Grande Estratégia E Ordem Regional: a Política De Energia Dos Estados Unidos Na Ásia Central E No Cáucaso”

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Grande Estratégia E Ordem Regional: a Política De Energia Dos Estados Unidos Na Ásia Central E No Cáucaso” SOLANGE REIS FERREIRA “GRANDE ESTRATÉGIA E ORDEM REGIONAL: A POLÍTICA DE ENERGIA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS NA ÁSIA CENTRAL E NO CÁUCASO” CAMPINAS 2013 i ii UNIVERSIDADE ESTADUAL DE CAMPINAS INSTITUTO DE FILOSOFIA E CIÊNCIAS HUMANAS SOLANGE REIS FERREIRA “GRANDE ESTRATÉGIA E ORDEM REGIONAL: A POLÍTICA DE ENERGIA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS NA ÁSIA CENTRAL E NO CÁUCASO” ORIENTADOR: PROF. DR. SEBASTIÃO CARLOS VELASCO E CRUZ TESE DE DOUTORADO APRESENTADA AO PROGRAMA DE PÓS GRADUAÇÃO EM CIÊNCIA POLÍTICA DO INSTITUTO DE FILOSOFIA E CIÊNCIAS HUMANAS DA UNIVERSIDADE ESTADUAL DE CAMPINAS PARA OBTENÇÃO DO TÍTULO DE DOUTORA EM CIÊNCIA POLÍTICA. ESTE EXEMPLAR CORRESPONDE À VERSÃO FINAL DA TESE DEFENDIDA PELA ALUNA SOLANGE REIS FERREIRA E ORIENTADA PELO PROF. DR. SEBASTIÃO CARLOS VELASCO E CRUZ. CAMPINAS 2013 iii iv v vi RESUMO Esta tese analisa a política externa de energia dos Estados Unidos na Ásia Central e no Cáucaso após a Guerra Fria. Ambas as regiões foram incluídas na grande estratégia do país, pois o fim da fronteira ideológica criou a oportunidade para que os Estados Unidos estendessem sua hegemonia. Como os recursos energéticos regionais representavam novas opções para o mercado global e condicionavam as relações entre as antigas repúblicas soviéticas, os assuntos de energia tornaram-se o princípio orientador da política externa dos Estados Unidos para essas regiões. Ademais, controlar o comércio global de energia sempre fora parte do processo de construção da Pax Americana. Nos governos Bill Clinton e George W. Bush, o planejamento implicou uma política de “portas abertas” para que o capital internacional não encontrasse barreiras de entrada. O objetivo era desenvolver os setores de petróleo e gás, e a capacidade de exportação dos países produtores. A primeira meta era aumentar a segurança energética europeia, cuja dependência em relação à Rússia interferia nos interesses estratégicos dos Estados Unidos. Tal propósito encontrou inúmeros obstáculos, sendo o principal deles o domínio russo sobre as rotas de distribuição. Diante deste quadro, o plano de ação adquiriu um caráter geopolítico, visando reduzir o monopólio russo e a projeção iraniana nas regiões. A baixa permeabilidade regional à influência da superpotência contribuiu para o fracasso do projeto. Na gestão Obama, as possibilidades surgidas com a “revolução de xisto” nos Estados Unidos indicam que a abordagem geoestratégica poderá ser substituída por uma lógica comercial, com maior foco nas nações consumidoras no entorno da Ásia Central e do Cáucaso. Palavras-chave: Energia; Política Externa - Estados Unidos; Geopolítica - Ásia Central - 1990 ABSTRACT This thesis analyses U.S. energy foreign policy in Central Asia and Caucasus after the Cold War. Both Regions became part of the American grand strategy, as the end of the ideological frontier created the opportunity for the extension of U.S. hegemony. Since regional energy resources meant new options for the global market and shaped the relations among the old soviet republics, energy became the guiding principle for U.S. foreign policy in those regions. Besides, the control of global energy trade had always been part of the building process of Pax Americana. In Bill Clinton’s and George W. Bush’s administrations, the plan implied an “open door” policy for the international capital not to face any barriers. The objective was to develop oil and gas sectors and the export capacity of the producing countries. A primary goal was to increase European energy security, whose dependence towards Russia affected U.S. strategic interests. This purpose encountered several obstacles, the main one being Russian domain over distribution routes. This framework led to a geopolitical action plan aimed to reduce Russian monopoly and Iranian projection. The regional impermeability to an influence from a superpower contributed to the failure of the project. In Obama’s administration, the possibilities that arouse with “shale revolution” in U.S. suggest that the geostrategic approach might be replaced by a commercial logic, with a greater focus on consuming nations in the vicinity of Central Asia and the Caucasus. Key words: Energy; U.S. Foreign Policy; Geopolitics – Central Asia - 1990 vii viii SUMÁRIO INTRODUÇÃO 1 CAPÍTULO 1 – HEGEMONIA E ENERGIA 9 1.1 ENERGIA COMO INSTRUMENTO DE AÇÃO POLÍTICA 9 1.2 O PROJETO DE HEGEMONIA COM O FIM DA GUERRA FRIA 14 1.3 A ASCENSÃO DO MERCADO 20 1.4 A VOLTA DO ESTADO 26 1.5 POROSIDADE REGIONAL 30 1.6 ENERGIA: BARREIRA MÓVEL E IMÓVEL AO CAPITAL 38 CAPÍTULO 2 – O PAPEL DA ENERGIA NA ASCENSÃO DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS NO SÉCULO 20 45 2.1 ENERGIA COMO ALAVANCA DO PODER HEGEMÔNICO 45 2.2 A LUTA CONTRA MONOPÓLIOS E HEGEMONIAS 50 2.3 A REAÇÃO AO NACIONALISMO DE RECURSOS 60 2.4 A ORDEM ENERGÉTICA APÓS 1945 67 CAPÍTULO 3 – PIPELINE POLITICS 82 3.1 PANORAMA REGIONAL DE ENERGIA 82 3.2 AS REGIÕES NO RADAR DA POLÍTICA EXTERNA 89 3.3 INSEGURANÇA ENERGÉTICA EUROPEIA 101 3.4 RÚSSIA: SUPERPOTÊNCIA ENERGÉTICA 107 3.5 DISPUTAS TERRITORIAIS NO MAR CÁSPIO 113 3.6 DIPLOMACIA DE DUTOS 115 3.6.1 PROJETOS RUSSOS 115 3.6.2 PROJETOS OCIDENTAIS 117 3.6.3 GASODUTO IRÃ-PAQUISTÃO 124 CAPÍTULO 4 – PERSPECTIVAS DA REVOLUÇÃO DE XISTO 129 4.1 ENERGIA E GRANDE ESTRATÉGIA NO GOVERNO OBAMA: NOVOS MEIOS PARA VELHOS FINS 129 4.2 A REVOLUÇÃO DE XISTO 133 4.3 CONTEXTO GLOBAL 142 4.4 IMPACTO DO XISTO NA GEOPOLÍTICA DE ENERGIA 149 CONCLUSÃO 162 BIBLIOGRAFIA 169 ix x Eis que soa estranho dedicar-lhe algo. Como já não sei onde termina João e começo eu, incorro no risco de homenagear a mim mesma. A nossa longa e maravilhosa vida em comum é a prova de que não existe nada mais sólido do que amar profundamente. E para Pedro e Carol, alvos do meu amor desmedido e incondicional. Vocês são as fontes inesgotáveis da minha energia. xi xii AGRADECIMENTOS Ao Professor Sebastião Velasco e Cruz, cujo brilhantismo intelectual e entusiasmo com as questões mundiais são um convite ao pensamento crítico e à sede permanente de conhecimento. Agradeço por tantos conselhos, gestos de apoio e palavras de estímulo. Mais do que orientador, tem sido um amigo. À Universidade Estadual de Campinas, pelas condições institucionais para a realização desse trabalho, e ao CNPQ, pelo incentivo financeiro. Aos membros da banca, pela gentileza de ler e analisar a tese. É uma honra receber suas contribuições acadêmicas. Aos coordenadores do Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia para Estudos sobre os Estados Unidos (INCT-Ineu), pela oportunidade de ampliar meu campo de estudos e minha atuação. Entre eles, um agradecimento especial ao Professor Reginaldo Carmello Corrêa de Moraes, que participou das etapas de qualificação e defesa, e ao Professor Tullo Vigevani, também integrante da banca e com quem tive a felicidade de coescrever artigos sobre a política ambiental dos Estados Unidos. A meu amigo e parceiro no OPEU, Geraldo Nagib Zahran Filho, por cuidar tão bem do nosso projeto, e me presentear com conhecimento e carinho. A minha família no Rio, pela eterna sensação de pertença. Ao meu pai, que se estivesse aqui, não caberia em si de tanto orgulho, e a minha mãe, a mulher mais corajosa que eu conheço. Aos meus maiores credores, Carol, Pedro e João. Porque nunca serei capaz de compensar a desatenção que vocês sofreram todos esses anos. xiii xiv LISTA DE ILUSTRAÇÕES Figura I.1 Cáucaso Sul 2 Figura I.2 Cáucaso Norte 2 Figura 1.1 Proposta afegã para bases militares dos Estados Unidos 15 Figura 1.2 Mapa do Cáucaso e da Ásia Central 34 Figura 2.1 Relação entre preço do petróleo e eventos internacionais 77 Figura 3.1 Mapa da Geórgia e dos territórios autônomos 102 Figura 3.2 Importações de gás na UE 105 Figura 3.3 Dependência energética dos países membros da UE 105 Figura 3.4 Dependência da UE por combustíveis fósseis e origem de importação 106 Figura 3.5 Oleoduto ESPO 112 Figura 3.6 Gasodutos BTC e SPC 119 Figura 3.7 Gasodutos South Stream e Nabucco 123 Figura 3.8 Gasodutos TP e TAPI 128 Figura 4.1 Técnicas de perfuração horizontal e fratura hidráulica 135 Figura 4.2 Extração de gás de xisto nos Estados Unidos 135 Figura 4.3 Importações líquidas de gás 137 Figura 4.4 Reservas e produção de petróleo 159 Figura 4.5 Consumo de petróleo 160 Figura 4.6 Consumo de gás natural 160 Figura 4.7 Reservas e produção de gás natural 161 xv xvi LISTA DE SIGLAS AIE Agência Internacional de Energia AIOC Anglo-Iranian Oil Company AIOC Azerbaijan International Oil Company APOC Anglo-Persian Oil Company CPC Caspian Pipeline Consortium EIA Energy Information Administration ESPO Eastern Siberian Pacific Ocean IEA International Energy Agency FDP Freie Demokratische Partei IOC International Oil Company BTC Baku-Tblisi-Ceyhan GNL Gás natural liquefeito GSGI Global Shale Gas Initiative IP Iran-Pakistan NAFTA Tratado Norte-Americano de Livre Comércio NEPDG National Energy Policy Development Group NOC National Oil Company OMC Organização Mundial do Comércio ONU Organização das Nações Unidas OPEP Organização dos Países Exportadores de Petróleo OTAN Organização do Tratado do Atlântico Norte SEC Securities Exchange Comission SPC South Caucasus Pipeline SPD Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands START Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty TAP Trans-Adriatic Pipelie TAPI Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India Pipeline TPP Trans-Pacific Partnership UE União Europeia UGTEP Unconventional Gas Technical Engagement Program UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea URSS União das Repúblicas Socialistas Soviéticas USACC U.S.-Azerbaijan Chamber of Commerce MEDIDAS bcf ..... bilhão de pés cúbicos bcm .... bilhão de metros cúbicos mbd .... mil barris por dia mmb ... milhão de barris mmbd .. milhão de barris por dia tcf ....... trilhão de pés cúbicos xvii xviii INTRODUÇÃO O fim da Guerra Fria representou um fenômeno singular na história das relações internacionais.
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