6 X 10.Long New.P65

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-00319-4 - The Rule of Law in Afghanistan: Missing in Inaction Edited by Whit Mason Index More information

INDEX

Abdullah, Abdullah, 76–7, 193, 194 constitutional monarchy (1964), Abdulmecid¨ (Ottoman sultan), 87 232 democratic and parliamentary abrogation clauses, 279 processes in, 53 Acton, Lord, 78 imperialism without colonialism, ADZs (Afghan development zones), 326 259 Safi/Kunar rebellion (1945), 85–7 Aesop, 22 Soviet invasion (1979) and Afghan development zones (ADZs), occupation, 68, 88, 179, 240, 259 243, 253, 310 Afghan Independent Human Rights as international legal personality, 69 Commission (AIHRC), 182, justice systems in. See justice system 183, 185, 186, 251, 293 Kandahar province. See Kandahar Afghan National Army (ANA) land conflict in. See land conflict building up, 244–6 opium trade in. See opium trade international community, military organised crime in. See organised focus of, 326 crime sustainability of, 92 political and legal culture of. See Afghan national civil order police political and legal culture of (ANCOP), 263 Afghanistan Afghan national development strategy reform initiatives in. See programme, 189, 207 civil-military reform initiatives Afghan, Shafiullah, viii, 2, 308, 323 as rentier state, 253 Afghan Threat Finance Cell, 101 rule of law and. See rule of law ‘Afghanisation’, myth of, 250–3 AIHRC (Afghan Independent Human Afghanistan Rights Commission), 182, 183, corruption and impunity in. See 185, 186, 251, 293 corruption and impunity Akhtar, Haji Hafiz, 114 criminal law code. See criminal law Akhundzada, Mirza Aziz Khan, 86, in Afghanistan 126, 132 elections in. See elections Akhundzada, Sher Mohammed, 126, historical background of 132, 137, 252 as buffer state between Russia and al-Qaeda Great Britain, 85, 235 in Afghanistan, 90, 323 communist coup (1978), 68, 88, in Iraq (AQI), 40–1, 105 179, 243, 253 organised crime funding, 105

330

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index 331

Amanullah (amir of Afghanistan), 231, Badie, Bertrand, 231 236, 237, 243 Bahrami, Jamil, 110 AML (against money-laundering) law, Balkanization of efforts at 285–6 reconstruction and amnesty law (2007), 181, 184–6, 251, development, 71, 91–2, 308 323–8 ANA. See Afghan National Army Baradar, Mullah Adbul Ghani, 101, Anan, Kofi, 84 106, 107 ANCOP (Afghan national civil order baramta/machalga, 155, 161 police), 263 Barfield, T., 163 anti-corruption institutions, 188–92, Barno, General, 259 198–9, 283–4 Bashardost, Ramazan, 177 apartheid in South Africa, 20 Bassiouni, Cherif, 244 apostasy/blasphemy cases, 193, 244, Belgian Congo, 228 272 Berry, Glyn, 308 application of rule of law, 28 blasphemy/apostasy cases, 193, 244, arbakai, 154, 157 272 arbitrary power, rule of law as Bonn Conference and Agreement, constraint on, 26, 61, 73, 78 54 architecture, law viewed as, 23–4 compartmentalisation of Aristotle, 26, 61 responsibilities by, 172 Asia Foundation, 70, 76 formal justice system requirements, Asia-Pacific Civil-Military Centre of 152 Excellence, xv as foundation for reconstitution of al-Assad, Hafez, 43 political authority in Ataturk, Kemal and Kemalists, 231, Afghanistan, 69 233–4, 236, 237 international community failures at, Atkin, Lord, 64 53–6 Atmar, Hanif, 256 London conference (2010) Attorney-General’s office referencing, 250 constitution on, 270, 283 parliamentary provisions in, 242 foreign-drafted laws conflicting with Bosnia, 54, 90, 105, 182 role of, 280, 283 Bosnia and Herzegovina, 183 as institution, 152 bottom-up state formation, 35–49 police law of September 2005 and, competitive control, theory of, 287 39–41 under Taliban, 269 efficacy compared to top-down Australia processes, 43–4 legal medical opium cultivation and, functioning government at local 131 level, importance of Uruzgan civil-military reform establishing initiative, 259 Herodotus on Deiokes the Mede as AWK (Ahmed Wali Karzai, brother of example of, 35, 38, 41, 43, 45, Hamid), 56, 126, 302, 308 47 Azimi, Chief Justice, 189 insurgency/counter-insurgency theory and, 36–9 bad (exchanging women as interdisciplinary approach, compensation for crimes), 154, importance of, 47 168 legitimacy, current crisis of, 46, 48

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bottom-up state formation (cont.) political legitimacy of Afghan state by Taliban compared to Afghan dependent on, 250 government, 44–7 PRTs, 9, 254–5, 258, 260–1, 262 Brahimi, Lakhdar, 4 PSS, 258–9 Brooks, Rosa, 29 surge, 246 buffer state, Afghanistan as, 85, 235 transitional justice, international Bulgaria under communism, 23 failure to promote, 251 Bull, Carolyn, 3, 11, 65 Uruzgan approach, 259–61 Burma, British colonialism in, 234 US integrated plan, 261–2, 305–7 Bush administration, 58, 64, 90, 133 vicious circle of armed opposition Butler, W. E., 63 groups, criminal networks, and official elements, 255–6 Cambodia, 54 civil service, failure to reform, 57 capital requirements for state-building civilian casualties, 173–4, 179, 183, process, 226, 230, 237, 240–2, 306 246 CLRWG (criminal law reform working Carothers, Thomas, 3, 10 group), 293–7 cash for drugs programmes, 132–3 coalition forces, US-led, 55, 58, 173–4, Catalysing the rule of law in 323 Afghanistan: Challenges and coercion in state-building process, 226, opportunities (symposium, 237 2009), xv collateral damage (civilian casualties), CCM. See Commission on Conflict 173–4, 179, 183, 306 Mediation Colombia, US drug policy in, 133 Centre of Interdisciplinary Studies of colonialism and state-building, 228, Law (CISL), University of New 325 South Wales, xv Commission on Conflict Mediation Chakari, Sediq, 190 (CCM), 150, 164–9 Chandler, David, 228 assessment of, 164 character of rule of law, 28 cases covered by, 168 Chayes, Sarah, 45, 46, 177 free of charge nature of, 166, 169 China, state-building in, 229, 325 Ministry of Justice, no formal link CISL (Centre of Interdisciplinary to, 168 Studies of Law), University of organic nature of, 167 New South Wales, xv procedural issues, 166–7 civil-military reform initiatives, 249–64 purpose and function of, 164 ADZs, 259 record-keeping issues, 168 ‘Afghanisation’, myth of, 250–3 settlements violating Afghani and DIAG, 55, 57, 251, 256–7 international laws, 168 dualistic approach of, 253 staffing, importance of, 165–6 five pillars of, 252 sustainability of, 169 insurgency/counter-insurgency women’s access to, 169 stifling, 258 common land, shared rights of use of, justice system, 252 207, 220 London conference (2010) communism, Soviet Union under, 19, proposals, 249–50 62, 63 Marjah counter-insurgency strategy, communist Bulgaria, 23 263–4 communist period in Afghanistan

index 333

communist coup (1978), 68, 88, 179, anti-corruption institutions, 188–92, 243, 253 198–9, 283–4 Kandahar under Oloomi, 305 CCM staff, perceived impartiality Soviet invasion and occupation, 68, and neutrality of, 165–6 88, 179, 240, 243, 253, 310 culture of impunity, problem of, competitive control, theory of, 39–41 179–82 compliance with law, incentive for, financial corruption and grand 323–8 bribery, 74 consequentialist defences of rule of law, in formal justice system, 70, 142–3, 64 149, 159, 173, 307 consolidation of power, problem of, 73 general amnesty law (2007), 181, constitution, Afghani (2004) 184–6, 251, 308 amnesty law as violation of, 184 GIAAC, 283–4, 288 article 130, case law involving, 193–7 importance of defeating, 322 on Attorney-General’s office, 270, increasing rates of, 174–5, 200 283 international military forces, consolidation of power under, 73 impunity of, 72, 183, 303–4 criminal justice framework in, judicial independence and 269–72 transparency issues, 192–7, foreign-drafted laws not consistent 200 with, 279, 283 in Kandahar, 312 IEC established by, 75 land conflict and, 205 international human rights laws and legal codes, confusion in, principles enshrined in, 243 267 Islamic Republic, establishing, 243, long-term sustainable development 270 and capacity-building, need for, on land ownership, 206 197–9, 200 parliamentary provisions in, 242 in opium crop eradication presidential power to make law by programme, 314 decree, 272, 286, 290 opium traffickers, state agents as, 7, presidential term limits, flouting of, 124–6, 140 71, 90, 324 organised crime, corruption fuelled right to interpret, 270 by, 101, 118–19 terrorism draft law in conflict with, ‘peace before justice’ argument 292 contributing to, 180–2 constraint on arbitrary power, rule of of police, 141–2, 263 law as, 26, 61, 73, 78 police reform, recruitment of construction projects, Taliban corrupt officers in, 92 extortion of, 118–19 political legitimacy contingent on contextual nature of rule of law, 24–5 defeat of, 201 contextual universalism, 32 presidential election of 2009, fraud control versus ownership in exogenous in, 76–7, 172, 175, 178, 191–2 state-building, 238–40 rentier state, Afghanistan as, 253 coordination problems in Afghanistani security, lack of, 173–4 justice system, 71, 91–2, 323–8 short-term technical assistance not corruption and impunity, 6, 172–201 able to reduce, 192, 197 alternative livelihoods (to opium), of state officials and ministers, barriers to, 141–2 188–92, 200

334 index

corruption and impunity (cont.) CLRWG, 293–7 symbiosis of corruption, narcotics code of 1974 (revised 1965 code), trafficking, and insecurity, 269, 276–7, 284–5 176–8 commentary period, need for, 273 systemic problem as perceived by comprehensive overhaul, need for, donors, 249 274 Taliban efforts to curb, 46, 100, conflicting, confusing, and 105–13, 178 overlapping provisions, 266–7, war crimes and crimes against 324 humanity, 179, 180, 182–7, constitution of 2004 on, 269–72 200 consultation and consensus of warlords and regional power mechanism, importance of, brokers. See warlords and 266, 275, 293–7 regional power brokers contextual study prior to drafting, Costa, Antonio Maria, 175, 177 failure to undertake, 273 counter-insurgency. See corruption, opportunity for, 267 insurgency/counter-insurgency counter-narcotics law, 288–90 counter-narcotics strategies, 130–41 CPC (criminal procedure code), alternative livelihoods and crops, CLRWG 2007–2008 draft of, facilitating, 141–3 293–5 cash for drugs programmes, definitions of novel language, need 132–3 for, 281, 284 compliance incentives, failure to financial crime laws, 282–6 understand, 323 foreign drafting, problem of, 266, criteria for success of, 130 272–5 crop eradication, 306, 314 historical background, 268–72 December 2005, counter-narcotics ICPC, 275–82 law of, 288–90 land laws. See land conflict interdiction campaign aimed at linguistic issues, 296 traffickers and processors, nullum crimen sine lege, principle of, 135–8 271 legal cultivation for medical use, police law (September 2005), supporting, 131–2 286–8 ‘masterful inactivity’, 138–41 political legitimacy of, 274, 278 state culture of impunity, reformation of Afghan government challenging, 140 after 2002, 269 UK responsibility for, 172 sub silentio amendments, 288 CPC (criminal procedure code), under Taliban, 269 CLRWG 2007–2008 draft of, terrorism draft law of 2004–2008, 293–5 290–2 crime, organised. See organised crime training and release plans, failure to crimes against humanity, 179, 180, institute, 278, 284 182–7, 200 criminal law reform working group Criminal Justice Task Force, 138 (CLRWG), 293–7 criminal law in Afghanistan, 9, 266–97 Crosbie, William, 182 abrogation clauses, 279 culture and rule of law, 29–31. See also alien concepts and international political and legal culture of standards, introducing, 273 Afghanistan

index 335

customary law in Afghanistan. See constitutional requirements, under justice system flouting of, 71 foreigners, Karzai’s blaming of 2009 Dadullah, Mansoor, 110 election fraud on, 178 Dadullah, Mullah, 110 fraud in 2009 presidential election, Daud, Mohammed, 125, 240, 242, 243 76–7, 172, 175, 178, 191–2 Daud, Sardar Mohammed, 88 IEC, 59, 75–7, 175 de Soto, Hernando, 65 international community failures Deiokes the Mede, Herodotus on, 35, regarding, 58–60 38, 41, 43, 45, 47 in Kandahar, 311, 313 democracies, illiberal, 16 limits of international leverage, 2009 democratisation versus dependence in election as lesson in, 136–7 exogenous state-building, peace, justice, and security, role in 242–3 establishing, 93 dependence in exogenous political and legal culture of state-building Afghanistan and 2009 election, democratisation versus, 242–3 75–8 sustainability versus, 240–2 SNTV, 58, 59 Deschamps, Colin, viii, 8, 205, 323 war crimes and atrocities, despotic governments versus post-2004/2005 election monarchies, 16 pressure to prosecute, 180 development efforts. See electoral complaints commission reconstruction and (ECC), 75, 77, 172, 191 development emergency loya jirga (ELJ), 56 DIAG (disbandment of illegal armed endogenous state-building. See under groups), 55, 57, 251, 256–7 state-building Dicey, A.V., 62 Enduring Freedom Coalition, 55, 58, Dilawar, 72 173–4, 323 disbandment of illegal armed groups Enver Pasha, 233 (DIAG), 55, 57, 251, 256–7 eradication of poppy crops, 306, 314 Dostam, Abdul Rashid, 66 European Union Election Observer drugs Mission, 77 efforts to counter trade in. See exogenous state-building. See under counter-narcotics strategies state-building hashish, Afghanistan as leading explosives, supply chain for, 115 producer of, 176 extortion activities of Taliban, 115–19. opium. See opium trade See also organised crime dual legitimacy, concept of, 227 dual states, 20 ‘facile optimism’, problem of, 304–7, 320 East Timor, 54, 90 Fahim, Mohammed Qasim, 55, 138, ECC (electoral complaints 191, 323 commission), 75, 77, 172, 191 failed states, 17, 229 effectiveness versus legitimacy in Fall, Bernard, 36, 38, 39, 45, 47 exogenous state-building, farmers, Taliban extortion of, 115 243–4 Felbab-Brown, Vanda, 140 Egypt, taziri laws in, 268 financial corruption in Afghanistan, 74 elections, 8 financial criminal laws, 282–6

336 index

financial support provided to Taliban Hanafi school of Shari’a law, 67, 68, by organised crime, 99–101 152, 193, 194, 206 foreign state-building. See Haqqani network, 100 state-building Hart, H.L.A., 66 formal justice sector in Afghanistan. Hartmann, Michael E., viii, 2, 6, 9, 172, See under justice system 266, 322, 324 ‘forum-shopping’, 150, 156, 162 hashish, Afghanistan as leading Fraenkel, Ernst, 20 producer of, 176 Fuller, Lon, 22, 23 Hayek, F.A., 62 Fuller, Thomas, 78 ‘hearts and minds’ campaigns in counter-insurgency theory, 38 Galula, David, 37, 47 Nazi Germany’s attempts at, 42 Gehlen, Reinhard, 42 by Taliban, 111–12 general amnesty law (2007), 181, Heinrich, Sargon, 118 184–6, 251, 308 Herodotus of Halicarnassus on Deiokes general independent Afghanistan the Mede, 35, 38, 41, 43, 45, anti-corruption commission 47 (GIAAC), 283–4, 288 Hezbollah, 40–1 Germany hic Rhodus, hic salta, 22 Nazi rule in, 20, 42, 47, 62, 63 Hizb-i-Islami Gulbuddin, 100 police reform, responsibility for, 71, HJK (Haji Juma Khan), 113–14 92, 172 Hobbes, Thomas, 17 state-building process in, 227 Holbrook, Richard, 307 Ghalib, Assadulah, 181 Holmes, Stephen, 22 Ghani, Abdul, 112 human rights Ghani, Ashraf, 67, 108, 140 gross violations, impunity of, 179, GIAAC (general independent 180, 182–7, 200 Afghanistan anti-corruption laws in conflict with international commission), 283–4, 288 standards on, 168, 193, 243, Giustozzi, Antonio, 125 270, 292 Glatzer, Bernt, 263 Human Rights Watch, 183, 186 globalised world, sovereignty as human security. See peace, justice and problematic concept in, 75 security goal displacement, 26 humanity, crimes against, 179, 180, Gogol, 17 182–7, 200 Goodhand, Jonathan, 125 Hume, David, 61 governance rather than government in huqooq offices, 153 Afghanistan, 68 Hussein, Saddam, 43 government. See state grand bribery, 74 Ibn Qutayba, 244 greed and grievance, relationship ICC (International Criminal Court), between, 103–5, 120 Afghani ratification of Rome Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, 57 Statute of, 185 ICOS (International Council on Habermas, Juergen, 20 Security and Development; Hafvenstein, Joel, viii, 7, 123, 320, 325, formerly Senlis Council), 131–2 326 ICPC (interim criminal procedure Haji Fada Mohammed, 112 code), 275–82

index 337

ideological justification of organised Marjah counter-insurgency strategy, crime, 99 263–4 IEC (Independent Electoral reform initiatives aimed at. See Commission), 59, 75–7, 175 civil-military reform initiatives Imperial Rescript of the Rose Chamber standard theories of, 36–9 (1829), 232 state, counter-insurgency mirroring imperialism without colonialism in character of, 42–3 Afghanistan, 326 stifling of reform efforts by, 258 impunity. See corruption and impunity US integrated civil-military INCB (International Narcotics Control campaign plan, 261–2 Board), 131 vicious circle of armed opposition independence and transparency issues groups, criminal networks and in justice system, 63–4, 192–7, official elements, 255–6 200 interaction versus production Independent Electoral Commission technologies, 22 (IEC), 59, 75–7, 175 interdisciplinary approach, importance India of, 2, 10–11, 47 Afghanistan and India, relationship interim criminal procedure code between, 57 (ICPC), 275–82 legal medical opium cultivation in, Interior, Ministry of 131 Attorney-General’s office and, 287 informal justice sector in Afghanistan. CLRWG and, 293 See under justice system international agreements, Afghanistan informants, Taliban use of, 117 as signatory to, 168, 193, 243, Information and Legal Assistance 270, 280, 292, 295 Centres of the NRC, 164 international community failures in insecurity. See also peace, justice and Afghanistan, 5, 53–60 security Bonn Conference and Agreement, as rising problem in Afghanistan, 53–6 173–4 corruption and impunity, failure to symbiosis with corruption and check. See corruption and narcotics trafficking, 176–8 impunity insurgency/counter-insurgency. See elections, 58–60 also Taliban government structures, failure to competitive control, theory of, ensure, 57 39–41 interim authority, failure to instate, control versus ownership in 54 state-building process and, justice system, 57, 150 239 Karzai and, 56–9 defined, 41 legitimacy of legal system, grievance and greed, relationship difficulties establishing, 69–72 between, 103–5, 120 military deployment/disarmament, increasing risks from (2005–2009), 55–6, 57 301 Northern Alliance and, 53, 54, 56 interaction of rule of law and, 4 opium trade, 58 international military forces’ Pakistan and India, 57 continuing responsibility for, peace, justice and security, failure to 245 ensure, 84, 90–1

338 index

international community (cont.) Ioffe, Olimpiad S., 63 reconstruction and development, 57 Iranian involvement in opium trade, transitional justice, failure to 115 promote, 251 Iraq UN role, 54 AQI, 40–1, 105 Zahir Shah, marginalisation of, 54, bottom-up state formation in, 44 56 counter-insurgency mirroring state International Council on Security and in, 43 Development or ICOS Jaysh al-Mahdi, and Muqtada (formerly Senlis Council), al-Sadr’s Shi’a, 40–1 131–2 Kurdish massacre at Halabja (1989), International Criminal Court (ICC), 43 Afghani ratiﬁcation of Rome Muqtada al-Sadr’s Shi’a movement Statute of, 185 in, 40 international legal personality, organised crime in, 105 Afghanistan as, 69 US shift in focus to, 254 international military forces ISAF. See International Security civilian casualties of, 173–4, 179, Assistance Force 183, 306 Isaqzai tribe, 309 continuing responsibility for Islam ﬁghting insurgents, 245 constitution of 2004 establishing control versus ownership in Afghanistan as Islamic state-building process and, 239 Republic, 243, 270 failures in deployment of, 55–6, 57 Shari’a. See Shari’a law impunity of, 72, 183, 303–4 state-building and, 235–6, 243–4 ISAF. See International Security Italy Assistance Force justice system reform, responsibility justice in Kandahar, 303–4 for, 71, 172, 252, 275–6 reform initiatives. See civil-military state-building process in, 227 reform initiatives short-term commitment of, 91 Jackson, Mr. Justice, 64 surge, 246 Jamal, Arsala, 164 US coalition forces, 55, 58, 173–4, Jan, Mirza Mohammed, 86 323 Japan US troop drawdown, 320 DIAG, funding support for, 257 International Narcotics Control Board Meiji Restoration, 229–31, 237, (INCB), 131 325 International Security Assistance Force state-building process in, 227 (ISAF) Jaysh al-Mahdi, 40, 105 civil-military reform initiatives, 254, jirgas, 70, 154–7, 161–2, 163, 210 255, 257, 259, 260, 261, 262, judicial police in ICPC, 280 263 justice, desire/need for. See peace, civilian casualties caused by, 173–4 justice and security DIAG, 55, 57, 251, 256–7 Justice, Ministry of. See Ministry of international community failures Justice and, 55, 58 justice system, 149–69 political and legal culture, dealing blasphemy/apostasy cases and article with, 73 130 of constitution, 193–7

index 339

CCM. See Commission on Conflict machalga/baramta, 155, 161 Mediation narkh, 154, 155 constitutional provisions for, 270 need to consider use of, 150–1 coordination problems in, 71, 91–2, pashtunwali, 153–7, 253 323–8 perceptions of, 160–2, 173 formal justice sector, 152–3 in political and legal culture of ambiguity, delay and corruption Afghanistan, 68 in, 70, 142–3, 149, 159, 173, Shari’a law, influence of, 152, 307, 324 155 Bonn Agreement requirements, shuras, 70, 131, 132, 156–7, 210, 152 302 capacity issues, 159 Taliban’s treatment of, 150 community reconciliation not tribal justice. See tribal justice addressed by, 158–9 tukhum, 156 huqooq offices, 153 US support for, 172, 177 informal courts, appeals from, wak, 155 156 international community failures institutions of, 152 regarding, 57, 150 in Kandahar, 303, 304, 310–14 of international military forces, land conflicts, 161, 210, 216 303–4 linking to informal sector, 162–4, Italian responsibility for reform of, 302 71, 172, 252, 275–6 Ministry of Justice, 152 linking formal and informal justice perceptions of, 158–60, 173, 303, sectors, 162–4, 302 304 multiple systems operating in Shari’a law, influence of, 152 Afghanistani, 149, 151 ‘forum-shopping’, 150, 156, 162 perceptions of, 157–62 independence and transparency reform initiatives, slow process of, issues, 63–4, 192–7, 200 252 informal justice sector (customary Shari’a law. See Shari’a law law or rawaj), 153–7 special courts, law on, 197 appeals in, 156 Taliban arbakai, 154, 157 informal justice sector, treatment bad (exchanging women as of, 150 compensation for crimes), 154 in Kandahar province, 178, 302, community rights and 314–15 reconciliation favoured over predictability, consistency and individual rights in, 154 effectiveness of, 307, 314 effectiveness of, 149 Shari’a court system of, 106, 108, formal sector, appeals to, 156 142, 150, 152, 163 importance of, 69–70 war crimes and crimes against jirgas, 70, 154–7, 161–2, 163, humanity, need to prosecute, 210 179, 180, 182–7, 200 kabargen, 155 women and in Kandahar, 302 access to justice, 160, 169 land conflicts, 162, 209–10, 217 bad (exchanging women as linking to formal sector, 162–4, compensation for crimes), 154, 302 168

340 index

justice, transitional. See transitional international community failures justice regarding, 56–9 Juvenal, 78 leadership requirements of state-building process and, 238 kabargen, 155 legitimisation of government, time Kahn, Amanullah, 88 and money spent on, 91 Kalyvas, Stathis, 38–9, 40, 44, 47 local powerholders, need to deal Kambaksh, Sayed Pervez, 195–6, 272 with, 73 Kandahar, 9–10, 301, 308–15 opium traffickers, treatment of, 138 2005 versus 2009, 9–10, 301–2 opium trafficking by state actors corruption in, 312 under, 124–6 elections in, 311, 313 organised criminal activities of importance of, 9, 10 Taliban, increasing popularity Isaqzai tribe in, 309 of, 102 justice meted out by Taliban in, 178, personalistic politics of, 74, 253, 322 302, 314–15 in presidential elections of 2004 and Karzai, Ahmed Wali (brother of 2009. See elections Hamid), 56 Taliban resurgence as political asset local power-holders, need of central for, 137 government to deal with, 73 Kemalists, 231, 233–4, 236, 237 multiple forms of justice in, 302–4 Khakrezwal, Akrem, 308 pattern of injustice and abuse in Khan, Abdul Rahman (the Iron Amir), under formal justice system, 303, 67, 85, 235–6, 237, 243 304, 310–14 Khan, Eitadullah, 109 means of redressing, 304–7 Khan, Haji Juma (HJK), and Khan in period following overthrow of Organisation, 113–14, 126 Taliban, 308–9, 310–14 Khan, Lal Mohammed, 86 police in, 307, 312–13 Khan, Mir Zaman, 86 political legitimacy of state in, 315 Khost, CCM in. See Commission on return of Taliban to, 310–15 Conflict Mediation Taliban in, 9, 10, 45, 178, 302, 308, kidnapping activities, organised. See 310–15 organised crime warlords and regional powerbrokers Kilcullen, David J., ix, 2, 35, 107, 178, in, 308–9 321, 322 withdrawal from, 305 Klonowiecka-Milart, Agnieszka, ix, 2, Kant, Immanuel, 321 9, 266, 324 Karzai, Ahmed Wali (brother of known knowns, known unknowns, Hamid), 56, 126, 302, 308 and unknown unknowns, 319 Karzai, Hamid Kosovo, 54, 105, 182–7, 327 AIHRC report, response to, 182 Krygier, Martin, ix, 2, 3, 4, 5, 15, 66, amnesty law, response to, 185 324, 325 blasphemy cases, pardons granted Kunar/Safi rebellion (1945), 85–7 in, 196 Kurkchiyan, Marina, 19 constitutional expiration of term of office, 71, 90, 324 land conflict, 8, 205–21 control versus ownership in challenges and opportunities state-building process and, 240 regarding, 213–21 GIAAC and, 284 characteristics of, 211

index 341

common property, shared rights of Laqueur, Walter, 42 use of, 207, 220 large businesses, Taliban extortion communitarian approach to, 217 from, 118–19 constitutional provisions, 206 law. See also justice system corruption and impunity, effects of, constitution (2004). See 205 constitution, Afghani flexibility of response, importance criminal. See criminal law in of, 216 Afghanistan in formal justice sector, 161, 210, land. See land conflict 216 political and legal culture. See in informal justice sector, 162, political and legal culture in 209–10, 217 Afghanistan legal framework for, 206–10 procedures for making, 272 local and village-level governance rule of. See rule of law institutions, involvement of, Shari’a. See Shari’a law 219–20 on special courts, 197 most appropriate type of conflict taziri laws, 268 resolution, indicators for, 213 Lawrence, Sir John, 138 national NGO involvement in, 220 layeha (Taliban code of conduct), 46, negotiated settlements, incentives 100, 105–13 for, 218 Layton, Robert, 74 official endorsement of leadership requirements in community-based agreements, state-building process, 226, 218 227–8, 237, 238 opium trade and, 205, 209 Ledwidge, Frank, 251 pilot cases, 212–13, 214 legitimacy, political. See political record-keeping issues, 208, 209 legitimacy security of land tenure, importance Lewis, Bernard, 232 of, 208–9 Lewis, Ioan, 44 selection of disputes for licensing farmers for medical adjudication, 221 cultivation of opium, 131–2 Shari’a law on, 206, 217 Liversidge v. Anderson, 64 special approaches for sensitive Lodin, Azizullah, 76, 77 cases, 217 London compact (2006), 172, 185 state London conference (2010), 185, 198, government stakeholders, 249–50, 320 involvement of, 219 land held by, 207 machalga/baramta, 155, 161 management of land by, 208 Mahathir, Dr., 63 policy on land, 207 Mahmud II (Ottoman sultan), 231 statutory law on, 206 MAIL (Ministry of Agriculture, timing of involvement in, 221 Irrigation, and Livestock), 143 types of land and land ownership, Malang, Abdul Jalil, 87 206, 207 Malaysia, 63 typology of, 211–12 Maley, William, ix, 2, 6, 61, 322, Waqf ownership of land, 207 324 zar, zamin and zan (gold, land and Mansfield, David, 124, 128, 141 women), 154, 205 Mao Zedong, 39

342 index

Marjah counter-insurgency strategy, Mugabe, Robert, 63 263–4 Mujda, Wahid, 106 Marmor, Andrei, 66 Mulk, Amanul, 86 Mason, Whit, x, 1, 319, 325 Muqtada al-Sadr’s Shi’a movement in ‘masterful inactivity’ as Iraq, 40 counter-narcotics strategy, Musharraf, Pervez, 57 138–41 Mushtaq, Mullah Qari, 196, 272 Matiullah, 261 Mutassim, Mullah Agha Jan, 107, 111, McChrystal, Stanley, 245, 250, 260, 263 117 medical cultivation of opium, 131–2 Meiji Restoration, Japan, 229–31, 237, Najibullah, Dr., 88 325 Naqib, Mullah, 302 Miakhel, Shahmahmood, x, 2, 84 narcotics Migdal, Joel, 37, 39, 41, 45, 46, 47 efforts to counter trade in. See Miliband, David, 320 counter-narcotics strategies military hashish, Afghanistan as leading ANA. See Afghan National Army producer of, 176 international. See international opium. See opium trade military forces narkh, 154, 155 reform initiatives. See civil-military Nasruddin, Mullah, 249 reform initiatives national development strategy Military Professional Resource Inc. programme, 189, 207 (MPRI), 92 national justice programme (NJP), 189 Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and nationalism in state-building, 235–6, Livestock (MAIL), 143 243–4 Ministry of Interior NATO forces. See International Attorney-General’s ofﬁce and, 287 Security Assistance Force CLRWG and, 293 Nazi Germany, 20, 42, 47, 62, 63 Ministry of Justice Netherlands CLRWG, praise for, 296 control versus ownership in as institution, 152 state-building process and, 238 Taqnin (drafting agency). See Taqnin Uruzgan civil-military reform Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and initiative, 259–61, 305 Development (MRRD), 143 Niazi, Mullah Abdul Manan, 111 mobile phone network and suppliers, NJP (national justice programme), Taliban extortion from, 116, 189 119 Noor, Ustad Atta Mohammed, 195 modernity of state and rule of law, 18 Noorzai, Haji Bashar, 113, 126 Mohammed, Taj, 183 North Korea, 75 monarchies versus despotic Northern Alliance governments, 16 atrocities committed during money-laundering, 285–6 US-backed offensive against Montesquieu, Baron de, 16, 74 Taliban by, 4 MPRI (Military Professional Resource international community failures Inc.), 92 regarding, 53, 54, 56 MRRD (Ministry of Rural Northern Ireland, British policy in Rehabilitation and Notezai clan, drug-smuggling Development), 143 organisation run by, 113

index 343

nullum crimen sine lege, 271 explosives, supply chain for, 115 Nuremberg trials, 64 extortion and protection money, 115–19 Obama administration, 91, 133, 181, field-based research methodology, 246, 251, 320 105 Oloomi, Noorolhaq, 305 financial flow, efforts to centralise, Omar, Mullah Mohammed, 106, 107, 107, 112 110, 111, 113, 126, 135, 260, 314 financial support provided by, opium trade, 6, 123–43 99–101 combatants, international military greed and grievance, relationship forces’ treatment of traffickers between, 103–5, 120 as, 183 ideological justification of, 99 counter-narcotics strategies. See informants, use of, 117 counter-narcotics strategies insecurity, civilian sense of, 174 as increasing problem, 176 international forces’ need to international community failures capitalise on public disapproval regarding, 58 of, 100, 103 land conflict and, 205, 209 popular support of Taliban affected as organised crime. See organised by, 100, 101–3, 112, 120 crime protection of civilians from, benefits price of opium, fluctuations in, of, 119–21 126–30, 134–5 reform initiatives affected by, 253 refineries and labs, 114–15 rivalries and collaborations sparked skilled labor required for, 128 by, 100, 108, 109, 120 state agents as traffickers, 7, 124–6, terrorist violence and threats, use of, 136, 140 99, 100, 112 supply chain, 115 typesofcrimeengagedin,99 symbiosis of corruption, narcotics vicious circle of armed opposition trafficking, and insecurity, groups, criminal networks and 176–8 official elements, 255–6 Taliban Ottoman empire’s transformation into importance of cooperation of, Turkish state, 229–31, 325 125–6 ownership versus control in exogenous importance of funding from trade state-building, 238–40 to, 139–40 introduction of trade to Pakistan Afghanistan by, 45 international community failures means of profit derived from regarding, 57 trade, 101 opium trade, involvement in, 113, poppy ban of 2000–01, 123, 127, 115 135, 314 Taliban operating out of, 310 value chain, moving up, 113–15 parliament organised crime, 6. See also opium Afghanistan, history of democratic trade and parliamentary processes in, corruption fuelled by, 101, 118–19 53 destabilising role of, 100 constitution, right to interpret, efforts aimed at reducing negative 270 effects of, 100, 105–13 constitutional provisions for, 242

344 index

parliament (cont.) police CPC (criminal procedure code), ANCOP, 263 CLRWG 2007–2008 draft of, constitution on, 270 294 control of, 323 elections. See elections coordination problems in preemption of legislative powers of, Afghanistani justice system, 71, 286, 290 92 Pascal, Blaise, 5 corruption of, 141–2, 263 pashtunwali, 153–7, 253 German responsibility for reform of, ‘peace before justice’ argument, 71, 92, 172 180–2 international community failures peace, justice and security, 8, 84–95 regarding, 57 abuses by those in power, 85–90 judicial police in ICPC, 280 Balkanisation of efforts at, 91–2 in Kandahar, 307, 312–13 competitive control, theory of, peace, justice and security, 39–41 importance to establishment of, desire of Afghanis for, 304–5 94–5 election reform, importance of, 93 September 2005, police law of, expenditure levels and objectives, 286–8 problem of, 90, 94 US paramilitary police training functioning government at local programme for, 261, 313 level, importance of political and legal culture of establishing Afghanistan, 6, 61–78 importance to rule of law, 2–5, constraint on arbitrary power, need 321–2 for, 61, 73, 78 insurgency/counter-insurgency different academic concepts of rule theory and, 38–9 of law and, 62–5 international community’s failure to elections of 2009 exemplifying ensure, 84, 90–1 problems of, 75–8 Karzai government, time and money legitimacy of state rule of law, spent on, 91 difﬁculties reestablishing, land tenure, importance of security 69–72 of, 208–9 since 2001, 72–5 organised crime, protection of sources of law, problem of civilians from, 119–21 discerning, 66–9 police reform and, 94–5 political legitimacy recommendations for establishing, bottom-up state formation and, 46, 92–5 48 short-term objectives versus corruption and impunity, long-term development, 90–1, contingent on defeat of, 201 93 of criminal law in Afghanistan, 274, substantial demand for, 70 278 penal code. See criminal law in difﬁculties of reestablishing, 69–72 Afghanistan dual legitimacy, concept of, 227 Perry, Commodore, 230 economic progress and, 65 personalistic politics, 73, 74 in exogenous state-building, 243–4, Peters, Gretchen, x, 6, 99, 124, 323 325–6 Plato, 74 in Kandahar, 315

index 345

Karzai government, time and money Balkanisation of efforts at, 71, 91–2, spent on, 91 323–8 reform initiatives, dependence on, construction projects, Taliban 250 extortion of, 118–19 in state-building process, 226, 227, international community failures 237, 238, 243–4 regarding, 57 symbiosis of corruption, narcotics PRTs, 9, 254–5, 258, 260–1, 262. See trafficking and insecurity provincial reconstruction affecting, 176–8 teams poppies. See opium trade short-term objectives versus pravovoe gosudarstvo, 62 long-term development, 90–1 presidency record-keeping issues constitutional power to create law by CCM, 168 decree, 272, 286, 290 land conflict, 208, 209 elections. See elections reform initiatives. See civil-military Karzai as. See Karzai, Hamid reform initiatives prisoner’s dilemma, 324 regional power brokers. See warlords production versus interaction and regional power brokers technologies, 22 religious freedom and choice, cases Project on Justice in Peace-building involving, 193 and Development, CISL, rentier state, Afghanistan as, 253 xv Roe, Alan, x, 8, 205, 323 protection money, extortion of, Rome Conference (2007), 172, 188, 115–19. See also organised 272 crime Rome Statute of International Criminal provincial reconstruction teams Court (ICC), Afghani (PRTs), 9, 254–5, 258, 260–1, ratification of, 185 262 Rose Chamber, Imperial Rescript of provincial stabilisation strategy (PSS), (1829), 232 258–9 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 322 Puntland, 44 Rubin, Barnett R., 226–8, 242 rule of law, 15–32, 319–28 QST (Quetta shura Taliban). See application of, 28 Taliban appreciation of importance of, 320 al-Qaida. See al-Qaida, under A arbitrary power, as constraint on, 26, Quetta Alliance, 113 61, 73, 78 Quetta shura Taliban (QST). See architecture, law viewed as, 23–4 Taliban bottom-up state formation and. See bottom-up state formation Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 183, 191 character of, 28 Rahman, Abdul, 193, 194–5, 272 competitive control, theory of, 41 Rama V (king of Thailand), 234 contextual nature of, 24–5 Rasul v. Bush, 64 contextual universalism, 32 rawaj (customary law) in Afghanistan. corruption and impunity, problem See under justice system of. See corruption and Raz, Joseph, 63 impunity Rechsstaat, 62 criminal law code. See criminal law reconstruction and development in Afghanistan

346 index

rule of law (cont.) value-based or goal-based approach culture, role of, 29–31. See also to, 26–9 political and legal culture of Rumsfeld, Donald, 319 Afghanistan Russian empire and Great Britain, defined, 3, 4 Afghanistan as buffer state different academic concepts of, 62–5 between, 85, 235 elections and. See elections ‘facile optimism’, problem of, 304–7, Sabit, Abdul Jabar, 290 320 Safi/Kunar rebellion (1945), 85–7 failure of, 1–2 Sampford, Charles, 63 incentive to comply with, 323–8 Sarwari, Assadullah, 186–7, 193, 272 insurgency/counter-insurgency and. Sayyaf, Abdul Rabb al Rasul, 183 See insurgency/counter- Schmeidl, Susanne, xi, 7–8, 132, 149 insurgency scope of rule of law, 28 interconnectedness of other ‘Securing Afghanistan’s Future’ (2004), problems to, 319 207 interdisciplinary approach to, 2, security. See insecurity; peace, justice 10–11, 47 and security international community failures in. Selznick, Philip, 30 See international community Sen, Amartya, 24, 320 failures in Afghanistan Senlis Council (now International justice systems. See justice system Council on Security and Kandahar. See Kandahar Development or ICOS), 131–2 land conflict. See land conflict September 11, 2001, 1, 53, 54, 55, 89 laws rather than rule, stress on, 4 Sevres,` Treaty of (1920), 234 misconceptions about, 16, 21–6 Shari’a law opium trade and. See opium trade article 130 of constitution, case law organised crime and. See organised involving, 193–7 crime common law, sharing uncodified peace, justice and security, nature of, 272 importance of, 2–5, 321–2. See criminal code and, 268 also peace, justice and security formal justice sector, influence on, political and legal culture affecting. 152 See political and legal culture of Hanafi school of, 67, 68, 152, 193, Afghanistan 194, 206 reform initiatives. See civil-military haq-ullah and haq-ul abd, reform initiatives distinguishing, 163 rule by law versus, 19–21 informal justice sector, influence on, rule without law versus, 16–19 152, 155 scope of, 28 international human rights social salience of, 28 standards in tension with, 168, state-building. See state-building 193, 243 as state of affairs, 27 on land conflict, 206, 217 technological approach to, 2–4, nullum crimen sine lege, 21–6, 254, 320–1 interpretation of, 271 theory and practice of, Ottoman empire, reform of, 233 disconnection between, 11, 16 in political and legal culture of thick versus thin accounts of, 63 Afghanistan, 67, 68

index 347

state-building and use of, 235–6, 243 opium traffickers, state agents as, 7, Supreme Court, use of, 267, 272 124–6, 136, 140 Taliban, Shari’a court system of, 106, political legitimacy of. See political 108, 142, 150, 152, 163 legitimacy taziri laws, 268 vicious circle of armed opposition Shaw, Mark, 124, 125 groups, criminal networks and Shepherd, Ben, 42 official elements, 255–6 Sherzai, Gul Agha, 73, 309, 323 warlords and regional power shuras, 70, 131, 132, 156–7, 210, 302 brokers, political legitimacy Simpson, Erin, 39 challenged by, 251 single non-transferable vote (SNTV), state-building, 8, 225–47 58, 59 from bottom up. See bottom-up size of state and rule of law, 18 state formation small businesses, Taliban extortion capital, provision of, 226, 230, 237, from, 116 240–2, 246 Smith, Graeme, xi, 2, 125, 301, 323 coercion in, 226, 237 smuggling activities of Taliban. See colonialism and, 228, 325 opium trade; organised crime dual legitimacy, concept of, 227 SNTV (single non-transferable vote), endogenous projects, lessons from, 58, 59 228–37 Snyder, Timothy, 17 Afghanistan in nineteenth and social salience of rule of law, 28 early twentieth centuries, Somalia and Somaliland, 43–4 235–6 South Africa, apartheid in, 20 common features of, 237 sovereignty foreign threats and ideas, exogenous state-building, control influence of, 237 versus ownership in, 238–40 Meiji Restoration, Japan, 229–31, as problematic concept in globalised 237, 325 world, 74 Ottoman empire’s transformation Soviet invasion and occupation of into Turkish state, 229–31, Afghanistan, 68, 88, 179, 240, 325 243, 253, 310 exogenous Soviet Union, 19, 62, 63, 68 advantages of, 226 special courts, law on, 197 in Afghanistan after 2001, 237–46 Stalin, Josef, 63 ANA, building up, 244–6 Stapleton, Barbara J., xii, 8, 249, 322, contradictions generated by, 226, 324 238–46 state control versus ownership in, counter-insurgency mirroring 238–40 character of, 42–3 democratisation versus governance rather than government dependence in, 242–3 in Afghanistan, 68 earlier assumption of land conflicts and. See under land impossibility of, reversal of, conflict 228–9 ‘malign actors’ working in concert effectiveness versus legitimacy in, with, 261 243–4, 325–6 officials and ministers, corruption sustainability versus dependence and impunity of, 188–92, 200 in, 240–2

348 index

state-building (cont.) opium trade and. See under opium four necessary components of, trade 225–8 organised crime, involvement in. See incentives, problem of, 226 organised crime Islam, use of, 235–6, 243–4 Pakistan, operating out of, 310 leadership, importance of, 226, Pakistani support for, 57 227–8, 237, 238 peace, justice and security, nationalism, use of, 235–6, 243–4 supporters’ efforts to obtain, 38 political legitimacy, establishing, popular support, efforts to maintain, 226, 227, 237, 238, 243–4 106, 107, 111–12 Shari’a law, use of, 235–6, 243 prisoners, new rules on treatment of, state-formation distinguished from 112 state-building, 237 provincial-level commissions, state of affairs, rule of law as, 27 establishment of, 106, 108–10 Stromseth, Jane, 11, 29 restructuring of, 105, 107, 110–11 sub silentio amendments to criminal theory of competitive control and, law in Afghanistan, 288 41 Suhrke, Astri, xii, 2, 8, 225, 325, 326 understanding of what Afghanis Supreme Court want by, 305 apostasy/blasphemy cases, 193, 244 Tamanaha, Brian, 3, 10, 11 CLRWG and, 293 tanzimat, 232 constitution, right to interpret, 270 Taqnin constitutional provisions for, 270 assistance with criminal code as institution, 152 amendments, requesting, 185 nullum crimen sine lege, CLRWG and, 293, 294, 296 interpretation of, 271 code of 1965, 1974 revision of, Shari’a law, use of, 267, 272 276–7 surge, civilian and military, 246 lawmaking procedures involving, sustainability versus dependence in 272 exogenous state-building, terrorism draft law of 2004–2008, 240–2 290–2 Syria, 43 Tarzi, Mahmud, 231 Taxi to the Dark Side (documentary, Taliban. See also insurgency/ 2007), 72 counter-insurgency Taylor, Telford, 72 abuses of power by, 88–9 taziri laws, 268 bottom-up state formation by, 44–7 technological approach to rule of law, civilian casualties of, 173–4, 179, 2–4, 21–6, 254, 320–1 183, 306 terrorism corruption and impunity, efforts to draft law of 2004–2008 on, 290–2 curb, 46, 100, 105–13, 178 ﬁnancing, criminal law on, 284–5 criminal law under, 269 Taliban/organised crime’s use of, 99, justice system of. See under justice 100, 112 system war on terror and judicial in Kandahar, 9, 10, 45, 178, 302, 308 independence, 64 Karzai, resurgence as political asset Thailand, state-building process in, for, 137 227, 234 layeha (code of conduct), 46, 100, Thier, J. Alexander, 72 105–13 Third Anglo-Afghan war, 236

index 349

Thompson, Robert S., 37, 47 control versus ownership in Tilly, Charles, 225 state-building process and, 238 Tokugawa shogunate, 229–31 counter-narcotics law of December Tokyo meeting (2002), 252 2005, 288 top-down versus bottom-up state counter-narcotics programmes formation, 43–4 Akhundzada as governor of transitional justice Helmand province, insistence general amnesty law (2007), 181, on removal of, 137 184–6, 251, 308 cash for drugs programme with international failure to promote, 251 crop eradication, 132 ‘peace before justice’ argument, responsibility for, 172 180–2 ‘malign actors’, difficulties dealing for war crimes and crimes against with, 260 humanity, 179, 180, 182–7 Northern Ireland, British policy in transparency and independence issues Third Anglo-Afghan war, 236 in justice system, 63–4, 192–7, United Nations Assistance Mission in 200 Afghanistan (UNAMA), xv, 3, Transparency International index, 91, 180, 257 Afghanistan’s ranking on, 174 United Nations Office on Drugs and tribal justice. See also subhead Crime (UNODC), 101, 127, ‘informal justice sector’, under 133, 135, 174, 176, 290, 293, justice system 297 hybrid tribal/formal government United Nations’ role in justice, 302 implementation of Bonn in Kandahar, 302 Agreement, 54 pashtunwali, 153–7, 253 United States trucking firms, Taliban extortion from, counter-narcotics law of December 117–18 2005, 288 Tschirgi, Necla, 234 criminal financial laws, drafting of, tukhum, 156 282–6 Turkey informal justice sector, support for, Ataturk, Kemal and Kemalists, 231, 172, 177 233–4, 236, 237 integrated civil-military campaign legal medical opium cultivation in, plan, 261–2, 305–7 131 police, paramilitary training Ottoman empire’s transformation programme for, 261, 313 into, 229–31, 325 terrorism draft law of 2004–2008, state-building process in, 227 290–2 universalism, contextual, 32 Ukraine, 17 unknown unknowns, 319 UNAMA (United Nations Assistance UNODC (United Nations Office on Mission in Afghanistan), xv, 3, Drugs and Crime), 101, 127, 91, 180, 257 133, 135, 174, 176, 290, 293, Unionists, reform of Ottoman empire 297 by, 232–3 Uruzgan civil-military reform United Kingdom initiative, 259–61, 305 buffer state, use of Afghanistan as, US coalition forces, 55, 58, 173–4, 85, 235 323 in Burma, 234 US Institute of Peace, 150

350 index

US Patriot Act, 290, 291 ‘peace before justice’ argument US State/INL Judicial Sector Support regarding, 180–2 Program (JSSP), 293, 297 proposal to arrest, 326 state’s political legitimacy challenged Vendrell, Francesc, xii, 2, 5, 53, 304–7, by, 251 322, 324 Wasiﬁ, Izzatullah, 284 vicious circle of armed opposition Weber, Max, 232 groups, criminal networks and Weingast, Barry R., 65, 323 ofﬁcial elements, 255–6 Wesa, Tooryalai, 307 Wippman, David, 29 wak, 155 withdrawal, as strategic option, 305 Wali, Qari, 108 women Waqf ownership of land, 207 bad (exchanging women as war crimes, 179, 180, 182–7, 200 compensation for crimes), 154, war on terror and judicial 168 independence, 64 justice system, access to, 160, 169 Wardak, A., 163 ‘running away’, convictions for, 193 warlords and regional power brokers zar, zamin and zan (gold, land and in Kandahar, 308–9 women), 154, 205 as ‘malign actors’, 261 Northern Alliance Zahir, Mohammed, 85, 87, 88 atrocities committed during Zahir Shah, 54, 56, 253 US-backed offensive against zar, zamin and zan (gold, land and Taliban by, 4 women), 154, 205 international community failures Zelmay, Ahmed Ghows, 196, 272 regarding, 53, 54, 56 Zimbabwe, 63