2.3 Hydrogen peroxide ................................................................................................ 79 3.2.4 Peracetic acid ......................................................................................................... 80 3.3 Experimental matrix ....................................................................................................... 81 3.4 Bacteria species ............................................................................................................. 82 3.4.1 Escherichia coli ....................................................................................................... 82 3.4.2 Coliform bacteria ................................................................................................... 82 3.4.3 Clostridium perfringens ......................................................................................... 82 3.4.4 Bacillus subtilis ....................................................................................................... 83 3.4.5 Pseudomonas aeruginosa ...................................................................................... 84 3.5 Culture conditions and enumeration of bacteria .......................................................... 87 3.6 Wastewater quality parameters .................................................................................... 89 3.7 Propidium monoazide protocol, and DNA extraction and quantification ..................... 89 3.8 Real-time qPCR .............................................................................................................. 91 3.9 Live/dead viability stain ................................................................................................. 94 3.10 Minimal media ............................................................................................................... 96 3.11 Statistical analysis .......................................................................................................... 96 3.13 References ..................................................................................................................... 98 vi 4 Survival
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