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Held of Crimineel? Held of crimineel? Mediaframing rondom Edward Snowden Stefani Romani (s1601725) Masterthesis Journalistiek en Nieuwe Media Eerste lezer: Peter Burger Tweede lezer: Jaap de Jong Universiteit Leiden: 13 juli 2015 Voorwoord Om mijn studietijd succesvol af te sluiten moest er nog één ding gebeuren: het schrijven van een masterthesis. Een zware opgave naast fulltime stage lopen en nog andere vakken afronden, maar het is onder andere door de goede en snelle begeleiding van Peter Burger gelukt. Het onderzoek naar mediaframing rondom klokkenluider Edward Snowden is succesvol voltooid en vraagt nu alweer om vervolgonderzoek. Mijn studietijd zit erop en ik ben trots op dit eindresultaat. Een masterthesis die goed past binnen de studie Journalistiek & Nieuwe Media en hopelijk met veel nieuwsgierigheid en plezier wordt gelezen. Stefani Romani Delft, 13 juli 2015 2 Inhoudsopgave Voorwoord................................................................................................................................... 2 Samenvatting ............................................................................................................................... 5 1. Inleiding ................................................................................................................................... 6 2. Theoretisch kader ..................................................................................................................... 8 2.1 Edward Snowden ....................................................................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Framing van nieuwsberichten ............................................................................................................................. 8 2.3 Klokkenluiders in het nieuws ............................................................................................................................... 9 2.4 Het Robin Hood Principe ...................................................................................................................................... 12 2.5 Samenvatting ............................................................................................................................................................. 14 3. Methodologie ......................................................................................................................... 15 3.1 Kwalitatieve inhoudsanalyse .............................................................................................................................. 15 3.1.1 Narratieve analyse ...................................................................................................................................................15 3.1.2 Framinganalyse .........................................................................................................................................................16 3.2 Corpus .......................................................................................................................................................................... 18 3.2.1 Medialandschap kranten Nederland ...............................................................................................................18 3.2.2 Medialandschap kranten Amerika ...................................................................................................................19 3.2.3 Overzicht corpus .......................................................................................................................................................20 4. Resultaten Nederlandse nieuwsmedia .................................................................................... 22 4.1 Narratieve analyse .................................................................................................................................................. 22 4.2 Conclusie narratieve analyse .............................................................................................................................. 30 4.3 Framinganalyse ........................................................................................................................................................ 31 5. Resultaten Amerikaanse nieuwsmedia .................................................................................... 36 5.1 Narratieve analyse .................................................................................................................................................. 36 5.2 Conclusie narratieve analyse .............................................................................................................................. 43 5.3 Framinganalyse ........................................................................................................................................................ 44 6. Vergelijking Nederlandse en Amerikaanse nieuwsmedia ......................................................... 49 7. Conclusie ................................................................................................................................ 50 Bibliografie ................................................................................................................................ 52 Bijlagen ...................................................................................................................................... 54 Bijlage 1. Krantenartikelen de Volkskrant ............................................................................................................ 55 Bijlage 2. Krantenartikelen De Telegraaf .............................................................................................................. 93 3 Bijlage 3. Krantenartikelen The Washington Post ......................................................................................... 115 Bijlage 4. Krantenartikelen The Voice of America News ............................................................................. 210 4 Samenvatting Masterthesis waarin de hoofdvraag: ‘In hoeverre wordt de klokkenluider Snowden door middel van framing in de Nederlandse nieuwsmedia anders weergegeven dan in de Amerikaanse nieuwsmedia?’ wordt beantwoord aan de hand van een narratieve en framinganalyse van Nederlandse en Amerikaanse nieuwsartikelen. Het onderzoek bouwt voort op de theorie van Wahl-Jorgensen & Hunt (2012) over de representatie van klokkenluiders in de media. Binnen de narratieve analyse staat de theorie van Seal (2009) over criminele helden centraal. Hieruit blijkt dat de eigenschappen van criminele helden sterker aanwezig zijn in de Nederlandse nieuwsmedia dan in de Amerikaanse nieuwsmedia. Vervolgens worden er met de framinganalyse dominante frames in de framematrix van Van Gorp (2009) geplaatst om te onderzoeken op welke manier bepaalde elementen in interpretatiekaders worden uitgelicht. Resultaat hiervan is dat klokkenluider Snowden door middel van framing positiever wordt weergegeven in de onderzochte Nederlandse nieuwsartikelen dan in de onderzochte Amerikaanse nieuwsartikelen. In de Nederlandse nieuwsartikelen komt het ‘criminele held-frame’ dominanter voor dan het ‘crimineel-frame’ en het ‘verrader-frame’. In de Amerikaanse nieuwsartikelen komt het ‘crimineel-frame’ en het ‘verrader-frame’ sterker voor dan in de Nederlandse nieuwsartikelen. Edward Snowden, narratief, Robin Hood Principe, framematrix frames, framing devices, reasoning devices, de Volkskrant, De Telegraaf, The Washington Post, The Voice of America news. 5 1. Inleiding We leven in een wereld waarin we worden omgeven door mediabeelden. We gebruiken deze mediabeelden om een mening te vormen over onder andere politieke en sociale kwesties. De manier waarop deze mediabeelden en informatie wordt gepresenteerd, is echter niet neutraal. We worden beïnvloed door onder andere de keuze van de politieke en economische elite voor een bepaalde invalshoek. Opvallend aan dit proces is dat het lijkt alsof mediabeelden en informatie wél neutraal worden overgebracht. De sociale constructie van media lijkt onzichtbaar (Gamson et al., 1991, p. 374). Dit proces kan het beste uiteen worden gezet in combinatie met het concept mediaframes. Deze frames organiseren de wereld voor journalisten die de nieuwsitems maken en voor de lezers die de nieuwsitems vertrouwen en hun meningen erop baseren (Gamson et al., 1991, p. 384). Van Gorp (2004) vindt een frame een standvastige, metacommunicatieve boodschap. Deze boodschap geeft het structurele denkbeeld weer dat een nieuwsbericht samenhang en betekenis verleent. Opvallend is dat er weinig onderzoek is gedaan naar mediaframes rondom klokkenluiders. Dit is opvallend omdat klokkenluiders – melders van misstanden bij een bedrijf of organisatie – een belangrijke bron zijn voor journalisten. Er is vooral veel wetenschappelijk onderzoek gedaan naar de beweegredenen van klokkenluiders om een misstand publiekelijk via de media te melden en naar de beschermingsprocedures voor klokkenluiders. Het onderzoek van Wahl-Jorgensen & Hunt (2012) is een van de weinige dat gaat over de representatie van klokkenluiders in de media. Een nieuwsitem over een klokkenluider is volgens Wahl-Jorgensen & Hunt (2012) voornamelijk positief en er wordt gebruik gemaakt van een narratieve structuur waarbij de held centraal staat. Een klokkenluider past binnen het concept van een held, omdat hij wordt gezien als één van ons (de ‘gewone’ mens) en gedreven is om een maatschappelijk probleem op te lossen (Wahl-Jorgensen & Hunt, 2012, p. 403). Seal (2009) beschrijft aan
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