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The Development and Nutritional Characteristics of an Omega-3-Enhanced Egg Product Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports 2009 The development and nutritional characteristics of an omega-3-enhanced egg product Nissan Michelle Kassis West Virginia University Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Recommended Citation Kassis, Nissan Michelle, "The development and nutritional characteristics of an omega-3-enhanced egg product" (2009). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 2798. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/2798 This Thesis is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Thesis in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Thesis has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Development and Nutritional Characteristics of an Omega-3-Enhanced Egg Product Nissan Michelle Kassis Thesis submitted to the Davis College of Agriculture, Forestry, and Consumer Sciences At West Virginia University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Human Nutrition and Food Jacek Jaczynski, Ph.D., Chair Kristen Matak, Ph.D. Janet Tou, Ph.D. Division of Human Nutrition and Foods Morgantown, West Virginia 2009 Key words: omega-3 fatty acids, egg products, functional food products, egg sensory characteristics, egg nutritional composition, flaxseed oil, fish oil, algae oil, krill oil Abstract The Development and Nutritional Characteristics of an Omega-3-Enhanced Egg Product Nissan Michelle Kassis Novel, nutritionally-enhanced egg product was developed by substituting saturated fat and cholesterol-containing yolk with omega-3 fatty acids-rich (ω-3 FA) flaxseed, menhaden, algae, and krill oils. The ω-3 FA-fortified eggs are typically developed through alteration of hen feed. However, the present study aimed at creating such a product via processing. Experimental batters were developed to match composition, color, and texture of hen eggs (whole egg). The batters, whole egg, and liquid egg product (egg beaters) were cooked, analyzed, and compared. Moisture, protein, and fat content of experimental eggs matched (P>0.05) whole egg. Nutritionally, amino acid profile (AAP) analysis showed no significant differences in the ratio of essential amino acids to total amino acids (EAA/AA) when experimental eggs were compared to whole egg and egg beaters. Mineral profile (MP) analysis revealed that whole egg contained higher levels of Ca, P, and Fe than the experimental eggs, but Mg values were higher in experimental eggs (than whole egg) and comparable to egg beaters. Cholesterol content of the experimental eggs was significantly lower than that of whole egg (P<0.05). Fatty acid profile (FAP) analysis showed significantly higher percentages of n-3 PUFAs in the experimental eggs as compared to whole egg and a much lower n-6/n-3 ratio in the experimental eggs than in whole egg (P<0.05). TBARS analysis showed that the rate of lipid oxidation of the experimental eggs (excluding krill eggs) was statistically less than or equal to that of whole egg, with the exception of krill eggs, despite the presence of omega-3 PUFAs. Color was analyzed using L*a*b* tristimulus color values, where L* represents the lightness, a* represents greenness or redness and b* represents blueness or yellowness of a sample. The L* for experimental eggs was generally similar to whole egg except when krill oil was added. Experimental eggs had higher (P<0.05) a* and b* than whole egg and egg beaters, indicating more redness and yellowness, respectively. Texture profile analysis (TPA) values (hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess, chewiness, and resilience) revealed that experimental eggs had similar (P>0.05) and greater (P<0.05) textural properties when compared to whole egg and egg beaters, respectively. Fundamental torsion test confirmed that experimental eggs and whole egg had generally similar texture, but were firmer (P<0.05) than egg beaters. Kramer shear test indicated a (P>0.05) slightly firmer texture for experimental eggs than egg beaters. Acknowledgements This project was funded by the WVU Research Corporation PSCoR Program and the USDA HATCH funds. I would like to thank the faculty and staff in the Animal and Nutritional Sciences Department at West Virginia University for this opportunity, for their assistance, and for their continuous support. I would also like to thank my major advisor, Jacek Jaczynski, Ph.D. and my other committee members, Kristen Matak, PhD., and Janet Tou, Ph.D., for their availability and guidance. In addition, I would specifically like to thank Sarah Beamer for her selflessness, patience, and countless hours of help in the lab. I could not have done this without her. Also, a special thanks to Curran Gehring, who while working on his own thesis, took the time to assist with my statistical analysis. I would also like to recognize Joey Gigliotti, Ph.D. and Matt Davenport, Ph.D. for helping out with the methodology of the this project and being available to answer questions and address problems. I would like to extend thanks to Jacek Jaczynski, Ph.D., my major advisor and project chair, who, without his continuous support and encouragement, would have made completing this project difficult. He always managed to be there to answer my questions and provide the feedback that I needed to keep me motivated and focused. Finally, I want to thank my family and co-interns for their personal support, throughout this process. They were always there to listen and offer words of encouragement and praise. iii Table of Contents Abstract………………………………………………………………………ii Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………..iii Table of Contents…………………………………………………………….iv List of Figures………………………………………………………………..v List of Tables………………………………………………………………...vii Chapter I……………………………………………………………………..1 Overview…..………………………………………………………….1 References…………………………………………………………….4 Chapter II…………………………………………………………………….5 Abstract………………………………………………………………..6 Introduction……………………………………………………………8 Materials and Methods………………………………………………...12 Results and Discussion………………………………………………...21 Conclusion……………………………………………………………..32 References……………………………………………………………...33 Figures and Tables……………………………………………………..37 iv List of Figures Chapter II Figure 1. Total essential amino acids (TEAA) content* of cooked whole egg and egg beaters was compared to cooked experimental eggs developed with addition of flaxseed, menhaden, algae (DHAS and DHASCO), and krill oils. * Data are given as mean values ± standard deviation (n = 3). Different letters on the top of data bars indicate significant differences (Fisher’s Least Significant Difference, P<0.05) between mean values………………………45 Figure 2. Total non-essential amino acids (TNonEAA) content* of cooked whole egg and egg beaters was compared to cooked experimental eggs developed with addition of flaxseed, menhaden, algae (DHAS and DHASCO), and krill oils. * Data are given as mean values ± standard deviation (n = 3). Different letters on the top of data bars indicate significant differences (Fisher’s Least Significant Difference, P<0.05) between mean values………….46 Figure 3. Mineral (Ca, Mg, P, Fe) content* of cooked whole egg and egg beaters was compared to cooked experimental eggs developed with addition of flaxseed, menhaden, algae (DHAS and DHASCO), and krill oils. * Data are given as mean values ± standard deviation (n = 3). Different letters on the top of data bars indicate significant differences (Fisher’s Least Significant Difference, P<0.05) between mean values……………………………………………………47 Figure 4. Cholesterol content* of cooked whole egg was compared to cooked experimental eggs developed with addition of flaxseed, menhaden, algae (DHAS and DHASCO), and krill oils. * Data are given as mean values ± standard deviation (n = 3). Different letters on the top of data bars indicate significant differences (Fisher’s Least Significant Difference, P<0.05) between mean values…………………………………………………………………………………...48 Figure 5. Percentage of specific fatty acid within total fatty acids of cooked whole egg was compared to cooked experimental eggs developed with the addition of flaxseed, menhaden, algae (DHAS and DHASCO), and krill oils. *Data are given as mean values ± standard deviation (n=3). Different letters indicate significant differences (Fisher’s Least Significant Difference, P<0.05) between mean values………………………………………………………………...49 Figure 6. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances test (TBARS) measured lipid oxidation capacity of cooked whole egg compared to cooked experimental eggs developed with the addition of flaxseed, menhaden, algae (DHAS and DHASCO), and krill oils. Color absorbance was read at 532nm and TBARS values were reported as mg malondialdehyde (MDA) per kilogram of sample. *Data are given as mean values ± standard deviation (n=3). Different letters indicate significant differences (Fisher’s Least Significant Difference, P<0.05) between mean values…………………………………………………………………………………………50 v Figure 7. Kramer shear force* of cooked gels. Kramer force of cooked whole egg and egg beaters
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