UPDATE May/June 2000 School of Natural Resources and Environment Vol

UPDATE May/June 2000 School of Natural Resources and Environment Vol. 17 No. 3 THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN pages 50-72

50 The Poacher's Dilemma: Economics of Poaching and Enforcement Kent Messer

59 Aquariums, Zoos and Science Museums to Explore New Ways to l ncrease Understanding of the Oceans: A Report on The Ocean Project and Its Recent National Survey Bill Mott and Paul Boyle

63 Marine Matters The Conservation Biology of Rhinoceros Auklets on Afio Nuevo Island, California, 1993-1999 Julie A. Thayer, Michelle M. Hester, William J. Sydeman

68 Conservation Spotlight Cuban Amazon Parrot (Amazona leucocephala): Private Sector Participation in AZA Breeding Programs Rachel Watkins Rogers

71 News from Zoos The Poacher's Dilemma: The Economics of Poaching and Enforcement Kent Messer Department of Agr~cultural,Resource, & Managerial Economics, Cornell University. Warren Hall. Ithaca. NY 14853-7801; [email protected]

Abstract In April 2000, delegates grrthrreil it1 :Veiirohi, Kelly, to coizsiller the rt,orldt~,ideh~lrl on i~~al:\. trade goi.>erneclb?, tlze Corl13enrio~zof Ii1rrr1t~rtioncrlTrade in Erzdangered Species of U'ild Fcrlozci crnd Florti (CITES). A point qf c.o?ztentiolzd~rring the nzeetil~gwas the iileqllih3carrated b~ a zrnifornz ilvr!. trclde polic!; gilserz tlte .sigrzificant diffeerrrzces in tlze size and ltealtlz qf elel?/zli~tt popu1ation.s in se\peml Africatr countries. L'ltin~atelj',Sorlth Africcr, Botsubana, Namibia, ern(1 Zi~izbabw,rOcrcked a+vaJfro~n their yffbrts,for limited i\,o~tmde and, nit April 17, 2000, tlzcj delegates cigreeci to reirzsrtrte (I Ollrz or1 ii.01~trade. A sivllilar ball on the trade of rhino Izorrz~1zci.s heen in place ,since 1977. This paprr looks ~rtalternntii~es to tlzese one-si:e-j7ts-crll inter7ziitiorlcll trtrlle barl.r,fir i\,on nrzd rlzirlo lzo111.rarlcl esplores tlze ecoizontics ofthe decaisiort-nlaking process of' pollclzers ~incler.strict enfi~rcenzentpoli~ic~s. BJ ~r~rrlerstnvzdirzgpoacheJs deci.rion-i,zr~kiitproce.r.5, loc.01 officials caiz desigrz anti-pollclzing policies that can optinzize colrseniation giitert loco1 coizdi- tiorzs. First, tlzis paper pmllides tr brief bnck,qroiind on poaching acti\-in ir? Africcr clizd describes sorltr successfill e.vurnp1e.s of (inti-pociclti~zgpolii-1e.s. Second, if cle\~elopsart e.~pectedi rtilih nlode1,for crlt indicidlicrl punchel: This ?nodel illlr.str.ares the ke! factc~~sin the pocrcherJs decisioit-ii~akingprocess. Thircl, t11is tlzeorutical 1node1is sliglztl~.rtrod$ed to e.m~izinetlte efects qf corruptioiz. Fourtl~,se~-el.rrl qf flze ke~ass~lrnptiorls ~7~1d i>ariables of'tltr n~odelore clisc~i~s~edirtcluding the valile cflr statistictxl life and tlze o\lere.rtirnatiorz c!f'lo~~prohcrbilih events. Final!\; the paper. c?fSers some co~tcludingtl~ouglzts.

Brief history of poaching in Africa cents. Fro111 1979 to 1988. twice as 1960s to essentiallj. zero (only in From the 1970s through the early many elephants were needed to be zoos) in 1990. Only four African 1990s. the international community killed for each ton of ivory countries still have viable rhino popu- became increasingly concerned about (Chadwick 1991 1. lations: South Africa. Zimbabwe. the illegal poaching of African el- During this period, rhino popu- Namibia. and Kenya (Emslie 1996). ephants (Lo.uocfonfci c~ft.iccrrlir)and lations experienced an e,en more These increases in poaching ac- rhinos (Rhinocerotidae). Since the dramatic decline. In Africa. the popu- ti\,ity paralleled the dramatic in- 1970s. the population of African el- lation of black rhinos (Dic,e/.os creases in the price of i\.ory and rhino ephants has declined from l .2 mil- hicmorltis) (Table 3) was 65.000 in horns. In 1969. uncarved ivory in lion to approximately 600,000 (Table 1960. but shrank to 6.000 by 1985. Kenya was worth S1.50 per pound. 1) (Bulte and van Kooten 1999). As It is currently around 2.000 In 1978. it was worth $34 per pound the population of large bull elephants i Smranepel 1997: Emslie 1996). In and. in 1989. it was worth more than decreased. poachers began to take Zimbabwe. the population of rhinos $90 (Figure I). With tusks weighing aim at female elephants and adoles- decreased from at least 5.000 in the as much as 72 pounds each. this made

Table 1. Current African Elephant Population (Overton 1997). Note Table 2. Black Rhino Population that "Definite" and "Probable" estimates come from more reliable (Swanepoel 1997). aerial and dung counts. "Possible" and "Speculative"are based on - more general lguesswork.' Projected I Estimated Number of Year of Rhino Region Definite Probable Possible Speculative Count Population 2;s Central Africa 7,320 81,657 128,648 7,594 1 1900 10.000 nla East Africa 90,468 16,707 19,999 Southern Africa 170,837 16,402 18,983 21,582 West Africa 2,760 1,376 5,305 5,554 Continental 286,234 101,297 155,944 36,057

50 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 one elephant's ivory worth as much decline of 0.5-0.6 percent. With- as $4,000 (Simmons and Kreuter out poaching, elephant populations Endan~ered 1989). A rhino horn can weigh up to increase by an average of 5 percent UPDATE 20 pounds. The retail price for an per year. During the first four years Aforurnfor information exchange on endangered species issues African rhino horn has ranged from of the ivory trade ban, the price de- vol, 17 No, $2,000 to $8,000 per pound (Vollers clined by more than 70 percent 1987; Simmons and Kreuter 1989). from its 1989 peak. The price of M. McPhee ...... Managing Chase M. Huntley ...... Publication Editor Estimates of the value of ivory and ivory in central Africa dropped JenniferJacobusMackay...... EditorialAssistant rhino horn vary widely. Presumably, from $90 per pound to less than $10 Noelle McKenzie ...... Subscription Coordinator ...... web Page Coordinator some of the difference in value is be- per pound (Kelso 1993). However, Ter~L. Root ...... Faculty Advisor tween the wholesale and retail lev- in the years since the ban, the price els, as well as the difference between has slowly climbed. Advison. Board Richard Block carved and uncarved pieces. It was One of the primary problems Santa Barbara Zoological Gardens estimated, that when the prices for with the ivory ban is its impact on Susan Haig ivory and rhino tusks were at their southern African countries, which Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, USGS peaks in the 1980s, a successful hunt have growing elephant populations Oregon State University could yield a poacher more money that require periodic culls to limit Chris Howes Chicago Zoological Society than twelve years of non-poaching ecological damage. Not only do Nomtan Myers work (Chadwick 1993). these southern African countries International Consultant in In response to growing interna- sometimes have too many elephants, Environment and Development Patrick O'Brien tional concern about the illegal but the ivory ban has also taken away Chevron Ecological Services poaching in Africa, CITES banned a source of precious foreign currency; Hal Salwasser the worldwide trade in rhino horns currency, that the government claims U.S. Forest Service, Boone and Crockett Club in 1977 and banned trade in ivory in would be used, in part, for conserva- 1989. While the ivory ban seems to tion efforts. In response to these con- Instructions forAutiwrs; The EndangeredSpecies have slowed the rate of poaching and cerns, in 1997, delegates at the Con- welcomes editoriaicomments, and announcementsrelated to species protection. lowered the price of ivory, the popu- ference of the Parties for CITES per- F~~further information contact the editor. lation of African elephants has con- mitted a one-time auction of ivory Subscription Information: The Etdangered tinued to decline, albeit at a slower stockpiles for Zimbabwe, Namibia, species uPDamispubfish& sk per year rate. Since 1994, Bulte and van and Botswana. In April 1997, this theSchoolofNaturalResourcesandEnvironment Kooten (1999) estimated an annual auction was held. A total of 109,311 at TheUniversityof Michigan. ,4rmudratesare $28 for regular subscriptions,and $23 for students and senior citizens (add $5 for postage outside the US). Send check or money order (payable to The Ivory Price & Elephant Populations University of Michigan) to: Endangered Species UPDATE 100 - 600 School of Natural Resources and Environment

U) The University of Michigan 90 -- U Ann Arbor, MI 48 109-1115 -- 500 (734) 763-3243; fax (734) 936-2195 80 -- o 5 E-mail: [email protected] -- s http:/lwww.umich.edui-esupdate -- z 70 400 ', -- s 60 ,g Cover: Rhinoceros auklet (Cerorhinca 9- monocerata). Photograph courtesy of Julie -- -- tu 50 300 $ Thayer. -- a >S 40 c; The views expressed in the Endangered Species - -- UPDATE may not necessarily reflect those of u -- 200 2 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or The ;30 A"... --.----.-.--- 20 -- University of Michigan. O0 3 ' 5 The Ehgered Specie1 UPDATE was made -- 10 I possible in part by the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, Turner Foundation. Boone and 0 7 0 1969 1978 1989 1999 Crockett Club, Chevron Corporation, and the U.S. FWS Division of Endangered Species Region 3. -Pr~ce of Ivory --*--Central Africa Elephants ---A-- East Africa Elephants $ti;i $ti;i " @ Figure 1. Longitudinal comparison of African elephant populations and the price of ivory. 'g&p+ y

- printed on recycled paper

Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 Endangered Species UPDATE 51 pounds of ivory 15,446 tusks) was sold for an estimated $5 million (ap- The Poacher's; Dtfemma: Model Equations proximately $45 per pound). Before this auction, southern African countries had an estimated stockpile of (1 man ELI = [I - r (G)x t,,]x U(C) 500-600 tons of legally held ivory. An additional 243 tons of illegal stockpiles are also extimated to exist (2 \\*xt t< xE(t1' )tPRxR(t)+S-y(G)xF-C=O (Milliken 1997). Approximately 8,000 elephants have to be killed to (3) T=r,+r obtain 70 tons of ivory (The Ecor~o- mist 1989). {[(GI No such controversy exists for x- '('I +t, +V,IG~XF =

52 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 Equation 2. The Poacher's Dilemma: Model Notation The budget constraint includes the value of wage labor, w, the hours =consumption worked, t,+,, the number of elephants, E,and rhinos, R , killed as functions U(C) =lifetime utility of the hours spent poaching (hunting for elephants and rhinos often occurs t =time spent poaching P simultaneously); unearned income, S ; the risk of a fine per hour, r , as a r (G) x t =risk of death per hour+ f d P function of government enforcement r (G) x t =risk of fine per hour+ f P effort;the amount of fine, F; and to- t =hours worked tal consumption, C . LY =wage income Equation 3. The time constraint, T,is the num- E(tp) =number of elephants killed' ber of hours spent poaching plus the hours spent working for a wage. R(tp) =number of rhinos killed'

S =unearned income Equation 4. Solving these equations using the F =amount of fine first order conditions, results in the following equation, which models the T =time decisionhaking process for the time 'Increases with time spent poaching spent poaching. +Increaseswith government enforcement and time spent poaching The left-hand side of the equa- Note: primes (') represent derivatives tion represents the marginal costs to the poacher while the right-hand side tive to the amount of time spent in ity, EU, comes from hislher con- represents the marginal benefits. The wage employment given the respec- sumption during hislher lifetime, poacher's value of life is represented tive risks and rewards. Utility is a U(C),minus the risk of being killed 1 X- u(c> broadly defined term roughly syn- byl-rd(G)~t u'(~)'which onymous with welfare, satisfaction, where risk of death per hour, rd , is a P and happiness, In this expected util- function of g0veInment enforcement is multiplied by the risk of death per ity model several variables are in- efforts, G,multiplied by the hours hour, r,(G). This value is added to eluded that affect a poacher's deci- Spent poaching, t This equation is the rate per hour and the risk P . wage sion on how much time, if any, should a fine per hour multiplied by the be devoted towards poaching. subject to both a budget and time constraint (~~~~~i~~~2 and 3 resDec- amount of the fine. A fine could in- tively). clude the cost of imprisonment. Equation 1. Since this equation is equal on A poacher's maximum expected util-

Marginal Marginal Marginal Marginal Marginal Marginal -Costs Benefits Costs Benefits Costs Benefits

(i) Equilibrium (ii) Marginal Benefits > Marginal Costs (iii) Marginal Costs > Marginal Benefitg Figure 2. Representation of poacher's decision-making process

Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 Endangered Species UPDATE 53 the margins, meanlng that. at equi- Equation 5 follows from analysis at ( 1992). They describe local poach- librium, the marginal costs are equal the margin. ers as those who go out hunting in to the marginal benefits. A balanced In this case, neither the time pairs on a daily basis. Organized scale can represent this equilibrium spent poaching. r . nor risk of detec- poachers. on the other hand, are (Figure 2, i). It follows that changes I' formed into a party with hunters. car- tion as a function of government ex- in a number of the variables uould riers. and a leader. In 1985. it was penditures. I' and I; are intluence the poacher to reduce the :I (G) (G). estimated that local hunters had 0.05 hours spent poaching. r . thus re- even involved in the equation. The elephant kills and 0.09 rhino kills per I/ expedition, while organized groups turning the equation to equilibrium. expected benefits from poaching are had 3.54 elephant kills and 0.15 rhino For example, decreaseh in the price compared only to the non-poaching kills per expedition. for elephant tusks or rhino horns wage rate and the cost of the bribe. In addition. u:e know that the maxi- Several studies have estimated would lower r . Similarly, f would I' I' mum bribe would be equal to the ex- the \:slue of a statistical life (VSL) be expected to decreaje with in- pected costs of enforcement. using several different theoretical and creasec in the rick of death per hour. econometric techniques. Tradition- ally. these studies have looked at the I;,, the risk of tine per hour. i- . the Examination of assumptions and variables correlation between job risk and amount of fine. F. the non-poach- When considering this model. it is wage rates and have estimated the ing wage rate. rt'. or the go\:ernment important to note the underlying as- statistical value of a life based on the expenditures on enforcement. G . s~imptionsand examine the key vari- change in wages as job risks increase By looking at Equation 4, we can ables. First, the model presumes that (holding all other factors constant). also see the potential disequilibrium a poacher receives no utility from Other studies have focused on the ex- in situations with lo~+tnon-poaching death. In other words. a poacher does penditures on safety devices. These wage rates. In cases where "shoot not place an inherent value in death derilled values are frequently used in first" policies do not exist, marginal (such as heaven or hell) or has a be- evaluating the benefits and costs of benefits probably are consistently quest \:slue in death. Second, the various public health programs and greater than the marginal costs (Fig- model does not incorporate the pos- policies. The majority of these stud- ure 2, ii). This is a likely scenario as iible negative psychological costs ies have shown that the VSL for a even the costs of fines and imprison- from breaking a law. Psychologists person in the United States is between ment, F. are ultimately limited by and economists have found that $3-7 million dollars (Viscusi 1997). the low non-poaching wage rate. breaking social norms can be per- However. few, if any studies consid- To achieve the conservation ob- ceived as a cost. especially when the ered the VSL values for people in jective of having no poaching of el- law is sustained by social approval developing countries. such as the Af- ephants and rhinos, the marginal or initiated by communal action. such rican countries facing problems with costs of poaching need to be consis- as a vote (Ahet al. 1999). How- poaching. A critical component of tently greater than the masginal ben- ever. it is questionable whether VSL estimates is an individual's ex- efits (Figure 2. iii). Given the diffi- poachers perceive that the anti- pected lifetime wealth. which is de- culty of raising the non-poaching poaching laws are sustained by so- rived primarily from current annual wage rate in a short time period. an- cial approval or were established by income. Consequently. the values for other option is to raise the marginal a vote of their peers. In fact. a sig- children or the elderly tend to be sig- costs to the poacher by including the nificant amount of the poaching ac- nificantly lou~erthan employed potential of death. represented by the tivity occurs across national borders, adults. Similarly, the estimates for a value of a statistical life. ~chas Somalian gangs poaching in poor or unemployed person in a de- Kenya or Zambians poaching in veloping country could lead to val- Eqlratio~l5. neighboring Zimbabwe. Conse- ues considerably smaller than the es- The expected utility model can be quently. the psychological penalt, is timates for the United States. easily extended to include the effects also assumed to be zero. Some economists have argued of corruption on the decision-making This model also does not dis- that this model is limited and suggest of poachers. By assuming that a criminate between "local" and "orga- that in addition to lifetime wealth a bribe, B, from a poacher makes the nized" poaches as described by uni~rersalconstant for human life risk of detection equal to zero. then Bilner-Gulland and Leader-Williams should be included in VSL estimates

54 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 (Cropper and Freeman 1991). A po- penditures would be quite different. units with enough firepower to com- tential VSL equation that includes Importantly, the overestimation of bat these groups- - may be expensive this type of universal constant is low probability events may help re- and hard to sustain. For example, VSL = 2(w + c),where w is life- duce the number of poachers killed between 1989 and 1994, when Dr. time wealth and c is the constant. for the same level of anti-poaching Richard Leakey was Director of the Consequently, a poor person with protection* Kenyan Wildlife Service, he raised no annual income and little lifetime more than $153 million arming anti- wealth could still have a VSL be- implications poaching units with airplanes, heli- tween $1 -5 and $3.5 million dollars4 The theoretical model of the copters, 250 vehicles, and rebuilding when VSL estimates of this magni- poacher's dilemma implies that poli- the park infrastructure. By 1998, tude are included in the theoretical cies that increase the costs or de- however, the program did not have model, it becomes apparent that crease the benefits of poaching will enough money to keep the aircraft people are unlikely to poach even in decrease the time a poacher's spends and helicopters properly maintained situationswhere the risk of detection hunting. If the conservation objec- (Woods 1999). Regardless of the strict- is relatively small. tive is to stop all poaching, then the ness of the anti-poachingpolicies or the A factor that is not included in model suggest that a strict enforce- amount of money spent on weapons, the model is the probability of the ment policy has the best chance of efforts must be made to keep the anti- poacher dying from other causes, achieving the objective. By dramati- poachingunits free of corruption. This p hi^ may be especially important in cally increasing the costs of poach- can include significantly raising the highly impoverished areas where the ing by including the possibility of wages of unit members. probability of death from starvation death, it becomes irrational for an Finally, the ethical and political or disease (without the money individual to choose to spend any implications of a "shoot first" policy from poaching) may be higher than hours poaching, even with high need to be considered. Placing the the probability of death from poach- prices for elephant tusks and rhino lives of wildlife, even charismatic ing. this case, it would still be ra- horns. Consequently, the populations ones such as elephants and rhinos, tional for a person to poach despite of elephants and rhinos in protected ahead of the lives of humans would the "shoot first" policy. areas have a chance for recovery. be considered unethical by all hu- ~h~ estimation of the risk of These policies could allow a coun- manistic philosophies, such as egali- death or fine is also a key variable in try, such as Zimbabwe that has ex- tarianism, libertarianism, and utili- this model. Studies have estimated cess elephants, to support conserva- tarianism. These philosophies do not the probability of a poacher being tion efforts through the proceeds grant "rights" or ''standing" to non- detected, caught, and successfully from selective ivory sales or tourist- human entities, such as elephants or prosecuted as between zero and five oriented hunting ex~editionso rhinos. In contrast, naturalistic phi- percent (Bulte and van Kooten 1999). A key question is whether local losophies do grant "standing"to non- Miliken et (1993) estimated the governments have the financial re- human entities. While naturalistic probability of a poacher being killed sources to enforce strict anti-poach- philosophies might not assign in Zimbabwae if detectea to be 16 ing policies and whether the anti- equivalent values to a human and an percent, An important question is the poaching units can be free of camp- elephant or rhino. the tremendous perceived and real probability of de- tion. The cost of effective anti- levels of poaching of elephants and tection, Psychologists and econo- poaching enforcement has been esti- rhinos that occurred in the 1970s and mists have shown that humans tend mated as $200 per km2 (Leader-Wil- 1980s may make "shoot first" poli- to overestimate low probability liams 1993). It is unckar, however, cies ethical in terms of naturalistic events (Machina 1983; Kahneman whether that estimate assumes imple- philosophies (see Kneese and and Tversky 1979; ~1~ et 1992). mentation of a "shoot first" policy. Schulze 1985 for a more thorough Consequently, a poacher's estimation Nevertheless, initiating a "shoot first'' discussion). of hisher risk of detection may not policy likely increases the risk of Whether donor nations would be much different if the odds of de- death to members of the support broad-scale implementation tection were either 1 percent or 0.01 government's anti-poaching units, of "shoot first" policies remains to be percent, yet in reality the conse- especially in areas where the poach- seen. While it seems likely that these quences for apoacher's expectedutil- ers are highly organized and well- policies would immediately offend ity and the governments required ex- armed. Equipping anti-poaching donors, the success of fundraising by

Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 Endangered Species UPDATE 55 Richard Leakey in Kenya, not to men- Chadwick. D. H. 1991. Elephants - Out of Milliken. T.. K. Yowell and J. B. Thomsen. tion the successes in Zimbabwae and time, out of space. National Geographic 1993. The decline of the black rhino i11 17915). Zimbabuae: Ilnplications for future rhino Nepal, and the lack of international Cropper. M. L.and A. M.Freeman 111. 1991. conservation. Traffic International. Cam- criticism of his program makes the in- Environmental health effects. In J.B. Bruden bridge. ternational reaction difficult to predict. and C.D. Kolstad eds. Measuring the De- Milner-Gulland. E.J. and Y. Leader-Williams. mand for Environmental Qualit!. North- 1992. A model of incentives for the illegal exploitation of black rhinocerob and el- Literature cited Holland. New York. The Economist. 1997. Shooting the shooters. ephants: Poaching pays in LuangwaValle). Alm, J.. G. H. McClelland and W. D.Schulze. September 20: 96. Zambia. Journal of Applied Ecology 29: 1999. Changing the social norm of tax com- The Econonlist. 1989. East Africa: The slaugh- 388-401. pliance by voting. Kyklos 52: 14 1 - 17 1. ter of the elephants. 311: 48. Morgan-Davies. 1~1. 1996. Status of the black Alm. J.. G. H. McClelland and W. D. Schulze. Emslie. R. H. 1996. How many rhinos are rhinoceros in the Masai Mara National Re- 1992. Why do people pay taxes'? Journal of left'? The Rhino & Elephant Journal 10: 15- sene. Pachyderm 21: 38-45. Public Economics 48: 2 1-38. 19. O\.erton. G. 1997. An update on the African Barrett. C. B. and P. Arcese. 1998. Wildlife Kahnman. D. and A. Tversky. 1979. Prospect Elephant database. The Rhino & Elephant harvest in integrated conservation and de- theo~y:An analysis of decision under risk. Journal 11: 13-15. velopment projects: Linking harvest to Econornetrica 47: 263-79 1. Simons. R. T. and U.P. Kreuter. 1989. Herd household demand. agricultural production. Kelso. B. .I. 1993. Hunting for cons. Africa mentality: Banning ivory sales is no way to and environmental shocks in the Serengeti. Report July-August: 68-69. .;a\-e the elephant. Policy Review(Fal1): 46- Land Economics 74: 449-65. Kneese. A. V. and W. D. Schulze. 198.5. Eth- 39. Barrett, C. B, and P. Arcese. 1995. Are Inte- ics and environmental economics. Handbook Stai~.D. 1989. Rhino warrior. Omni IliSep- grated Conservation-Development Projects of Natural Resource and Energy Econom- tember): 17-19. (ICDPs) sustainable? On the Conservation ics. Vol. 1. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. Swanepoel. G. 1997. 4 criminological per- of Large Mammals in Sub-Saharan Africa. Leader-Williams. S'. 1993. The cost of con- 5pective on illegal trade. The Rhino & El- World Development 2317): 1073-84. ser\ing elephants. Pachyderm 17: 30-33. ephant Journal 11(1997): 20-34. Brandon, K.. K. H. Redford. and S. E. Machina. M.J. 1983. Generalized expected Viscusi. W. K. 1993. The value of risk5 to life Sanderson. eds. 1998. Parks in Peril: People. utility analysis and the nature of observed and health. Journal of Economic Literature Politics, and Protected Areas. Washington. ~iolationsof the independence axiom. In 31(1993): 1913-1946. DC: The Nature Conservancq and Island Bemt Stigum and Fred Wenstop, eds. Foun- Wells. M. and K. Brandon. 1997. People and Press. dations of Utility and Risk Theorq \vithAp- Parks: Linking Protected Area Management Bulte. E. H. andG. C. can Kooten. 1999. Eco- plication. With Local Communities. World Bank. nomics of antipoaching enforcement and the .Milliken. T. 1997. The status of i\jon stocks Washington. DC. ivoly trade ban. American Journal of Agri- in Africa. 1990- 1996. Traffic Bull 16 (31: Woods. M. 1999. A burning passion. Geo- cultural Economics 81: 453-466. 93-106. graphical 71(3):3 1-33.

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Thank you for your time and input! They are greatly appreciated. Aquariums, Zoos and Science Museums to Explore New ways to Increase Understanding of the Oceans: A Report on The Ocean Project and Its Recent National Survey Bill Mott The Ocean Project, 102 Waterman Street, Suite 16, Providence, RI 02906, email [email protected] Paul Boyle, Ph.D. Widlife Conservation Society's New York Aquarium, Boardwalk and West 8th St, Brooklyn, NY 11224, tel. (718)265-3435, email [email protected]

Abstract People have an emotional and positive connection to the oceans yet express low levels of personal importance to protecting oceans. A collaborative, multi-year approach is required to cultivate substantive change in the way people understand, relate to and use the ocean. The Ocean Project was created to take on this role and facilitate a paradigm shift both in the way that people relate to the oceans and in the way educational institutions approach connecting people to ocean conservation. The Ocean Project represents a new and unprecedented public awareness effort among more than 75 aquariums, zoos and museums that together serve more than 100 million visitors a year. To lay the foundation for its future activities that will develop peoples' affinity for the oceans, last year The Ocean Project commissioned focus groups and a national poll to understand how and why people think about the oceans the way they do, what people know, and the gaps in public awareness about the oceans and related conservation issues. The survey work examined, in particular, the importance Americans place on ocean health and the potential for building greater saliency. The poll shows that telling people how and why the oceans are important to human survival is not enough to inspire the public to individual responsibility and action. This survey work also demonstrates the tremendous opportunity for aquariums, zoos and museums and others to reach the public with new educational efforts that emphasize both science and learning and the inspirational and ecological value of healthy oceans.

Introduction nities each of us has to ensure that may not understand the technical de- As populations expand, society con- the oceans remain healthy and pro- tails related to rainforests, the over- tinues to urbanize and technology ductive for the future. whelming majority now do know that hurtles forward in quantum leaps, real The poor state of the oceans to- they are important and that rainforests contact with nature, including the day is less the result of the relatively have relevance to them personally as oceans, is disappearing for most nalve understanding of the complex- well as ramifications for future genera- people at an alarming rate. While ity of ocean ecosystems than it is a tions. Many think of rainforests as the research shows that people have posi- sad testimonial to the very low im- 'lungs of the planet' even though pho- tive emotional connections to oceans portance the ocean has among the tosynthesis in the oceans of the world and sense the importance of healthy people of the world. The general contribute more oxygen to our atmo- oceans as integral to the balance of population has a perception of the sphere than all terrestrial plants and eco- life on this blue planet, for the most ocean akin to its understanding of systems combined. Over the past few part people have a dwindling com- rainforests 30 years ago; the issues decades, people have assimilated a vis- prehension of the simple principles seem of little importance to those not ceral belief that rainforests must be that govern how our ocean planet involved directly and oceans have saved, which has resulted in greater works and the threats to this vast yet been relegated to secondary status conservation action on a widespread vulnerable watery habitat. Further, behind terrestrial regions when it local basis. The challenge we face is most people fail to see the harm that comes to people's belief of where to achieve a similar public perception they do individually to oceans as well conservation is needed. and awareness of the ocean and aquatic as the responsibilities and opportu- Yet today, while most people resources in much less time.

Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 Endangered Species UPDATE 59 Table 1. Membership of the steering committee created by the Wildlife Con- complementary conservation activi- servation Society (through its New York Aquarium). ties. Of great importance, The Ocean Project will not duplicate or compete w~ththe many conservation groups Paul Boyle, deputy director of WCS's New York Aquarium already working to save the oceans: Vikki Spruill, executive director of SeaWeb instead. The Project aims to signifi- Diane Sena, managing director of the Monterey Bay Aquarium cantly increase the overall success of Kathy Sher, deputy executive director at the National Aquarium ocean conservation by collaborating James Hekkers. executive director of Colorado's Ocean Journey in barious capacities with local and Greg Stone, director of conservation programs at the New England national nonprofit conservation and Aquarium environmental organizations, govern- John Nightingale. executive director of the Vancouver Public Aquarium ment agencies. universities and and Marine Science Center schools. dive clubs and others inter- Michael Hutchins, director of conservation science at the American ested in networking to protect the Zoo and Aquarium Association oceans and help create a truly sus- Bert Vescolani, vice president of education and programs at the John tainable water planet. In addition to G. Shedd Aquarium the 75 partner aquariums. zoos. and museums, nearly 100 organizations. '4 collaborati\~e.multi-year ap- a fundamental level regarding the im- agencies, and clubs have expressed proach is required to cultic ate sub- portance of oceans and our connec- interest in partnering with the Project. stantive change in the way people un- tions to them. The Ocean Project be- The major task of The Ocean derstand, relate to and use the ocean. lieves that the single greatest impedi- Project and its network of educational A deep scientific and technical un- ment to healthy and productive ma- institutions will be to increase the sa- derstanding is not needed by most rine and coastal areas is the public's liency of the ocean and ocean issues in people any more than it was in build- low level of ocean awareness and see order to build public commitment to ing the belief that rainforests are im- our mission as creating in people a protecting the health of the oceans. To portant. Instead. mechanisms are lasting. measurable. top-of-mind understand best how to proceed on such needed through which people can re- awareness of the importance. value, a major initiative and what to commu- late personally to the importance and and sensitivity of the oceans. nicate to the public. The Ocean Project value of the ocean. This connection During the formation of The needed to explore the public's connec- is essential if people are to care about Ocean Project, SeaWeb joined with tions, values. attitudes. and knowledge the profound changes the world Wildlife Conservation Society relating to the oceans. ocean is undergoing today. (WCS)to create a team approach to Aquariums. zoos. and museums forwarding this important ocean con- Public opinion research have a unique opportunity to educate servation movement. SeaWeb and conducted the public about the importance of WCS now jointly manage The Ocean To lay a solid foundation upon which ocean. One in three Ameiicans has \ir- Project (,Table 1 ) Institutional part- build this far-reaching public ited at least one of these institutions in ners currently include more than 75 a,ar The Ocean the last twelve months and polls show aquariums. zoos and museums across p,.oject last year comnlissioned two that people trust these educational in- the United States and Canada The research firms to undertake a stitutions as a credible source of infor- Project will focus initially in North comprehensive llationalpublic opin- mation on ocean protectio~~. America but will expand in the com- ion survey in order to understand ing years to include institutions from and why people think about the The Ocean Project created around the world. In addition to ere- oceans the way they do, h,hat people Recognizing the advantage that these ating an unprecedented collaborative know. and the gaps in public institutions possess. a new initiative, effort among these educational insti- ness about the oceans and related called The Ocean Project. formed re- tutions. that together serve more than col,ser,ation issues. cently to work with and through 100 million visitors a year. The The worked with thepri- aquariums. zoos and science. tech- Ocean Project is building a diverse firm of Russonello nology, and natural history museums and broad network of nongovern- Stewart assisted by American View- in order to develop a concerted and mental and governmental partners point who together conducted six fo- coordinated effort to reach people at with whom to develop synergies and cus groups in the spring of 999 and

60 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 a national telephone survey between Table 2. Lessons learned from survey data analysis. July 24 and August 8. 1999 that sampled 1.500 adults li\,ing in the continental United States. The margin of sampling error for the study is

plus or minus 2.5 percentage points I Oceans are viewed as powerful, vast, relaxing, and fun. at the 95 percent level of confidence. The public possesses little awareness of ocean health, especially of the oceans The public opinion research rep- beyond the beach. resents the first time that aquariums, Protecting the oceans is not an urgent issue. zoos and museums have collaborated ~ The public possesses only superficial knowledge of the oceans, their functions, in undertaking a comprehensive na- 1 and their connection to humans' well-being. tional effort to measure the public's 1 Oceans are viewed as vulnerable to lasting damage, but the public does not see knowledge and attitudes about individual actions as having a great impact. oceans and adds significantly to a Currently low levels of personal importance placed on protecting oceans. growing body of public perception Facts alone will not increase concern for oceans' health. research on the oceans, an area long Values framework: Balance of nature. ignored in environmental polling. Effective messages: recreation, responsibility, and future. Most salient threat: pollution. Research findings Amer~cansmay sacrifice to protect the oceans. Major findings from the research show - reasons for both pessimism and opti- mism in protecting the oceans (Table life on the planet. Fully 92 percent much less aware of other threats to the 2). Essentially, while Americans have of Americans consider the oceans es- oceans' health such as those cumula- little basic knowledge of ocean func- sential for human survival, with 75 tive effects, like runoff, caused largely tions, there is broad awareness of the percent strongly agreeing. by individuals. When asked to choose oceans' vulnerability. However, people At the moment, however, Ameri- the main source of ocean pollution do not generally perceive the oceans to cans remain largely unaware of the among three sources, only 14 percent be in immediate danger. threats to ocean health and they greatly of Americans select the correct an- A large majority of the public feels underestimate their own role in dam- swer-"runoff from yards, pavement, a strong personal and positive connec- aging the oceans. Understanding of and farms." Nearly half of the respon- tion to the ocean, regardless of where why we need the oceans is superficial. dents agree with the statement: "What they live. During focus groups, par- When asked about the health of the I do in my life doesn't impact ocean ticipants viewed oceans as powerful, open, deep oceans, close to half of the health much at all." vast, relaxing, and fun. The survey public report that they do not know Presently, there remains little ac- shows that people tend to value the enough about these oceans to give an ceptance that each us of has a major oceans for their recreational and emo- opinion and slightly over a quarter say responsibility (and opportunity) for tional aspects, and most understand that so for coastal waters. Most Americans protecting the health of the oceans the oceans are neither a 'bottomless are unable to correctly answer a ma- and our planet. Part of the problem sink' nor indestructible. jority of simple questions about how seems to stem from the fact that, at People do know that human ac- the oceans function. For example, only the moment, people do not perceive tivities damage the oceans. Eight in 21 percent of Americans know that the oceans to be in immediate dan- ten reject the idea that "the oceans are oceans produce more of the earth's oxy- ger, and the need for action to pro- so large that it is unlikely humans can gen than forests. tect the oceans is not readily appar- cause lasting damage to them." A And while the poll found that ent to people. similar percentage reject the idea that people believe the oceans are threat- The survey shows that telling "we do not need to worry about the ened with serious and lasting damage people how and why the oceans are health of the oceans because we will caused by human activities, most important to human survival is not develop new technologies to keep people do not understand the role that enough to inspire the public to indi- them clean." Importantly, even each of us plays in the health of the vidual responsibility and action. In- though they do not know why or how, oceans. For example, amajority of poll deed, the survey reveals that people's the public understands that oceans are participants blame industry as the lead- existing concern for the oceans has critical to maintaining the balance of ing cause of ocean pollution and are little to do with specific knowledge of

Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 Endangered Species UPDATE 61 the major role oceans play in produc- are in a unique position to channel America and then expanding around ing the oxygen we breathe, regulating the public's love for the oceans into a the world, we will collaborate as an the world's climate and providing habi- sense of individual opportunity, extensive network of aquariums. tat for countless forms of life. The study responsibiliy. and action. zoos, museums and others to capture identified the great importance of con- people's interest in the oceans, in- necting people to the oceans through Need for a paradigm shift trigue them. and inspire wonder. We their values and aesthetic appreciation A major role for The Ocean Project will identify and encourage people to before attempting to get them to focus to play will be to create a paradigm take more active roles in protecting on ocean problems. shift both in the way that people re- oceans locally, nationally and inter- Significantly. the poll demon- late to the oceans and in the way in- nationally. strates that there is tremendous op- stitutions approach connecting Over time, we hope to stimulate portunity for aquariums, zoos and people to ocean conservation. The a lasting sense of respect for the museums to reach the public with Project intends to develop and pro- oceans that permeates people's lives new educational efforts that empha- mote people's natural affinity for the and transcends geographical bound- size both science and the inspirational oceans and conservation through the aries. Through a variety of activities and ecological value of healthy creation of messages, communication The Ocean Project and our partner in- oceans. Although The Ocean tools, exhibits, events and projects stitutions hope to instill in people not Project's network of partners will that effectively mesh science educa- only a recognition of the intercon- need to surmount significant chal- tion and conservation values with nectedness of all things and belief lenges, overall, the survey results memorable experiences about the that the oceans are an integral part of portend good news for oceans and oceans. The Ocean Project's over- our lives, but also an empowering clarified the tremendous opportuni- arching policy will be to use positive recognition that each individual plays ties that exist for aquariums. zoos and messages that connect the ocean to a significant and influential role in the museums to significantly increase our lives and make the oceans rel- future of our ocean planet. ocean awareness. These institutions evant to all. Starting in North

FOCUS ON NAT W TAP by ~ochetie~asoi~

The HOUSTON TOAD (BufoIzoustorze~~sisj measures 2-3 1i4" in length and is light brown to grayish. It breeds in rain pools. flooded fields and permanent ponds from February to June then aestivates (hiber- nates) in deep. loamy sand until the next spring rains. The eggs and tadpoles need at least 30 days of sustained pools to complete their maturation cycles. The Houston toad feeds on insects and other invertebrates in native woodlands and prairies in east-central Texas. You can donate time or money to a nature conservation organization to help save this endangered toad's critical habitat. C Rochelle Mason 1999. (8771 726-1544

62 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 Marine Matters Conservation Biology of Rhinoceros Auklets, Cerorhinca monocerata, on Aiio Nuevo Island, California, 1993-1999 Julie A. Thayer, Michelle M. Hester, William J. Sydeman Point Reyes Bird Observatory, 4990 Shoreline Hwy., Stinson Beach, CA 94970

Abstract Rhinoceros Auklets (Cerorhinca monocerata) were once plentiful in California, but presently only three ofshore islands, Castle Rock, the Farallon Islands, and Afio Nuevo Island, provide nesting habitat for approximately 95 percent of the California breeding population of Rhinoceros Auklets, which totals no more than 2,000 birds. Since 1992, we have studied and managed the population of Rhinoceros Auklets on Aiio Nuevo Island (ANI),part of Afio State Reserve (ANSR),and within boundaries of the Moizterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Annually, our goals are to assess population status, reproductive peij$omzance, and food habits of this recovering species. Management eforts have involved protection and enhancement of habitat through the construction of boardwalks, implementation of an Island Research Protocol, and installation of nest boxes. The breeding population of Rhinoceros Auklets on ANI increased from 1993-1997, but dropped substantially in 1998 in response to the El Nifio warm-water anomaly. Thisfluctuation was due mainly to a reduction of birds breeding in natural burrows. The population increased again in 1999, but still remained lower than pre-El Nifio levels. The success of nest boxes as a seabird restoration tool has been indicated by the immediate and continuing occupation of nest boxes, the return of chicks reared in boxes to breed in boxes, and the increased productivity (percent successful) of pairs breeding in boxes, fast approaching that observed in natural burrows. Rhinoceros Auklets on ANI have predominantly relied on northern anchovies (Engraulis mordax) to rear their chicks; in years of high ancho~yabundance we have observed both high chick growth rates, fledging weights, and overall productivity. In relation to our conservation eforts, the El Niiio of 1998 was a set-back, but the breeding population seems to have started recovery in the subsequent cold-water La Nifia yeal: Howevel; loss of nesting habitat on ANI continues to pose some problems. We plan on continued Rhinoceros Auklet population monitoring, development of a habitat restoration/stabilizationprogram to minimize erosion of auklet nesting areas, and development of a population viability aizalysis to look at the long-term progress for the population.

Introduction Rhinoceros Auklets spend much of Rhinoceros Auklets were once Rhinoceros Auklets (Cerorhinca the fall and winter on the ocean feed- plentiful in California, but most of the monocerata) are a crevice/burrow- ing. In the springtime, mature adults breeding population disappeared by the nesting seabird (family Alcidae) that return to colonies to initiate breeding late 1800s (Grinnell 1926). A breeds throughout the North Pacific activities. Rhinoceros Auklets are be- recolonization event began in the 1970s Rim. World population estimates are lieved to be monogamous (Richardson (Scott et al. 1974). Presently three off- roughly 1 million individuals. De- 1961 ; Leschner 1976; PRBO unpub- shore islands, Castle Rock, the Farallon spite its common name, a reference lished data), and they generally breed Islands, and Aiio Nuevo Island, provide to the distinct "horn" that develops in the same crevice or burrow, year af- nesting habitat for approximately 95 on its bill each spring, the Rhinoc- ter year. They are strong diggers, and percent of the California breeding eros Auklet is more closely related can use their powerful bill and their population, which totals no more than to puffins than auklets, based on sharply-clawed feet to excavate bur- 2,000 birds (Carter et al. 1992). Cur- morphological similarities, life his- rows deep in the soil. The female lays rently, expansions have been docu- tory, and systematics (Storer 1945; one egg and both sexes share in the mented as far south as San Miguell Hudson et al. 1969; Strauch 1985). duties of incubation and chick-rearing. Prince Islands in the southern Cali-

Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 Endangered Species UPDATE 63 Rhinocerous Auklet Population Distribution in California Nuevo State Reserve supervising ranger G. Strachan in 1986 (Lewis and Tyler 1987). In 1992. ANSR and the Point Reyes Bird Observatory (PRBO) Marine Science Division initiated a project to promote growth of this population. The project has entailed ( 1) con- stmction of boardwalks to reduce both human and pinniped disturbance to burrows. (2) installation of nest boxes to supplement breeding habitat, provide Islands k,- 1 protected nest sites. and aid in moni- 0 300 km toring and management efforts, and (3) studies of demographic traits, population dynamics. and feeding ecology to Figure 1. Castle Rock, Farallon, and AAo Nuevo Islands. develop an understanding of factors affecting auklet population dynamics. fornia Bight. though colonies there loss of nesting habitat to erosion and are small. trampling by pinnipeds, and human dis- Population size Rhinoceros Auklets ase designated turbance (Lewis andTyler 1987. PRBO Restoration efforts thus far have been "a species of special concern" by the unpublished data). successful for this recovering species. State of Califonlia and "a species of In the early 1980s, Rhinoceros Breeding population size of Rhinoceros high priority management need" by the AuMets established a small colony on Auklets is generally difficult to estimate U.S. Fish andwildlife Semice. Threats Aiio Nuevo Island (ANI: 37" 1122"W). because auklets are burrow/crevice- to the Aiio Nuevo Rhinoceros Auklet approxin~ately32 km north of Santa nesting seabirds and are usually active population include oil and chemical Cruz, California, and lkrn off the coast. on the breeding colony only at night. pollution (e.g.. the 1986Ape.x Ho~isiorl Birds were seen canying fish in 1982 The Rhinoceros Auklet population on oil spill killed or debilitated approxi- (presumably back to their offspring on AN1 grew at a rate of 16.6 percent per mately 1,600 Rhinoceros Auklets in the island: Levalley and Evens 1982). yeas between 1993 and 1997. doubling central California (Page er 01. 1990)). and burrows were documented by Aiio the number of breeding pairs from 5 1

Figure 2. Population trends of Rhinoceros Auklets on Ano Nuevo Island, 1993-1999.

64 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 to 101 (Figure 2). During the 1998 "El known-age Rhinoceros Auklets and Rhinoceros Auklet reproductive Nifio" event, the population declined provide the first information on age at performance was lower and timing of considerably, due mainly to a drop in first breeding and other critical demo- breeding later during the 1998 El Nifio the number of pairs nesting in natural graphic traits. Most of these auklets event. The mean egg-laying date usu- burrows. Heavy winter and spring were banded as chicks on ANI, but we ally occurs in early May, and have been storms that year may have increased have also observed immigration from as early as 27April(1997). Yet in 1998, erosion on the island, thereby dimin- Southeast Farallon Island, located 90 the average egg-laying date was 22 ishing habitat availability (see Erosion km to the north, approximately 42 km May in nest boxes and 26 May in natu- below). Additionally, poor prey avail- off the San Francisco shore. Auklets ral burrows. Reproductive perfor- ability as aresult of elevated water tem- of known age have also been captured mance in natural burrows has been high peratures off central California in 1998 in mist-nets carrying fish, indicating at close to 80 percent, except for a dip may have been related to reduced that they are nesting in natural burrows. during the 1998 El Niiio (Figure 3). breeding effort. However, the breed- Reproductive success of pairs in nest ing population increased again in 1999, Nest boxes versus boxes started out low at 31 percent in a cold-water "La Nifia" year. Although natural burrows 1993, but similar to our findings on not at pre-El Niiio levels, the Rhinoc- After nest boxes were installed in early population size, we have seen a signifi- eros Auklet population on ANI has still 1993, breeding auklets quickly occu- cant trend of increasing productivity increased significantly since we began pied approximately 60 percent of these since then, reaching 70 percent in 1999. restoration efforts in 1993. boxes by 1995, and this rate has re- However, for the four years in which mained constant since then. In 1995, boxes and burrows were both success- Juvenile recruitment we also started monitoring natural bur- fully monitored (1995, 1997-19991, re- Auklets born on ANI have now started rows with an minature infrared cam- productive performance was still sig- to return to breed on their own, and era. The occupancy rate of natural bur- nificantly higher in burrows. some have successfully fledged chicks. rows has varied from approximately 70 This indicates success of the boxes as to 90 percent. Thus the occupancy rate Chick growth and diet a restoration tool. Moreover, these are in boxes is still somewhat lower than Chick growth rates and fledging the first breeding observations of that in burrows. weights were significantly lower dur-

1 I

0.9 -- 05) (47! ... -. -. - -- - - .------, -- (57) .-V) 0.8 b X , Q , (45) V) 0.7 -- I 5 b$ ." /'(30) b / Q .- C 0.6 -- /$$\\ '\, ##a I/ ;c' ,#' / Q ,flfl '. u 0 4% '\ *# / Q 0.5 -- fMfl \ \ ------AN1 natural V) (32) V burrows 0 (32) 8 0 AN1 nest h 0.4 0 boxes -- / 0 -----A 0.3 -- (21) (12) *Numbers in ( ) are total number of chickslpair 0.2 -- forsit? each type of nesting

0.1 --

0, 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Figure 3. Reproductive performance of Rhinoceros Auklets on AAo Nuevo Island, 1993-1999.

Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 Endangered Species UPDATE 65 ing the 1998 El Nifio, as well as in 1996, than in other years, especially 1995 and 1999. Chick growth. fledging weights. and productivity are influenced by food availability. In this ecosystem, preda- tion does not appear to play a significant role in affecting auklet productivity. Rhinoceros Auklets are visual, pur- suit-diving foragers, propelled under- water by their wings. They feed primarily on schooling fish, like anchovies, and cephalopods, like squid. A set of ridges inside the bill (know as palantine denticles) allows the Rhinoc- eros Auklet to hold prey while continuing to forage. Consequently, birds may deliver multiple prey items to their chicks at each feeding. Where Rhinoc- Rhinoceros auklet chick. eros Auklets breed in association with gulls, as on ANI, they generally return However, some Rhinoceros Auklet has been evident. The 1998 El Nifio to feed chicks at night to avoid burrows continue to .be destroyed and, event caused a short-tern~decline in kleptoparasitism (i.e,stealing of fish by or damaged each year. We suspect that food availability, resulting in reduced gulls). We mist-netted adults at night a large portion of these are damaged nesting effort and reproductive perfor- during the peak chick-rearing period to by soil erosion. In 1999, exceptionally mance and greater habitat degradation evaluate food habits each year. strong winds scoured the northwestern in that year. However. the trend for a Rhinoceros Auklets preyed pre- sides of the island, further eroding por- growing population returned in 1999. dominantly on northern anchovies tions of Rhinoceros Auklet breeding Reproductive performance in both (Engraulis mordax) to rear their chicks habitat already affected by severe 1998 nest boxes and natural burrows has in- in 1993- 1995 and 1999. Juvenile rock- El Nifio storms. While there is ample creased, with nest boxes reaching the fish (Sebastes sp.), squid (Loligo vegetation in certain areas of the island. highest productivity yet recorded in opalescens), and Pacific sausy there is little vegetation in established 1999. lessening the gap between boxes (Cololabis saira) were selected more Rhinoceros Auklet breeding areas. and burrows. In a site-faithful species frequently than anchovies in 1996. Other burrows may be crushed by such as Rhinoceros Auklets, this trend 1997, and 1998, respectively. How- Brandt's Cormorants (Phalac~ocoms suggests that young pairs may have ever, when analyzed in terms of biom- pmicillutus) trying to create new nest- initially colonized nest boxes. with their ass, anchovies also made up the ma- ing areas. roosting Brown Pelicans reproductive success increasing with jority of chick diet in 1997. In 1996 (Pelecanus occidentalis). or northern age andlor experience. These results and 1998,when anchovies made up less elephant seals (Miroulzgn also suggest that after some time, pro- than 35 percent biomass of the diet. culgustirostris) or California sea lions ductivity in boxes and burrows may not chick growth rates and fledging weights (Zalopltus cal$ornianus) moving be significantly different, allowing us decreased. Productivity declined in through auklet nesting habitat. Tram- to rely on data obtained from the more 1998 as well, when sauries comprised pling by pelicans, cormorants. or pin- easily-monitored nest boxes. approximately 65 percent of chick diet. nipeds would be difficult to prevent. Continuing efforts to promote however. revegetation of nesting growth of Rhinoceros Auklet popu- Erosion and disturbance to habitat by native plant species nlay lations on ANI. as well as nearby nesting habitat alow soil erosion and lessen the ef- Southeast Farallon Island (SEFI). Disturbance and destruction of nesting fects of trampling. provide a good opportunity to con- habitat has been substantially reduced serve this rare seabird in California. by using boardwalks in auklet nesting Conclusions Future studies should continue to areas, and educating visitors and other During this work, a trend of overall in- monitor and evaluate population researchers about the sensitivity of creasing breeding population size and trends, especially as the auklet popu- Rhinoceros Auklets to disturbance. reproductive performance in nest boxes lation continues to recover from re-

66 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 peated El Niiio events and other fac- vegetation, may reduce soil erosion nithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. tors, such as oil pollution. and stabilize seabird breeding habitat. Grinnell, J. 1926. The evidence of the former breeding of the Rhinoceros Auklet in Cali- Documenting the changes in prey Finally, information on juvenile fornia. Condor 28:37-40. availability and selection among recruitment, survivorship, and immi- Harfenist, A. 1995. Effects of growth-rate years has important implications for gration is now becoming available. variation on fledging of RhinocerosAuklets evaluating demographic characteris- We have obtained seven years of (Cerorhinca monocerata). Auk 112:60-66. tics as well as indicating the status of markhecapture data from banding Hester, M.M. 1998. Abundance, reproduction, and prey of Rhinoceros Auklet, forage fish stocks in central Califor- efforts. These parameters will con- Cerorhinca monocerata, on Aiio Nuevo Is- nia. Productivity was high in years tribute to the assessment of the long- land, California. Masters Thesis, San Fran- when anchovy was the predominant term prognosis for the Rhinoceros cisco State University and Moss Landing food item. Anchovies are neritic Auklet colony on ANI. Since esti- Marine Laboratories, California. Hudson, G.E., K.M. Hoff, J.V. Berge, and E.C. schooling fish found near ANI, with mates of adult and juvenile survival Trivette. 1969. A numerical study of the a high caloric content (152 ca1/100g, and immigration do not exist for any wing and leg muscles of Lari and Alcae. Sidwell 198 1). While cephalopods other Rhinoceros Auklet population, Ibis 11 1:459-524. may be an important food item for this study will provide unique infor- Leschner, L.L. 1976. The breeding biology adults (Morejohn et al. 1978, Croxall mation needed to manage Rhinoceros of the RhinocerosAuklet on Destruction Is- land. Masters Thesis, University of Wash- 1987), they have a lower caloric con- Auklets throughout the Pacific Rim. ington, Seattle. tent than anchovies (-70 ca1/100g, Levalley, R. and J. Evens. 1982. The nest- Sidwell1981) and may not be an op- Acknowledgments ing season: middle Pacific coast region. timal diet item during chick-rearing. We are indebted to Aiio Nuevo State American Birds 36:1011-1015. Lewis, D.B. and B. Tyler. 1987. Manage- We hypothesize that auklets must Reserve personnel and docents for their ment recommendations for coastal terrace travel much farther to obtain pelagic- encouragement and logistical support and island resources at Aiio Nuevo State schooling sauries, usually found at for this project. In particular, we thank Reserve. Unpublished Report to Califor- least 40 miles offshore (K. Sacuma, Gary Strachan, SupervisingRanger, for nia Department of Parks and Recreation, NMFS pers. comm.). Therefore ob- his rigorous protection of the natural Aiio Nuevo State Reserve. Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California taining sauries may be more energeti- resources on AN1 and for his ongoing Santa Cruz. cally expensive than foraging for an- and enthusiastic support for this project. Miyazaki, M. 1996. Vegetation cover, chovies. It appears that northern an- We received generous financial support kleptoparasitism by diurnal gulls, and tim- chovy is important for the success of from the National Fish and Wildlife ing of arrival of nocturnal Rhinoceros the AN1 Rhinoceros Auklet colony, Auklets. Auk 113:698-702. Foundation, The Coastal Conservancy, Morejohn, G.V., J.T. Harvey, and L.T. yet not much is known about the sta- Oracle Corporate Giving Program, Krasnow. 1978. The importance of Loligo tus of this central California stock Exxon Mobile Company USA, and opalescens in the food web of marine ver- (Hester 1998). The Roberts Foundation. Many vol- tebrates in Monterey Bay, California. Fish. Also important, Rhinoceros unteers assisted with collection of data Bull. 169:67-97. Page G.W., H.R. Carter, and R.G. Ford. 1990. Auklet breeding habitat on AN1 ap- in the field, and without their help this Numbers of seabirds killed or debilitated pears to be degrading. Due to high project would not have been possible. in the 1986 Apex Houston oil spill in cen- winds and historical habitat alter- tral California. Studies in Avian Biology ations, vegetation on the island is Literature cited 14:164-174. sparse. Vegetation can have profound Carter, H.R., G.J. McChesney, D.L. Jaques, Richardson, F. 1961. Breeding biology of the Rhinoceros Auklet on Protection Island, effects on reproductive performance, C.S. Strong, M.W. Parker, J.E. Takekawa, D.L. Jory, and D.L. Whitworth. 1992. Washington. The Condor 63:456-473. as observed on Teuri Island, Japan, Breeding populations of seabirds in Cali- Scott, M.J., D.G. Ainley, and C.F. where reduced productivity has been fornia, 1989-1991. Unpublished Report of Zeillemaker. 1974. Range expansion and found in areas without vegetation the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Dixon, activity patterns in Rhinoceros Auklets. CA. Western Birds 5: 13-20. (Miyazaki 1996). The few vegetated Sidwell, V.D. 1981. Chemical and nutritional patches on AN1 are dominated by ex- Croxall, J.P.. ed. 1987. Seabirds, Feeding Ecology, and Role in Marine Ecosystems. composition of finfishes, whales, crusta- otic, invasive species which may Cambridge University Press. 408pp. ceans, mollusks, and their products. NOAA limit or reduce the amount of suit- Gaston, A.J., and S.B.C. Dechesne. 1996. Tech. Mem. NMFS FISEC- 11. 432 pp. able breeding habitat available to Rhinoceros Auklet (Cerorhinca Storer, R.W. 1945. Structural modifications in the hind limb of the Alcidae. Ibis 87:433- auklets. The reduction or eradication monocerata). In: The Birds of North America, No. 212 (A. Poole and F. Gill, 456. of exotic plant species on ANI, in eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Strauch, J.G., Jr. 1985. The phylogeny of conjunction with restoration of native Philadelphia, PA, sand The American Or- the Alcidae. The Auk 102520-539.

Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 Endangered Species UPDATE 67 Conservation Spotlight Cuban Amazon Parrot (Amazona leucocephala): Private Sector Participation in AZA Breeding Programs

RachCl Watkins Rogers Cuban Amazon N. American Regional Studbook, Parrot Jungle and Gardens. 11000 SW 57th Ave, Miami, FL 33156: [email protected]

Introduction on 27 May 1988. With the agree- The involkement of private sector The American Zoo and Aquarium ment in place between the AZA and breeders is key to long-term hold- Association (AZA) has developed the DO1 1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife ing capacity and reproduction of various breeding programs to re- Serike. birds were shipped in the species for which zoos have little sponsibly manage captive popula- summer of 199 1 to the selected Par- space. The Parrot TAG has created tions of selected species. The zoo- ticipants of the Cuban Amazon an AZA listsesv to facilitate com- logical community utilizes com- Consortium for breeding. The munication between the AZA Par- puter software distributed by an Consortium has been developed into rot TAG and private sectorbreeders. organization called International a Population Management Plan This is another step in the direction Species Information System (ISIS 1. (PMP). which means that the stud- of utilizing the expertise of private based in Minnesota Zoological Gar- book data are used to manage the breeders. dens. One of the essential elements population. This step has formalized Within the Cuban Amazon PMP of an AZA breeding program is ac- the efforts of this program to a higher there are two factors that are prov- curate studbook data of the species level of species management. ing to be important: ( I) the ability in the Single Population Animal to house large numbers of Cuban Records Keeping System Private sector participation Amazon parrots. due to their hab- (SPARKS) format. All recognized Zoological institutions are a major its of flocking; and (2)the ability studbook keepers utilize SPARKS part of species survival. but, as one to allow natural mate selection, due and an annual class is taught at the ivoman put it, "it takes a 'village'." to aggression during courtship. Not AZA Schools for Zoo and Aquarium Professionals. The AZA Parrot Taxon Advisory Group (TAG) is developing a Re- gional collection Plan to develop standards for nomenclature. records keeping, and program philosophies. This will enable zoo facilities to collaborate with private sector breeders. The development of long-range plans that include the private sector is being viewed as a way to utilize their expertise and add resources to propagation programs. The current managed population of Cuban Amazons (A. I. leucocephala),began as ti group of U. S. Department of Interior (DO1)- seized birds in Miami. FL. on 4 April 1988. The founder birds were Cuban Amazon parrot at 52 days. Courtesy San Diego Zoological SocietyIPhoto turned over to the Miami Metrozoo Lab. Conservation Spc 3tlight is produced in coniunction with the American Zoo and Aauarium Association.

68 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 many zoological institutions can allow a lot of space to be utilized by a single species because of the number of species that are in trouble. It is increasingly evident that we may lose our ability to sustain populations unless we can create more holding capacity. Many private sector breeders can specialize in species not held by zoos because they can use their holding space as they wish. Zoological institutions develop collection plans for exhibition of species. They do not always have the luxury of raising funding for off exhibit breeding, unless the public support and/or donor base becomes interested.

Cuban- .--..-~ Amazon------natural historv The nominate race is found on Cuban Amazon parrot chick. Courtesy San Diego Zoological SocietyIPhoto Lab. mainland Cuba. There are five rec- Guanahacabibes Peninsulas and in both live chicks and future nesting ognized subspecies: Sierra de Najasa on mainland Cuba. locations are being lost. Due to a *Amazons leucocephala In 1988, the Cuban Amazon popu- steady decline in the 1970s, the leucocephala-Mainland Cuba; lation was estimated at 5,000 indi- Cuban government enacted legisla- *A. I. palmarum-Isle of Youth; viduals. More current numbers are tion to limit the exportation of the *A. I. caymanensis-Grand not available as of this writing. Cuban Amazon for the pet trade Cayman; They commonly inhabit the wood- (GBlvez et al. 1995). In the 1980s, *A. 1, hesterna-Cayman Brac, lands of the mountains and low- the Empresa Nacional para la Little Cayman; and lands of mainland Cuba (Bond Proteccion de la Flora y Fauna ini- *A. I, bahamensis-Bahamas. 1956). A combination of pines and tiated a program to protect the ar- The historical studbook will even- palms are found in the wooded areas where the Cuban Amazon was tually include all five subspecies, eas of their habitat. found (GBlvez et al. 1995). but the current studbook only represents the nominate race in the Conservation status Conservation efforts managed population. Cuban Amazon parrots are listed on There is an effort between the Genetic analysis is not limited CITES Appendix I (1997) and the ProNaturaleza a non-governmental to tracing the lineage of the man- species is considered Near-Threat- organization (NGO), the Roger aged population. Much work and ened with extinction. For the most Williams Park ZooIRhode Island funding is needed to create a lab test part, the Cuban Amazon has been Zoological Society, and the Havana to karyotype the Cuban Amazon by smuggled into the United States for Zoo in Cuba to conduct an in situ subspecies. This will facilitate the the purpose of selling them to the study the Isle of Youth parrot (A. 1. addition of new birds to the man- pet trade. There are also reports in palmarum). The Isle of Youth par- aged population because they can situ by Mitchell and Wells (1997), rot is a subspecies of the nominate be properly classified and prevent that people are toppling dead palms race and is found on an island off sub-specific hybridization. to rob and destroy nests. Despite the coast of mainland Cuba. The Cuban Amazon is re- the efforts of a dedicated group of Through these collaborative stricted to eastern and central Cuba. forest rangers in the Zapata region efforts, an expanded version of the According to Juniper and Parr of Cuba, nest disturbances of this original census (Giilvez et al. 98) (1998), the main areas of concen- kind make nest sites unusable for was completed in November of trated populations are Zapata and the next breeding season. Thus, 1998. Surveys were conducted in

Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 Endangered Species UPDATE 69 the eight study sites and ninety- Epilogue 1000, ph. (407) 939-6383: fax 939- eight stations that were originally Being involved with a conservation surveyed in 1995. effort comes in many forms-some A component of the conserva- people donate their money, some Literature cited tion effort in Cuba is to educate the donate their time and some donate Juniper. T.. M. Parr. 1998. Parrots: a guide local communities where the Cuban their skills and expertise. For the to parrots of the world. Yale University Press. United States and Pica Press. United Amazon and Isle of Youth Amazon Participants of the Cuban Amazon Kingdom. parrots are found. The Havana Zoo PMP, it is a combination of all three Bond. J. 1958. Checklist of Birds of the Education Department plans to as- forms of involvement. It is not al- %lest Indies. JIhEdition. Academy of Natu- sist with this initiative. Plans are ways possible to find people will- ral Sciences. Philadelphia. being developed to promote the tng to do all three. hlitchell. A,. L. Wells. 1997. The Threat- ened Birds of Cuba Report. Cotinga Jour- Cuban Parrot as a flagship species If you have any questions or con- nal of the Neotropical Brd Club ILK). for endangered and threatened Cu- cerns about the Cuban Amazon PMP, April Issue: November 7. ban wildlife. This program will please contact the author or you may Galvez. X..V. Berovides. J. Wiley. J. Rivera. hopefully improve awareness about contact or Grenville Roles, Coordi- 1995. Population Surveys of the Cuban Parrot (Anza:onii lrrlc.oct~l~I~~I~~~i~lt?iarllin ) the plight of the nominate race nator. Cuban Amazon Consortium. and Sandhill Crane IG~IIJ~.l~i~i~(lellsi.s found on mainland Cuba. Disney's Animal Kingdom, P. 0.Box rlrsiotrs) in the Northern Part of lsla de la 10.000. Lake Buena Vista, FL 32830- Jwentud. Cuba. December Report.

Captive Cuban Amazon parrots. Courtesy San Diego Zoological SocietyIPhoto Lab.

70 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 17 No. 3 2000 News From Zoos

Wild-Caught California Condor Returned to the Wild After 14 years in captivity, the last female California Condor caught in the wild was released on April 4th: 2000. Adult Condor-8 (AC-8) was captured on April 19, 1986 by the California Condor Recovery Team, whose plan was collect the few remaining wild Condors and bring them into captivity in hopes of instituting a breeding program that would allow offspring to be released into the wild. The team was a partnership involving several institutions - the San Diego Zoo, the San Diego Wild Animal Park, and the Los Angeles Zoo - and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Despite initial protests by those who felt the program would result in the extinction of the species, the program has been a tremendous success. The 27 Condors in captivity in 1987 have flourished, leading to a current population of 155 Condors, with 56 of them living in the wild. During her time in the captive-breeding program, AC-8 produced 9 offspring, and she is the first of the original wild-caught Condors to be released. For the last several months, AC-8 has been housed in a flight pen at the Los Angeles Zoo with two juvenile Condors who were released along with her, to help them hone their survival skills. They have also undergone power pole aversion training, in which a realistic power pole installed in their flight pen provided a light shock whenever a Condor landed on it, reinforcing the necessity for Condors to stay away from these potentially fatal structures in the wild. Once released, the Condors will be tracked via satellite through special transmitters that have been fitted to the birds' wings. Observing AC-8's behavior upon her return to her native territory will provide crucial information to researchers, and will greatly assist future Condor releases.

Ohio Zoos Helping to Save Manatees In two separate incidences this February, manatees that had been rehabilitated with the help of Ohio zoos were returned to the wild. On February 16th, Comet, a 1,000 lb, manatee that had been rehabilitated at the Columbus Zoo, was released at Blue Springs State Park, FL as part of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's (FWS) rehabilitation program. The manatee was fitted with a satellite/radio/sonic transmitter belt purchased by the zoo, to follow his post-release movements and behavior. And on February 22nd, Xoshi, a female manatee that had been abandoned as a calf, then rescued and rehabilitated at the Lowry Park Zoological Gardens in Tampa, was released into the St. John's River near Orlando. Technology paid for by the Cincinnati Zoo Conservation Fund will allow for monitoring of her movements, as well. Visitors to the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden will be able to see Xoshi's position from a computer terminal in their Manatee Springs exhibit. Both the Cincinnati Zoo and the Columbus Zoo opened manatee exhibits in 1999-Manatee Springs in Cincin- nati, and Manatee Coast in Columbus. The manatees that inhabit the exhibits were lent as part of a FWS program designed to free space in Florida facilities for the critical care of manatees that are injured by boat propellers or become tangled in fishing lines.

Zoological Society of San Diego Receives $7.5 Million Grant The Zoological Society of San Diego (ZSSD) received the largest grant in its 83-year history this month, when it was awarded seven and a half million dollars by the Arnold and Mabel Beckman Foundation. The donation, of which $5 million is an outright gift and $2.5 million is a challenge grant to be matched by other donors, will help construct a $20 million Center for Reproduction of Endangered Species (CRES) facility at the San Diego Wild Animal Park. CRES, the research and conservation branch of the ZSSD, melds high-tech science with in situ field work to study and preserve endangered animals and their habitats. "Because the CRES staff and projects have increased significantly since the CRES was founded 25 years ago, we desperately need new research facilities," said Dr. Kurt Benirschke, president, Zoological Society. "The generous Beckman Foundation grant is an incredible beginning to building our new facility and will enable us to continue leading the world in research and wildlife conservation efforts.'' CRES will be built as a second phase of the Paul Harter Veterinary Medical Center, which will open at the Wild Animal Park later this year.

Information for News from Zoos is provided by the American Zoo and Aquarium Association.

VoL 17 No. 3 2000 Endangered Species UPDATE 71 News & Events

Conservation Biology Institute state, provincial. NGO, and commer- papers that are useful to. and under- launches Pacific Northwest cial internet sites. standable by, growers and planters of Conservation Assessment on native plants, and that contribute sig- the web Canada enacts nificantly to scientific literature. The A wealth of information on 40 terres- Species at Risk Act first issue of Natitle Plants Journal is trial ecoregions of the Pacific North- The Government of Canada unveiled now available with full articles with west is now easily accessible via Con- its first-ever bill designed to protect information on fern propagation, servation Biology Institute's endangered Canadian wildlife from Eriogonurn seed gemination, conser- (Corvallis, Oregon) website: http:// extinction. Species at Risk in Canada vation biology of an endangered gold- www.consbio.org. From CBI's home has a web site at http://www.cws- enrod, establishing native grasses page, click on the map of the Pacific scf.ec.gc.ca/sara/. You can search for with herbicides. Meel7ailia cordatu, Northwest or go directly to: http:// information either by selecting an and more. Future articles include www.consbio.org/cbi/assess/assess- area on a map (coming soon), or by a growing subaquatic vegetation, field main.htm species search (by risk category. performance of California oaks, reg- The site reviews 30 terrestrial range, Latin name, and colnnlon istering pesticides, a low-tech seed ecoregions of the Pacific Northwest name 1. The status of these species is collection system, several propaga- as defined by World Wildlife Fund. assigned by the Committee on the tion protocols using coir as a grow- These encompass all of Alaska, Status of Endangered Wildlife in ing medium, and much more. Yukon Territory. British Columbia, Canada. First-year, complimentary copies Washington, Oregon, Idaho and por- are available while supplies last. Re- tions of the Northwest Territories, New journal of native plants quest yours on-line at http:// Alberta, Montana, Wyoming, Nevada N~~ti~lePlants Jozirnal is a new jour- wu~w.uidaho.edu/nativeplants,or by and California. For this entire region nal providing a forum for dispersing email at [email protected]. of North America, there is a current practical information about the grow- sunlmary of protection status and ing and planting of North American Anrzourzceme~~tsfor News and Events are ~t'el- more than 125 web links to valuable endemics for conservation. landscap- cotned. Sorne iterns lzn\'e beer1 provided hx geographic data sources (with brief ing. reforestation, and restoration. the Sr?7ithsonian bzstitutiotl's Biological Con- descriptions available from federal. Twice each year, the journal publishes seri'atio11Ne\r~sletter:

Non-Profit Organization U.S. POSTAGE PA1D Ann Arbor, MI UPDATE Permit No. 144

School of Natural Resources and Environment The University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 481 09-1 11 5