DOCSLIB.ORG

Upholding Human Rights in Europe During the Pandemic

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Upholding Human Rights in Europe During the Pandemic BRIEFING Upholding human rights in Europe during the pandemic SUMMARY The severe coronavirus outbreak has forced governments across the world to resort to drastic measures in order to slow down the spread of the virus and prevent a public health crisis. As elsewhere, these emergency measures taken in Europe have affected all aspects of societal life and profoundly impacted people's personal freedoms and individual rights, as enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). Although certain human rights can be suspended in situations of emergency, human rights conventions, such as the ECHR, continue to apply even then. In fact, many human rights instruments provide for such situations and contain dedicated 'emergency clauses' that give governments additional flexibility to address crises. Indeed, within the ECHR framework, Article 15 is one such clause that allows Council of Europe (CoE) member states to temporarily diverge from their ordinary convention obligations to resolve an emergency, provided certain conditions are met. During the coronavirus pandemic, derogation clauses such as Article 15 of the ECHR, have gained particular importance, as so far 10 CoE member states have notified their intention to derogate from certain ECHR provisions in order to tackle the outbreak. This briefing explains the functioning of Article of the 15 ECHR and its application to the current health emergency. Furthermore, it lists some fundamental rights and freedoms that have been affected by the coronavirus emergency measures, while also showcasing how Member States have sought to reconcile measures to protect public health with the fundamental rights principles enshrined in the ordinary framework of the ECHR. The briefing also stresses that it is key to protect the human rights of vulnerable persons, including during the implementation of recovery strategies. In this Briefing • Derogations under the European Convention of Human Rights in times of emergency • Impact of the anti-coronavirus measures on individual rights and freedoms under the ECHR • Safeguarding the human rights of vulnerable groups • Putting human rights at the centre of the recovery strategies EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service Author: Anja Radjenovic with Gianna Eckert Members' Research Service PE 652.085 – September 2020 EN EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service Derogations under the European Convention of Human Rights in times of emergency In response to the coronavirus pandemic, 10 Council of Europe (CoE) member states, including a few EU Member The European Convention of States, have derogated from certain human rights Human Rights (ECHR) protected under the European Convention on Human The ECHR is an international treaty drafted Rights (ECHR). in 1950 within the framework of the The particular role of Article 15 of the ECHR Council of Europe (CoE). So far, all 47 CoE member states have ratified the ECHR. EU The ECHR constitutes one of the key instruments to Member States are all CoE members and safeguard fundamental rights across Europe. Within this parties to the ECHR, and the EU is also set to framework, Article 15 of the ECHR deals with human accede to it, but the accession has proven rights protection during emergency situations and forms more legally complex than initially thought. an important cornerstone of the Treaty. At core a classic The ECHR established the European Court derogation clause, Article 15 of the ECHR allows CoE of Human Rights (ECtHR) as the member states to temporarily deviate from certain adjudicatory body overseeing member convention rules in order to address 'war or other public states' compliance with the convention. A emergency'. Provided a series of strictly defined peculiarity of the ECtHR body is that conditions are met, member states may lawfully adopt individuals may bring complaints against any one of the CoE member states before it measures that under normal circumstances may have for violations of their rights enshrined in the amounted to a breach of the ECHR. ECHR. Article 15 of the ECHR thus widens the margin of action for governments in situations of distress and allows for an effective resolution of the crisis at hand. On the other hand, Article 15 imposes clear boundaries on governmental action (i.e. by stipulating a list of non-derogable rights) and thus guarantees respect for the fundamental rights and values under the ECHR, especially in times of severe crisis. In this way, Article 15 plays a crucial role in upholding human rights during an emergency and facilitates the delicate balancing act between the need for urgent action and the protection of core rights throughout periods of emergency. Article 15 ECHR (Derogation in times of emergency) 1. In time of war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation any High Contracting Party may take measures derogating from its obligations under this Convention to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation, provided that such measures are not inconsistent with its other obligations under international law. 2. No derogation from Article 2, except in respect of deaths resulting from lawful acts of war, or from Articles 3, 4 (paragraph 1) and 7 shall be made under this provision. Any High Contracting Party availing itself of this right of derogation shall keep the Secretary General of the Council of Europe fully informed of the measures which it has taken and the reasons therefor. It shall also inform the Secretary General of the Council of Europe when such measures have ceased to operate and the provisions of the Convention are again being fully executed. Conditions that need to be present for activation of Article 15 ECHR The activation of Article 15 is subject to a strict set of conditions designed to prevent abuse and thus unlawful restrictions of human rights in times of distress. Firstly, Article 15(1) stipulates that member states may only resort to derogations when faced with particularly serious emergencies, notably in times of war or other public emergency apt to threaten the life of a nation. The latter requirement sets a high threshold and, according to the ECtHR Guide on Article 15, refers to 'an exceptional situation of crisis or emergency which affects the whole 2 Upholding human rights in Europe during the pandemic population and constitutes a threat to the organised life of the community of which the State is composed' (Lawless v. Ireland). Secondly, the ECtHR has ruled that Article 15 implies that the situation of emergency must be actual or imminent and that the crisis or danger should reveal a degree of 'exceptionality' rendering measures normally permissible inadequate to restore public order, health and safety (the 'Greek case'). If these requirements are satisfied, derogations are permissible in principle. However, Article 15 does not grant unlimited powers to states with regard to their emergency responses. On the contrary, it imposes boundaries on the nature and the scope of the envisaged derogation. In this regard, Article 15(1) stipulates that states may only take derogating measures to the 'extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation'. Whether a state measure has exceeded these requirements and thus amounts to an unlawful derogation may be challenged before the ECtHR. The ECtHR then considers various factors, such as the nature and the importance of the rights affected by the derogation (Brannigan and McBride v. the United Kingdom), the duration of the measure, whether the need for derogation is kept under regular review (Brannigan and McBride v. the United Kingdom), whether the measures are subject to safeguards (Ireland v. the United Kingdom) and whether the measures are a genuine response to the respective emergency (Alparslan Altan v. Turkey). On multiple occasions in the past, the ECtHR has stressed that 'the existence of a public emergency must not serve as a pretext for limiting freedom of political debate' and that even in a state of emergency member states 'must bear in mind that any measures taken should seek to protect the democratic order from the threats to it, and every effort must be made to safeguard the values of a democratic society, such as pluralism, tolerance and broadmindedness' (Mehmet Hasan Altan v. Turkey; Şahin Alpay v. Turkey). These elements will be assessed in consideration of the 'conditions and circumstances reigning when [the measures] were originally taken and subsequently applied', as clarified in the case law (Ireland v. the United Kingdom). Additionally, a country's emergency measures, although deviating from ECHR standards, must not be in violation of other international laws and treaties. Derogations from human rights standards under the ECHR should not serve as a way to circumvent other international norms; hence why Article 15(1) states that national emergency measures must not reveal any inconsistencies with a country's 'other obligations under international law'. Finally, Article 15(2) defines a list of absolute rights that may never be subject to any derogation (non-derogable rights). As such, Article 2 (right to life), Article 3 (prohibition of torture and other forms of ill-treatment), Article 4(1) (prohibition of slavery or servitude) and Article 7 (no punishment without law), which enshrines essential elements of the rule of law principle, are protected from derogations and must be observed by states at all times. Formal requirements for the activation of Article 15 of the ECHR A derogation under Article 15 of the ECHR requires prior notification. As set out in Article 15(3), state authorities must notify their intention to derogate to the CoE Secretary General and provide detailed information about the specific measures that will be taken as well as their purpose. In absence of any notification, Article 15 does not apply to the adopted measures and a member state may not rely on the derogation clause, as clarified by the Court (Cyprus v. Turkey). The rationale behind the notification system is to increase transparency and accountability.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Position Paper of February 2018
    Regional Office for Europe European Added Value The EU Multi-Annual Financial Framework Post-2020: A Tool to Close Human Rights Gaps in Europe? EUROPEAN ADDED VALUE THE EU MULTI-ANNUAL FINANCIAL FRAMEWORK POST 2020: A TOOL TO CLOSE HUMAN RIGHTS GAPS IN EUROPE? Position Paper by the UN Human Rights Regional Office for Europe in consultation with: - COFACE – Families Europe - European Roma Information Office (ERIO) - European Federation of National Organisations - Mental Health Europe (MHE) Working with the Homeless (FEANTSA) - Platform for International Cooperation on - European Network of Equality Bodies (EQUINET) Undocumented Migrants (PICUM) - European Network on Independent Living (ENIL) - Hope and Homes for Children - European Disability Forum (EDF) - European Roma Grassroots Organisations Network (ERGO Network) - Validity - LUMOS List of Terms Cohesion Policy: The cohesion policy of the European Union (EU) aims to strengthen economic and social cohesion by reducing disparities in the level of development between regions in the EU. It targets regions and cities to support job creation, business competitiveness, economic growth, sustainable development, and improve quality of life. The cohesion policy is the EU’s main investment policy. Directive: An EU Directive is a legislative act that sets out a goal that all EU countries must achieve. It is up to individual EU Member States to adopt national legislation to reach this goal. European Added Value: European added value is a core principle of EU policy-making, used to identify areas in which the EU should act by legislating, policy-making or financing. The added value can consist of greater effectiveness, or complementarity, improved coordination, or enhanced legal certainty.
    [Show full text]
  • The European Commission of Human Rights: an Analysis and Appraisal, 3 Brook
    Brooklyn Journal of International Law Volume 3 | Issue 2 Article 3 1977 The urE opean Commission of Human Rights: An Analysis and Appraisal John T. White Follow this and additional works at: https://brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu/bjil Recommended Citation John T. White, The European Commission of Human Rights: An Analysis and Appraisal, 3 Brook. J. Int'l L. (1977). Available at: https://brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu/bjil/vol3/iss2/3 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Law Journals at BrooklynWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Brooklyn Journal of International Law by an authorized editor of BrooklynWorks. THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION OF HUMAN RIGHTS: AN ANALYSIS AND APPRAISAL John T. Wright* INTRODUCTION During the past thirty years, the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms has been the focus of a number of instruments promulgated by the community of nations. The Uni- versal Declaration of Human Rights,1 the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,2 and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights3 form the basis of efforts by the United Nations to secure the observance of human rights among member States. In addition to these universal documents, the countries of Europe have drawn upon their common heritage to promote the realization of human rights through the ratifica- tion of the European Convention on Human Rights and Funda- mental Freedoms.' The Convention creates a Commission of Human Rights, as well as a European Court of Human Rights. This article will explore the workings of the Commission, the more active of the two bodies, and will analyze its effectiveness in establishing a standard for the observance of human rights in light of the differing political systems of the European States.
    [Show full text]
  • 9024/19 OZ 1 RELEX 2 B Delegations Will Find Attached the EU Annual Report on Human Rights and Democracy in the World 2018 Adop
    Council of the European Union Brussels, 13 May 2019 (OR. en) 9024/19 COHOM 53 COPS 141 CFSP/PESC 349 DEVGEN 93 FREMP 67 INF 126 JAI 473 RELEX 451 CSDP/PSDC 218 COJUR 3 OUTCOME OF PROCEEDINGS From: General Secretariat of the Council To: Delegations No. prev. doc.: 8592/19 Subject: EU Annual Report on Human Rights and Democracy in the World 2018 Delegations will find attached the EU Annual Report on Human Rights and Democracy in the World 2018 adopted by the Council at its 3688th meeting held on 13 May 2019. 9024/19 OZ 1 RELEX 2 B EN ANNEX EU Annual Report on Human Rights and Democracy in the World 2018 Contents 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 4 2. EU SPECIAL REPRESENTATIVE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS ............................................................. 5 3. EU WORK AT MULTILATERAL LEVEL ......................................................................................... 7 The EU in United Nations human rights fora ............................................................................................ 7 73rd session of the UN General Assembly (UNGA), Third Committee .................................................... 8 United Nations Human Rights Council sessions in 2018 .......................................................................... 8 The EU in the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe ..................................................... 10 The EU in the Council of Europe ...........................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Europe and Central Asia
    UN HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE FIELD UN HUMAN RIGHTS IN EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA LEGEND: Europe Montenegro Serbia Kosovo* Belarus Russian (Brussels) (UNMIK) Federation Spotlights: Disa bili ties Youth Ukraine Women Central Asia (Bishkek) Shifts: Global constituency Republic of South Caucasus Moldova (Tbilisi) Prevention Civic space Republic of North Climate change Geneva Macedonia Corruption Inequalities TYPE OF PRESENCE LOCATION New technologies Headquarters Geneva People on the move Country/Stand-alone Offices/ SDGs: Ukraine (HRMMU) Human Rights Missions Central Asia (Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic) Regional Offices/Centres Europe (Brussels, Belgium) Human rights components Kosovo* (UNMIK) of UN Peace/Political Missions Belarus, Montenegro, Republic of North Human Rights Advisers Macedonia, Republic of Moldova, Serbia, South deployed under the Caucasus (based in Tbilisi, covering Armenia, framework of the UNSDG Azerbaijan and Georgia) Other types of field presences Russian Federation * Hereinafter, all references to Kosovo should be understood in full compliance with United Nations Security Council resolution 1244 and without prejudice to the status of Kosovo. UN HUMAN RIGHTS REPORT 2019 333 UN HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE FIELD In 2019, the work of OHCHR in Europe vulnerable and marginalized groups, and Central Asia comprised 54 coun- such as Roma, people of African descent, tries and nine disputed territories. persons with disa bili ties, migrants and OHCHR expanded its presence in the sexual minorities; the arbitrary depriva- region by deploying two new human tion of liberty and the use of torture and rights advisers to UN Country Teams other cruel, inhuman or degrading treat- (UNCTs) in Montenegro and Moldova. ment or punishment against persons in The Office strengthened its engage- detention; and insufficient accountability ment with regional organizations and for human rights vio lations committed national authorities through its Regional by State agents creating a sense of Offices for Europe and for Central impunity.
    [Show full text]
  • Report1 Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights Rapporteur: Mr Michael Mcnamara, Ireland, Socialist Group
    http://assembly.coe.int Doc. 13714 18 February 2015 European institutions and human rights in Europe Report1 Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights Rapporteur: Mr Michael McNAMARA, Ireland, Socialist Group Summary The Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights notes that since the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty, the European Union has expanded its work, which now encompasses certain traditional activities of the Council of Europe, such as in the field of justice and home affairs as well as initiatives with respect to democracy, human rights and the rule of law, both inside and outside the European Union. In March 2014, the European Commission issued a Communication on “A new EU Framework to strengthen Rule of Law”, in order to address systematic threats to the rule of law in European Union member States. The Legal Committee stresses that the European Union should, in particular, make use of the Council of Europe’s expertise in implementing the European Commission’s proposal on the rule of law framework. The report also notes that Opinion 2/13 of the Court of Justice of the European Union on the European Union’s accession to the European Convention on Human Rights, of December 2014, identified a number of legal obstacles to this process, and stresses the need for negotiations to be resumed as soon as possible. The report also considers the “human rights” repercussions of austerity measures imposed on certain States in the eurozone – especially by the European Central Bank and the European Commission – and criticises lack of transparency in this area.
    [Show full text]
  • Guide for Americans”
    EUintheUS.org Contents Chapter One 1 Introducing the European Union 2 Chapter Two 2 How Is the EU Run? A Unique Governing System 6 Chapter Three 3 The EU-U.S. Partnership 13 Chapter Four 4 Economic and Monetary Union and the Euro 18 Editor’s Notes The entry into force of the European Union’s The term “European Union” (EU) is used in Chapter Five Treaty of Lisbon, in December 2009, ushered this brochure whenever appropriate. Other 5 European Enlargement and in a more efficient, more democratic, more terms, such as “European Community” and the European Neighborhood: transparent, more united, and more secure EU “European Coal and Steel Community”, are than ever before. The treaty’s provisions have used when the historical context is appropriate Europe Whole and Free 21 modernized the EU’s operations, reinforced its or to describe the statutory functions of bod- capacity to take action, enhanced democratic ies that still have legal identities within the EU. Chapter Six processes within the EU, and given the EU a 6 The EU on the World Stage – single voice in external relations. All information regarding EU institutions, Policies, Tools, and Global Relationships 26 policies, and programs is the most recent avail- The evolution brought about by the Treaty of able at the time of publication. For updated in- Chapter Seven Lisbon is only one of the many aspects of the formation, please consult www.euintheus.org, 7 European Union covered by this “Guide for the website of the Delegation of the European Signature EU Policies 38 Americans.” It also outlines the growth of the Union to the United States.
    [Show full text]
  • Topics for Post-16 Citizenship the European Union
    Topics for The Post-16 European Citizenship Union Introduction for staff In all age groups in the UK there are indications of a lack of knowledge and understanding of the European Union (EU) and not many Britons, it seems, identify in a positive way with Europe. In a recent survey of identities in different EU countries 4% of UK respondents chose “European” as the one word they most identified with compared with 23% in Germany and 20% in Poland1. Inter- pretations and views of these findings will vary. However, there can be no doubt that combating a lack of interest in, and ignorance of, European institutions and issues is an important task for citizenship education. On the following pages we have summarised some main points of the history and purpose of various European institutions as background for staff working with young people. Some activities are provided to raise students’ awareness of Europe and to encourage them engage in some of the arguments. Citizenship learning opportunities Many citizenship questions arise in relation to the development of the EU, the UK’s membership and the role of Europe in the wider world. Among them are: • What citizenship rights and responsibilities are entailed in EU membership? • Should we think of ourselves as being citizens of Europe? • How do the powers of the EU affect our daily lives? • What are the benefits and drawbacks of EU membership for the UK? • How do citizenship rights vary across different European countries? • Citizens of the 28 EU States have the right to live and work in any member country.
    [Show full text]
  • Decision Time on the European Court of Human Rights
    11 December 2009 AI Index: IOR61/009/2009 HUMAN RIGHTS IN EUROPE DECISION TIME ON THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS The system for the protection of human rights in Europe is under scrutiny. States are examining the European Court of Human Rights. At a Conference in February 2010 they will take decisions which could bring welcome reform to relieve the Court’s backlog of cases. Conversely, the decisions taken could undermine a body that has provided redress for the victims of human rights violations in Europe for 50 years. People in Europe (future applicants to the Court) have an interest at least equal to that of the states in ensuring the long-term effectiveness of the Court. States should therefore inform the public about the debates and consult civil society in the lead-up to the Conference and throughout the reform process which follows it. 47 states in Europe have agreed to be bound by the European Convention on Human Rights. States’ respect for the Convention rights of some 800 million people is monitored primarily by the European Court of Human Rights, based in Strasbourg. The Court makes binding judgments in cases where individuals claim that their Convention rights have been violated and that the state has not granted redress. The implementation of the Court’s judgments is supervised by the Committee of Ministers, representing all 47 Council of Europe states. WHAT WE WANT Enhanced respect for human rights by the 47 Council of Europe member states must remain the priority -- in more than 80 per cent of its judgments, the Court has ruled that the European Convention on Human Rights had been violated.
    [Show full text]
  • The European Human Rights Regime
    The European Human Rights Regime Dr. Anja Mihr, Program Director, European Master Program in Human Rights and Democratization, European Inter-University Center,Venice, Italy This course is an introduction to the human rights policies and politics within Europe. Europe has the most developed and elaborated regional human rights system and regime in the world. Attention will be given to intergovernmental organizations and actors involved in Europe, including the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the Council of Europe (CoE), the European Court for Human Rights (ECHR) and the European Union (EU) as well as non-governmental entities, such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. We will consider case studies of the mechanisms of the European human rights regime, its norms and systems for setting standards, monitoring and promoting human rights among the more than 40 countries. The course includes an in-depth analysis of the genesis and history of human rights in Europe; developments since 1945; the legal frameworks; decision-making bodies and procedures; and public awareness campaigns that have helped to create an extensive human rights monitoring system and a culture of human rights in Europe. (This course has been taught by A. Mihr in similar versions at Humboldt University Berlin, Germany and Columbia University New York, USA, Summer Session and at the European Inter-University Center in Venice, Italy, in 2005 and 2006) Course Requirement Each student is required to complete and present a paper, 15-20 pages in length, which can be on topics and issues such as institutional perspectives on human rights in Europe, political debates and/or particular case studies of different countries.
    [Show full text]
  • Politics, Religion and Gender
    Politics, Religion and Gender Heated debates about Muslim women’s veiling practices have regu larly attracted the attention of European policy makers over the last decade. The headscarf has been both vehemently contested by national and/or regional gov ernments, polit­ ical par ties and pub lic intellectuals, and pas sion ately defended by veil wearing women and their sup porters. Systematically applying a comparative per spect ive, this book addresses the question of why the headscarf tantalizes and causes such con tro versy over issues about religious plur al ism, secularism, neutrality of the state, gender oppression, citizen ship, migration and multiculturalism. Seeking also to estab lish why the issue has become part of the regulatory practices of some Euro pean countries but not of others, this work brings together an import ant collection of in ter pretative research re gard ing the current debates on the veil in Europe, offering an interdisciplinary scope using a common research methodology, the con trib utors focus on the different religious, polit ical and cultural meanings of the veiling issue across eight coun tries and develop a comparative explanation of veiling regimes. This work will be of great inter est to students and scholars of religion and pol itics, gender studies and multiculturalism. Sieglinde Rosenberger is Professor of Political Science at the University of Vienna, Austria. Her research inter ests focus on the governance of religious plur al ism, migration and integration, identities and gender relations. Birgit Sauer is Professor of Political Science at the Department of Political Science, University of Vienna, Austria.
    [Show full text]
  • Prospects of European Mechanism of Human Rights Protection in South Asia
    PROSPECTS OF EUROPEAN MECHANISM OF HUMAN RIGHTS PROTECTION IN SOUTH ASIA: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF EUROPEAN MODEL WITH THE SAARC An Article By: Anurag Devotka, Nepal, PROLAW 2013-2014 Edited By: Venera Ramaj, Kosovo, PROLAW 2013-2014 1. Introduction: The adoption of the U.N. Charter in 1945 set in motion a human rights revolution that culminated in the internationalization and humanization of international law. This conviction was carried forward with the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1948, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) with an Optional Protocol, the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)-the three of which are collectively known as the "International Bill of Rights"-and a host of other human rights instruments. 1 Hence, the global dimension of human rights protection carried forward by the United Nations has been a benchmark in protecting and promoting the rights of the individual irrespective of structure and politics of the individual states. The normative and institutional evolution of international human rights law at the global level played a predominant role in encouraging the creation of regional human rights systems in Europe, the Americas, Africa, and more recently the emerging systems in Asia and the Arab States, often for the ultimate purpose of recognizing human rights at the grass root level. Questions may however arise on why regional mechanisms to achieve this goal? In response to this regional approach, I offer a counter claim with three core explanations in establishing the regional mechanisms to be more practical, systematic and reasonable.
    [Show full text]
  • Human Rights in Europe: No Grounds for Complacency
    Human Rights writings Human rights in Europe: no grounds for complacency Viewpoints by Thomas Hammarberg Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights COMMISSIONER FOR HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSAIRE AUX DROITS DE L'HOMME Human rights in Europe: no grounds for complacency Viewpoints by Thomas Hammarberg Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights Council of Europe Publishing The opinions expressed in this work are the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy of the Council of Europe. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated, reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic (CD-Rom, Internet, etc.) or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the Public Information Division, Directorate of Communication (F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex or [email protected]). Most of the photos provided by the Council of Europe were taken by Sandro Weltin, photographer at the Council of Europe, who has accom- panied the Commissioner for Human Rights on several official visits in order to illustrate the situation of human rights in Europe. Cover photo: Migrants detained in Fylako Centre for irregular migrants, Evros, Greece, December 2008 (© Council of Europe). Back cover photo: Isabel Nukoaca, 11, explains that a new school must be built in her village, Roma-dominated village of Barbulesti, Romania, October 2010 (© Council of Europe). Cover design and layout: Documents and Publications Production
    [Show full text]