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ABSTRACT DEVRIES, ZACHARY CURRAN. Behavior, Health Risks ABSTRACT DEVRIES, ZACHARY CURRAN. Behavior, Health Risks, and Management of Urban Pests (Under the direction of Dr. Coby Schal). Urban and structural pests cause considerable harm and damage to humans and human structures. Therefore, it is critical that we understand their biology, behavior, health risks, and management. In the following studies, I investigated bed bug (Cimex lectularius) evolution, the behavioral responses of bed bugs to heat, and environmental risks associated with bed bugs and cockroaches. Cimex lectularius was recently found to have two genetically and morphologically distinct host-associated lineages: one associated with humans (HA) and one associated with bats (BA). However, the mechanisms responsible for maintaining genetic separation between lineages remain unclear. In the first study, aggregation behavior was evaluated among host associated lineages of bed bugs (HA, BA) and bat bugs (Cimex pipistrelli). Using shelter-choice assays, we found no evidence for aggregation fidelity, with lineages and species aggregating indiscriminately. Thus, we conclude that aggregation fidelity is not a viable mechanism for maintaining genetic differentiation among host-associated populations. In the second study, reproductive compatibility was evaluated with mating crosses among 6 populations of bed bugs representing different host-associations (HA, BA) and geographic locations (U.S.A., Europe). Results indicated that HA bed bugs had higher fecundity that BA bed bugs, but all inter-lineage crosses produced viable offspring, even between HA and BA bed bugs. We conclude that reproductive barriers are unlikely to prevent gene flow, and thus other mechanisms (behavior, physiology, ecology) likely maintain host-associated differentiation. Bed bugs are hematophagous pests, feeding only on blood. Hosts are located by the cues they emit, including CO2, body odors, and heat. Of these cues, heat is not well understood. In the third study, the effects of heat on bed bug activation, orientation, and feeding behavior were evaluated. Bed bugs oriented towards targets above ambient temperature, although positive thermotaxis was limited to short distances (< 3 cm). Furthermore, feeding was found to increase with blood temperature and this response was found to be relative to the ambient temperature. Taken together, these results indicate that heat is important in host location and feeding, but only over short distances. Urban pests are often best known for the harm they cause and health risks they pose. Bed bugs and cockroaches are two of the most common and problematic indoor pests, each with their own challenges in regards to management and human health. In the fourth study, we evaluated bed bug infested homes for the presence and persistence of histamine. We found that histamine was present at significantly higher levels in bed bug infested homes than in un-infested homes. Furthermore, histamine persisted for three months after bed bugs were eradicated, suggesting it is highly stable in the indoor environment. These findings are the first to report histamine as an indoor environmental contaminant, and suggest bed bugs may pose a major health risk to humans. In the fifth study, we evaluated the efficacy and health risks associated with total release foggers (TRFs) and compared results to a low-risk management strategy (gel baits). Total Release Foggers were found to be completely ineffective at controlling cockroaches in homes, while simultaneously producing large amounts of pesticide (pyrethroid) residues around the discharge site. Conversely, gel baits were found to be effective at reducing cockroach populations while only depositing small amounts of pesticides in targeted locations. The ineffectiveness of TRFs at reducing cockroach populations, their similar monetary cost compared to highly effective bait products, and the pesticide exposure risks associated with TRFs, call into question their utility in the marketplace © Copyright 2017 Zachary Curran DeVries All Rights Reserved Behavior, Health Risks, and Management of Urban Pests by Zachary Curran DeVries A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of North Carolina State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Entomology Raleigh, North Carolina 2017 APPROVED BY: _______________________________ _______________________________ Coby Schal Michael Reiskind Committee Chair _______________________________ _______________________________ Wes Watson Jay Levine DEDICATION To my wife, Maryann DeVries, for her love, support, and constant encouragement. ii BIOGRAPHY Zachary Curran DeVries was born in Columbus, Ohio, but moved to Auburn, Alabama before his first birthday. He grew up in Auburn, and later attended Auburn University where he earned both his B.S. in Zoology and his M.S. in Entomology, before moving to Raleigh, NC, to attend North Carolina State University in pursuit of his Ph.D. in Entomology. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank and acknowledge my advisor Dr. Coby Schal for his guidance, wisdom, and advice. Additionally, I would like to thank my committee members, Drs. Jay Levine, Michael Reiskind, and Wes Watson, for their support during my doctoral degree. I would also like to thank members of the Schal lab, particularly Rick Santangelo, Russell Mick, and Angela Sierras for their support over the years. I would also like to acknowledge financial support from the Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology at NCSU, the North Carolina Entomological Society, the Foundation for Toxicology and Agromedicine, The Entomological Society of America, Pi Chi Omega, and the W.M. Keck Center for Behavior Biology. Finally, I would like to thank my friends and family for their support. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... ix CHPATER 1. Introduction..................................................................................................1 Urban Pests ..............................................................................................................2 Evolution and Speciation .........................................................................................4 Arthropod Mediated Indoor Contamination ............................................................7 References ................................................................................................................9 CHAPTER 2. Aggregation behavior and reproductive compatibility in the family Cimicidae .....................................................................................................................21 Abstract ..................................................................................................................22 Introduction ............................................................................................................23 Materials and Methods ...........................................................................................25 Result .....................................................................................................................29 Discussion ..............................................................................................................32 References ..............................................................................................................38 CHAPTER 3. Reproductive compatibility among populations and host-associated lineages of the common bed bug, Cimex lectularius ...................................................51 Abstract ..................................................................................................................52 Introduction ............................................................................................................53 Materials and Methods ...........................................................................................55 v Result .....................................................................................................................57 Discussion ..............................................................................................................58 References ..............................................................................................................63 CHAPTER 4. Feel the heat: Activation, orientation, and feeding responses of bed bugs to targets at different temperatures ...............................................................72 Abstract ..................................................................................................................73 Introduction ............................................................................................................74 Materials and Methods ...........................................................................................76 Result .....................................................................................................................81 Discussion ..............................................................................................................84 References ..............................................................................................................91 CHAPTER 5. Histamine accumulation and persistence in bed bug infested homes ......104 Abstract ................................................................................................................105
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