SEA - Practical Application of Science Volume II, Issue 1 (3) / 2014

Rada Cristina IRIMIE, The Doctoral School The European Paradigm, Faculty of European Studies, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca,

DAILY LIFE UNDER Theoretical . Article. THE CASE OF ROMANIA Case Study

Keywords Communism Eastern Europe Repression Daily life Legacies Romania

JEL classification N44

Abstract

After the Second World War, Central and Eastern Europe was discovering the communist influence. The communist ideology changed the political regimes of the countries from the region, but most important it changed the society and the mentality of the people living in Central and Eastern Europe. The countries experienced censorship, lack of private property, repression, abuse, religious bans, poverty, food rationalization, lack of privacy, massive industrialization and many other abuses which are typical for a totalitarian regime. This article focuses on daily life aspects during communist Romania, because it is one of the most revealing cases of the post-communist countries. Romania had one of the most abusive and obsolete communist regime. The methodological approach is based on the case study method, which will be validated with empirical data. This article will also emphasize the legacies of the totalitarian recent past over the contemporary evolution of the Central and Eastern European societies, with an accent on the Romanian case.

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Introduction methods. Special attention will be given to During the second half of the 20th the relationship between state and society, century, the political events in the and between everyday life and political countries of Europe took a dramatic pace. theory. Our scope is to provide an In the summer of 1944, the Army empirical inquiry that studies the historical entered Eastern Europe in its westward phenomenon of communism within its push towards Berlin. The Soviets freed real-life context, using individual citizen these territories from the Nazis, but did not experiences. leave them behind. On the contrary, taking In our study, we will first examine the help of local communists, they some propositions of classical theories as implemented the communist system they apply to the history of communism. patterned on the Soviet model. In the For this purpose, we are going to revisit countries that the liberated, the theoritical approaches of nationalism, communist-dominated governments took and rational choice, which over the power. They made sure that they provide us with the conceptual perspective established control over the army, set up a of the historical events to follow. secret police force and hunt their Nationalism, on one hand, emerged as a opponents. By 1949, all the governments modern phenomenon in the aftermath of of Eastern Europe, except Yugoslavia, the French Revolution and was regarded were strict Stalinist regimes. as "the existence of symbols and beliefs Romania, initially part of the which are either propagated by elite former Soviet Bloc, in the 1950s asserted groups, or held by many of the members of progressive independence from the Soviet regional, ethnic, or linguistic categories of Union and established a “national” path to a population and which imply a Communism. The communist government community between them" (Giddens, went through different phases before its 1981). Marxism, on the other hand, early collapse in the late 1980s. What is it so suggested the inescapability of a special about the Romania’s case? For communist society, which would emerge most of the countries, communism when economic forces caused the class represented no more than a political war; marxist ideas soon came to rule left- movement. Romanian people saw wing thought and went forward under the communism as a way of life, for some it name of socialism. Lastly, the was their archenemy, for others it is still development of the rational choice that enormous force that have passed theoryadvocated the actions taken by through Romania and affected their rational individual decision-makers can relatives, their models, their principles. All interact in different ways to generate stable in all, communism is a page of history that collective outcomes. To the extent that our has drastically influenced the lives of effort is successful, this study will give us many Romaniancitizens. the opportunity to make comparisons, to How was communism perceived find a better fit between theory and facts by the average Romanian citizen? What and to reach to a conclusion that was the daily life of during this anticipates future political systems. time in history? By focusing on the Recent studies showed that nearly country of Romania, this article will 25 percent of the young Romanian people address the key aspects of the daily life as surveyed say they have never discussed experienced by its citizens. A case study as the communist period in Romania in a method of research will facilitate our school (Bran, 2012). All post-communist understanding on communism through real societies faced major problems in life situations and it can provide the basis confronting their traumatic past. An for the application of ideas and further efficient democracy, though, cannot be

267 SEA - Practical Application of Science Volume II, Issue 1 (3) / 2014 based on lies, denial, and amnesia. Revolutionary communism Romania’s exit from communism has Since 1917 and the Bolshevik resulted in a hybrid quasi-democratic Revolution that emerged in the start of the regime, with former communists previous century, a new socioeconomic maintaining influential positions and system featured the world development opposing a genuine break with the past driven by radical political forces. “The (Tismăneanu, 2008). This article aims to lines dividing Mensheviks from define experiences and characteristics of , Leninists from social communism in Romania, from the daily democrats, Stalinists from Trotskyists, reality to people’s obsessions, aided by anarchists from statists, theorists of ‘state historical narratives. The content of this capitalism’ from theorists of ‘bureaucratic article also aims to offer examples of the collectivism’, Maoists or anti-Maoists, past that will help make conslusions for Eurocommunists from traditional the future. Ultimately, reinventing the past communists, have in large measure been is an easy way to handle the future. drawn according to whether the , and the later system of East Bloc Theoretical Approaches to Social states, were seen as model or as an anti- Development model, and if the latter, of what kind” Trying to chart the philosophical (Callinicos, 1990). Accordingly, the trends developed in Eastern Europe from political transformations that went after the the beginning of the 20th century will help following decades, derived from, but also us understand the framework within which challenged the left theory. It is vital here to major political changes have occurred. We mention that, regardless any have chosen to provide an analysis of these differences - and there were many - all socioeconomic developments through the philosophical diversities found common theories of Social Marxism, the ground and mutual heritage in Marxism. It Nationalism and Rational Choice theories. is not an overstatement to say that one’s This will help us recognize, on a historical analysis of the , and the sequence, the dynamics that enabled the corresponding political events, lay on the embracement of the Romanian communist analysis of Marxist socialism. The revolution, the inherent nationalist trends bases of social Marxism lay in Karl among people that lead to its downfall, as Marx’s most widely read work, the well as the necessity for modernisation and Communist Manifesto, despite the fact that social diversity of the society. Social following works of the philosopher Marxism offers a system of analysis based provide a better and more detailed on social classes, which is a consistent understanding to his social thought. way to analyse the Romanian society. Published in 1848, it offers the theoretical Nationalism provides us with theoretical framework of a society with i.e. tools to approach issues such as market explanations of how society works, how freedom and consumer needs. At last, the the form of the productive system is Rational Choice theory puts the individual determinant to all aspects of the society, he in the spotlight. All of the above need to draws the relations between the productive be addressed in our case study. From the forces of the capitalist system and East European Marxist philosophy, introduces the discussion about social through Nationalism to Rational Choice, struggle of the classes (Wolff, 2011). an important number of European states Finally, it envisages the end of world as experienced a great range of social and became known, when the working classes economic changes that influenced their unite in a that will lives and marked their national identity. eradicate the ruling classes and eliminate the class system of the society: "Let the

268 SEA - Practical Application of Science Volume II, Issue 1 (3) / 2014 ruling classes tremble at a Communistic The wave of national restorations revolution. The proletarians have nothing followed the gradual collapse of to lose but their chains. WORKING MEN communist regimes in the late 1980s and OF ALL COUNTRIES, UNITE!" (Marx, early 1990s, across Eastern Europe and the 1848). former USSR, and it is the most notable The first impact of Marxism was felt in consequence of the communist recession. continental Europe already by the late 19th And the consequential disorder has been century, but the success of the intense and sometimes devastating. Why revolutionary socialists (thereafter called nationalism sometimes had disastrous Communists) in the Russian Revolution effects for several states has divided contributed to its worldwide standing. The scholars and common opinion but is part establishment of an authoritatian of a different discussion; what they all in Russia, however, split agree with is the justification of the philosophical movement to an extend nationalism and its predominance. that many socialists denounced the Marxist Nationalism can be defined as “an theory. Communists regarded Marxism as ideological movement for attaining and their official dogma, and it is mainly due maintaining autonomy, unity and identity to their labors that it spread through the on behalf of a population deemed by some world, although its notion of class struggle of its members to constitute an actual or have helped to determine alternative potential nation” (Smith, 1991). This policies of welfare and development in definition introduces the concept of the many nations. However, no matter how ‘nation’, which would occupy the later useful as a revolutiony moral and also as a world development in several ways. In the frame of reference and/or policy, Marxism academic context, it mainly indicates “a has found far less practical application group of people who feel themselves to be than is often assumed. The a community bound together by ties of practice of communism developed by history, culture, and common ancestry” Stalin marked an era of widespread (Kellas, 1998). , departing from its However, “in common language, sophisticated origins, featuring a rather the term 'nation' is often used in several nationalised pronouncement of “socialism other ways - most often as synonymous in one country”, which he imagined as a with the term ‘state’” (Bollerup & world economic system (Das, 1988). Many Christensen, 1997). We preserve the idea scholars recognise the philosophical that is the core of nationalist idealogy, doctrines of Stalin as the driving force of namely the idea of national autonomy, the communist system’s maintenance. unity, and identity. The common use of “ had one great advantage. It has 'nation' as a state populated by one nation- as it’s disposal universal world outlook, group, captured by the term nation-state. claiming to be able to definite answer to The first expression of nationalism any question in the realm of philosophy, appeared with the French Revolution in history, the social sciences, political 1789. The political and constitutional economy, economic planning and even in changes that followed the aftermath of the many domains of the natural sciences, not French Revolution led to the transfer of to mention political life. That ominence from the monarchy to an became omnipotence through the fact that assembly of French citizens. The such definite answers were furnished by revolution declared the direct link between by a single authority, by means of which the people and the constitution of the any controversy whatever could be nation, and their influence to the identity resolved at a word” (Kolakowski, 1970). of the state. The ideas of Liberal Inevitable nationalism Nationalism, in early 19th century,

269 SEA - Practical Application of Science Volume II, Issue 1 (3) / 2014 involved concepts of national unity, mobilisation also played independent roles individualism, equality before the law and in transforming institutions, structures and freedom of access. The ideas of identities, so that while the collapse of sovereighty and national identity expanded communism is often portrayed as a to lead, in memorable cases during the structurally overdetermined dramas its beginning of the 20th century, in fatal manifestation depended on myriad acts of national conficts. defiance and contention whose outcomes Several Western European states themselves were hardly predetermined” experienced and developed throughout the (Beissinger, 2009). Therefore, not only did nationalist movement, while Eastern nationalism play a central role in a Europe found itself under the communist direction which the collapse of collar, and it is only before the collapse of communism occurred, but also the the communist demise, in the end of numerous national identity struggles that 1980s, that we notice massive mobilisation trailed the outcome of the collapse remains towards national identification. As a central for the understanding of individuals matter of fact, this nationalist force is and their relationship to political power. identified by scholars as the driving force that lead to the downfall of the communist Diversity and Rational Choice regime. “Behind the desire in 1989 for The dominant school of thought in freedom stood the desire for national political science in the late 20th century sovereignty. In this sense, 1989 in eastern seems to move towards the rational choice Europe was not merely a series of revolts theory. For rational choice theorists, against communism as a repressive history and culture are unrelated to the political and social system; it was also a explanation of political behaviour; instead, series of national revolts against Soviet it is important to understand the actors’ domination, and as such closely related to interests and to assume that they pursue the same revolt that, by autumn 1989, had them rationally. Crucial to all forms of already become widespread within Soviet rational choice theory is the assumption society itself. Precisely because that difficult social phenomena can be nationalism was an underlying factor in explained in terms of the basic individual the demise of communism, the process of actions of which they are composed. This collapse largely spread along the two perspective, called methodological institutional forms that were used to individualism, holds that: “The elementary structure multinational and international unit of social life is the individual human control” (Beissinger, 2009). action. To explain social institutions and Thus, nationalism played a key role in the social change is to show how they arise as breakdown of the soviet communist the result of the action and interaction of regime. Mark R. Beissinger, in his work individuals” (Elster, 1989). Nationalist Mobilisation and the Collapse In rational choice theories, individuals are of the Soviet State, gives us three reasons seen as motivated by the wants or goals why: “First, nationalism played an that express their ‘preferences’. “They act important role in structuring the way in within specific, given constraints and on which the collapse of communism the basis of the information that they have unfolded (…) Second, nationalist about the conditions under which they are mobilisation during this period was not a acting. At its simplest, the relationship series of individual nationalist stories (…) between preferences and constraints can be Third, while clearly structured, acts of seen in the purely technical terms of the nationalist mobilisation did not simply relationship of a means to an end. As it is reflect a pre-existing logic of institutions, not possible for individuals to achieve all structures and identities. Rather, acts of of the various things that they want, they

270 SEA - Practical Application of Science Volume II, Issue 1 (3) / 2014 must also make choices in relation to both choice would be a big deal - a strategic their goals and the means for attaining union between Russia and the rest of these goals. Rational choice theories hold Europe - is possible only if the parties try that individuals must anticipate the to achieve a common goal or find answers outcomes of alternative courses of action to challenges equally important for both and calculate that which will be best for partners. The main challenge is the need them. Rational individuals choose the for a serious revamping of relations alternative that is likely to give them the between the state and business greatest satisfaction” (Scott, 2000). (Bordachev, 2008). But does rational choice theories have any Exploring the work of Western application in the main political political theorists on social and political developments, during the last decades of models provided us with a vital tool in the 20th century. And if so, how do they understanding and interpreting the drastic help us understand the evolution or events developments that arised in Eastern before or after the collapse of Soviet European history. Communism as an Communism? “Rational choice, like answer to authoritarian political systems of constructivism, should be understood as a the 18th century offered an opportunity for broad approach to social theory, capable of restoration of the class equilibrium and generating an array of specific theories and economic equality. When its application testable hypotheses about range of human led in a totalitarian reality for the entities behaviors. Over the past two decades, that found themselves under the rational choice theories have made rapid communist establishment of the Soviet inroads into the study of EU politics, most Union, an old-new concept of national notably through the application of rational identity emerged. choice institutionalism to the study of EU The recent development of political decision-making” (Pollack, 2007). Thus, a theories reminded us that the concept of better knowledge of the rational choice ‘nation’ is not sufficient enough to explain theory facilitate the understanding of such major world developments. A point European integration and enlargement, of view that takes the individual behaviour enormous forces that served as a into consideration is vital and evidenced in counterweight to a nationalist outrage of current political affairs. In the following Europe in the 21st century. chapter, we refresh our memory of the In dispute with the rational choice most crucial political events that marked practice since the formation of the the history of communism in Romania. European Union, many argue that a rational choice confines the development Milestones in the History of Romanian of contructive bilateral relations between Communism the European Union and post-Soviet Throughout the 1920s and 1930s Russia. Timofei Bordachev argues that the the Romanian was rather EU should broaden up the dialogue with small. “It scored a few but minor successes Russia, in order to achieve the maintain among railway workers, but on the whole her as an allie. “A rational choice in it failed to take advantage of the various conditions of global disorder is not crises of the period” (Chirot, 1978). openness and orientation toward multi- During World War II Romania sided with party regimes, but building strong walls, the Germans and invaded the U.S.S.R., so setting up areas of influence behind them, when the Soviet army sided Romania, and making periodic forays into ‘enemy because of the country's role as a German territory’. All this has become part and ally, the Western powers were hardly in a parcel of both European and Russian position to protest. In 1945, politics in recent years (…) A new rational imposed a Communist government on

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Romania. After two years of fairly to tighen up Romania’s relations with cautious maneuvering to strengthen the , a line that was followed by his Communists, waiting to see if the United successor, Nicolae Ceauşescu. States would intervene in Eastern Europe, the U.S.S.R. finally imposed full Stalinist Ceauşescu and systemisation rule in 1947 (Ionescu, 1958). This is when With the death of Gheorghiu- in the years of fear and oppression began and , Nicolae Ceauşescu became which systematically transformed the leader of the party, and then president of Romanian society. the State Council, in 1967. In August 21st 1965, the name of the country was From the SovRom to Gheorghiu-Dej changed to ‘Republica Socialistă In December 30th 1947, the România’ (Socialist Republic of Romania, official declaration of the Romanian’s RSR) and the party’s old name was People's Republic (Partidul Muncitoresc restored to ‘Partidul Communist Român’ Român, PMR) followed the forced (, PCR) resignation of King Michael I. At the (Petrescu, 2009). His government featured outset, the communist regime kept tight an open and independent foreign policy, bonds with the Soviet Union by allowing, evidenced by uncommonly good relations for example, Romania's limited resources with the Western countries (Eyal, 1989; to be drained by the , new tax Ban, 2012). However, it demonstrated a exempt Soviet-Romanian companies that huge refusal to internal liberal reforms. aided the Soviet Union to control The secret police () maintained Romania's major sources of income control over the media, and tolerated no (Chirot, 1978). Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej internal opposition. In the 1980s, a was the first party and ruled with considerable amount of Romania’s Anna Pauker, , and Teohari agricultural and industrial production was Georgescu. According to Ionescu (1958), exported in order to cover the foreign debt. the last three were Soviet agents, and it The enormous volume of exports resulted was Pauker and Luca, Jewish and in internal shortage and made the everyday Hungarian, respectively, who were the life of Romanian citizens a fight for most powerful. Gheorghiu-Dej, an survival (Eyal, 1989). Due to lack of basic authentic Romanian worker, was at first a consumables, Romanians experienced ‘façade’ secretary-general. In the 1950s, food shortages and reasoning for which a however, Romania's communist more detailed analysis will follow on the government began to claim more respective chapter. Beginning in 1972, independence until the withdrawal of all Ceauşescu instituted a program of Soviet troops from Romania by 1958. systematization i.e. a program of urban Gheorghiu-Dej, a firm Stalinist himself planning and re-construction. Sponsoring a was opposed to ’s national way to build a ‘multilaterally liberal government of the Soviet Union developed socialist society’, the program and questioned the supremacy of the of demolition, resettlement, and Soviet Union, following a rather construction began in the countryside, but nationalist route (Eyal, 1989). In the culminated with an attempt to completely domestic sphere, however, his Stalinist- remodel the country's capital (Danta, inspired industrialisation of the state was 1993). Over one fifth of central not suited to the Romanian economy, was demolished so that the city could be which caused the standard of living among rebuilt in a socialist style. workers to stagnate (Roper, 2006). During the last years of his life, Gheorghiu-Dej Repression and downfall exploited the Soviet Union-China dispute

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The severe austerity measures high politics in communist countries programmed to repay Romania’s national received little attention. It is at the social debt caused large-scale and widespread level where the meaning of communism poverty and made Ceauşescu unpopular for the citizenry is most directly and (Petrescu-Petrescu, 2005). The December constantly evident. In the present chapter, of 1989 was marked by a series of events we will examine the different aspects of that became well known as the Romanian the society that were influenced by the Revolution. The gradual social control of the communist started in the city of Timisoara, but rapidly governments. spread all over the country. On December 17th, Ceauşescu's regime ordered regular Propaganda, Censorship and Freedom military forces and the secret police to fire of Press on anti-Communist demonstrators in the Most of the communist regimes of city of Timişoara, an event that led to his the 20th century in Eastern Europe 24 years-rule to collapse five days involved policies of censored mass afterwards (Ban, 2012). Following communication. The communist rhetoric Ceauşescus’ joint trial and execution, a sees this tactic as a form of protection new political structure emerged. The from the Western, capitalist ethics. In a National Salvation Front government broad sense, the term ‘press’ means any under , a former member of the means of mass communication, whether communist party, assumed control over the it’s about journals or periodicals (written state with its protagonist maintaining media), or radio or television (audio-visual central role in the political scene until the media). The press is the most appropriate beginning of the 21st century (Pop- and also the most used field for expressing Eleches, 2008). The decades that followed the freedom of expression (Rădulețu, 1989’s demise were featured by increasing 2008). During communism the one and press freedom. “From a sociological point only press owner was the communist of view it can be seen that a free press party. First, in order to gain total control creates a society where people feel they over mass media, the totalitarian party can share their ideas, opinions, without obtained the “in amonte” power by being punished for it, this issue being a big nationalising mass communication means. plus in any state” (Quffa, 2012). In the Therefore, the state-party started to use its following chapter, we will examine in monopoly over press material and detail the sectors of the Romanian society financial basis (Coman, 2010). challenged by the communist The Romanian Communist Party, administration and we will focus on the along with Nicolae Ceauşescu, have aspects of daily life that influenced successfully taken advantage of the power Romanian lives and shaped their culture they had over the press, regardless of its and identity. form, and have used it especially to indoctrinate the Romanian people. As long Aspects of Daily Life in Communist as, at that time, the freedom of the press Romania didn’t exist, the right to information was The since the also absent, because the individuals establishment of the communist regime in received as news only the things agreed by 1947 led the country but also the society the leader, actually not having an accurate through diversified phases that challenged and solid information (Quffa, 2012). both its national history and identity. Before the revolution of December 1989, Whether or not we can review a the press was subject to the interests of the communist political system based on the party and of the head of state. Romania politics sphere is difficult to say, since had many cases to the European Court of

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Human Rights for violations to freedom of genius he was, how the entire world spun expression. Cases of convictions against around him and how the entire Romanian journalists that criticised the communist people loved their president. This kind of government were revealed in the post- propaganda was present even in schools, communist era (Predescu & Udroiu, 2008). where children learnt songs that glorified After 1989, the Romanian society suffered president Ceausescu” (Bacanu, n.d.). a series of transformations - and the press “The cultural life was strangled by was one of the things that have changed the political regime. It was almost considerably; it suddenly became free, impossible to find a good thing to see on having the possibility of not being subdued TV. The censorship was present even in to a party, an idea or a personality, but music. The communist authorities rejected however developing chaotically (Quffa, different kinds of music (rock, for 2012). example), not necessarily for political Razvan T. Coloja, a Romanian reasons; they just did not like them (i.e. writer, describes his experience as a child rock artists). Consequently, they were very raised in communist Romania: “I rare in TV or radio programmes. The remember the propaganda. Each morning, history was falsified in schools and as students, we had to stand up facing the newspapers. One direction of falsifying portrait of Nicolae Ceausescu that was history was to increase the role of the hanging in each public room of each communist party and president Ceauşescu institution and chant our national anthem. in some historical events. Old books were Each manual I had in school had the same not available in libraries, exactly for the picture on the very first page. Almost reason of hiding the past. Even literature every poem we learned had something to was censored. Writers whose works were do with the glory of our nation, the bravery not ‘politically correct’ from the of soldiers, the working class or the future communist point of view were not allowed of our communist youth that will bring on to print their books. Translations from the flame of science and hard work. About other languages were very few, and of twice a year, every schoolchild had to course, only ‘politically correct’ works attend public marches and hold up signs were translated. Because of the strict bearing either the portrait of our beloved control over everything that was printed leader, either slogans praising the there was a shortage of good books to read Communist Party. We didn't know what or good movies to see, even about themes they meant but we were hearing them a lot not related with politics. Even the classic so we took them for granted” (Coloja, Romanian writers were forbidden” 2011). (Bacanu, n.d.). From Petre Mihai Bacanu’s point Correspodent of Deutsche Welle, of view, a journalist that was sentenced to Zack Baddorf, interviewing Anca Sandu prison, for the publishing of an ‘illegal’ that lived in communist Romania reports: newspaper, political propaganda was “The problem was that we weren't allowed inescapable: “Political freedom was not access to information. We weren't allowed allowed in Romania during the communist to read writers who didn't have regime. Neither was freedom for press or Ceausescu's approval. We weren't allowed speech. The television programme lasted to travel abroad, or have friends from only two hours every day and was full of abroad. On some days, we weren't even political propaganda. The personality cult allowed to drive” (Baddorf, 2009). of president Ceauşescu was omnipresent. Another unknown consequence of The TV and radio programmes and the the communist propaganda was the newspapers were full of comments about influence on athletic life. During the how good president Ceauşescu was, what a communist rule, sports were used as a

274 SEA - Practical Application of Science Volume II, Issue 1 (3) / 2014 means of propaganda and the regime often demanded a radical revision of the five- assumed athlete’s achievements. In 1976, year plan that would make the early at the Summer Olympics in Montréal, payment of foreign debt the chief priority Nadia Comăneci became the first gymnast of economic policy. As investment in to be awarded a perfect 10 in an Olympic industrial expansion was set to continue, competition. She also won several other all imports had to be cut drastically and the golden medals for the individual all- export volume increased. That led living around, beam and bars titles. Following standards to collapse. This owed to the fact her performance, the Bucharest regime that all strategies meant to amass the awarded her with the title of “Hero of dollars necessary for eliminating foreign Socialist Labor”. Multiple Olympic, debt by the end of the 1980s were on the European and international champion, table, including the engineering of a Nadia Comăneci retired in 1980 and massive drop in domestic supply of staples remains one if the best athletes of the 20th and consumer goods. Overall, between century. Unable to follow her dreams 1981 and 1989 the supply of food staples under an abnormal political regime, Nadia was nearly halved (Ben Ner & Montias, flees the country in November 1989 and 1991). The production of consumer goods asks for political asylum in the United was also nearly halved during the same States (Istoria Comunismului ȋn România, period and, to make matters worse, its 2011). share in exports was increased. The practical outcome of the Collectivization, Industrialisation and macroeconomic planning was food Trade shortage and rationing: “I remember food Starting from 1949 the process of shortages. Basic food that westerners took agriculture collectivization takes place. for granted was handed out in rations This process represented theconfiscation during the Romanian Communist regime. of private agricultural properties and their About twice a month my father would get merging in state-run farms. For Romanian up at 4 a.m. in the morning, get dressed, peasant - obliged to surrender the land, get a bag and start his way to the closest animals and equipment held - this meant food distribution center were a long line the dispossession of land ownership and was already forming. By 5 in the morning, rights for which he had fought in two there were at least 30 people standing in world wars. Many peasants (both wealthy line to get their rations of sugar, milk, rice and poorer) opposed this action and the or cooking oil. Cooking oil was especially communist government resorted to violent hard to get by 1988. Bananas were sold repression, deportation, imprisonment, only on the black market and by the time confiscation of all fortunes of those the Revolution came I was priding myself involved, and even summary executions. of having eaten three in my entire life. In Because of the peasant resistance to the country side, most people have never collectivization, the operation became even heard of bananas and most thought much slower in 1953 but resumed in the they were some sort of deformed, yellow second half of 1950, and at last completed watermelon. Oranges, lemons were also in 1962 (at which time 93% of the hard to come by, as was any other agricultural heritage of the country had chocolate that was not Romanian - made already became state property) (Istoria or imported from Communist China” Comunismului ȋn România, 2011). (Coloja, 2011). That allowed Ceauşescu to control Ceausescu refused to draw the domestic production and even use it as a lessons from this failure. Instead, he guarantee for the country’s debt resolved to repay his $10bn foreign debt as repayment. Indeed, in 1971 Ceauşescu soon as possible. The decision to repay the

275 SEA - Practical Application of Science Volume II, Issue 1 (3) / 2014 debt in accelerated stages was not dictated 60 percent and 70 percent per decade. This by Romania's financial condition. It was is not to say that the Romanian economy entirely dictated by the preferences of the has performed poorly, but only that it has President and the calculation that any not been as miraculous as one might rescheduling or bridging loans expect from reading the Bucharest press. negotiations would undoubtedly entail What has been extraordinary has been the discussions with foreign bankers on emphasis on industry, and the consequent Romania's investment priorities. Every neglect of other sectors. In social terms, effort was directed towards repaying the rapid industrialization in Romania has debt. Exports were maximised with little involved most of the changes that have reference to prices, profitability and occurred in other industrializing societies, market targets in a furious attempt to gain but always with an interesting twist foreign currency. That deteriorated the (Chirot, 1978). internal market situation even more. Food The second observation that one was exported at considerable cost to the would make is that despite the common Romanian consumer. Most import orders assumption that workers and communist were cancelled, even if this entailed regimes to ‘get along’, they don’t. From foregoing the purchase of much needed Gdansk to Shanghai, evidence accumulates machinery for industry (Eyal, 1989). Anca that communist parties find their most Sandu also remembers: “And then there consistent opposition among their were the food rations. No more than half a supporters. In 1977 a study of twelve loaf of bread, not too much meat, or sugar, workers' councils found that all 215 and so on” (Baddorf, 2009). Anca's members were Romanian Communist husband, Vio, chopped potatoes and Party members(Nelson, 1982). In cooked them in a frying pan, while Anca Romania, millions of workers attended was talking to Deutsche Welle’s general assemblies in their enterprises correspondent. Twenty years ago, if he'd across the country. But their attendance been cooking at 7:00 pm, he would've proved little other than that their physical been cooking by candlelight. That's presence in a meeting hall or stadium lends because the communist government cut off itself to mobilization. But governance, or electricity from 6:00 - 8:00 pm each night even interest in it, was associated strongly across the country to preserve energy with party membership (Nelson, 1982). (Baddorf, 2009). Whether the industrialisation One would consider the proclaimed policies, to a certain extent, had created industrialisation as one of the positive new opportunities for the Romanian attributes of the communist system in citizens is also debatable. A lot of Western general, and the nationalised communist jobs were non-existent in Communist system of Romania specifically. However, Romania. “There was almost no purpose the industrialisation policies started with of learning English since no one was the Gheorghiu-Dej's government did not allowed to leave the country and no one result in any considerable economic came in to visit. The few movies in development. From 1950 to 1974 English were all subtitled or had a Romanian per capita net national income Romanian narrator that translated grew at the rate of 5.3 percent per year, or everything the actors said. The computers 68 percent per decade. This is a very good, we had were few and of Russian make and but not surprising, rate of economic there was no Internet at the time to connect growth (Chirot, 1978). In other words, the people the way it does today. Basically, capitalist economies of southern Europe the best job you could have at the time was grew at about the same per capita rate as either being an engineer or a doctor. Romania's economy, somewhere between Engineers had high state pay and doctors

276 SEA - Practical Application of Science Volume II, Issue 1 (3) / 2014 got more bribes than the guards at the industrialisation and urbanisation of the border did. In communism, everyone is country have left neither time nor available taught to be content with what they have investment for such amenities. Rather, and never yearn for more. So, normally, urban services throughout most of the doctors didn't try to do their best and had country, and even in the new suburbs of to be ‘stimulated’ by other means to do the large cities, are aimed at mass needs. their job. You wanted a kidney examined? Basic schooling and medical care, minimal You had to shelf out some bills and pass recreation facilities, too few stores with them to the nurse under the table. Had a too few goods, scattered restaurants with molar that was bothering you? Pay the bad food and almost no service these have doctor and he would take care of it, or been provided (Chirot, 1978). even might throw in some anesthetics” (Coloja, 2011). Systemisation Means The communists have utilised the Bucharest had been only job sector in an effective way of keeping moderately affected by Leninist-Stalinist control of the society. Any person who planning in 1965 when Ceauşescu came to wanted a good job had to be a Communist power. He launched a transformation that Party member. As a result, many people lasted until his downfall in 1989. The first joined the Communist Party for phase, to 1980, altered the outer zones and opportunistic reasons, without believing in surrounding villages of the city, changed the communist ideology. This could be the administrative districts, enlarged seen during the Romanian Revolution, certain penetration boulevards, and when members of the Communist Party intensified the construction of standardised could be found among the people who apartment blocks. During the second fought against the regime. Of the whole 23 phase, 1980-1989, large areas of the center millions Romanians, 3 millions were of Bucharest were razed to make way for members of the Communist Party. As monumental structures and routes, as well Romania had a state-owned economy, as the completion of the subway system. almost all jobs were under government Post-revolution Bucharest is burdened control. In a free-market economy, a with unfinished buildings (Danta, 1993). person in conflict with his boss has the In urban planning, Ceauşescu's chance to find a better job somewhere else. main undertaking of the 1980s was the In communism, the government rules complete transformation of central everything. A person who is on the ‘black Bucharest. The law of urban and rural list’ of the authorities has no chance to systematization of 1974 created a real find a good job, irrespective of his or her estate disaster in the 1980s for Romania. professional results. It was not necessary The devastating earthquake of 1977 was to criticise the government openly in order another incentive for Nicolae Ceaușescu’s to see your name on the ‘black list’. It was urbanistic plans (Istoria Comunismului ȋn enough to avoid participating in România, 2011). Motivation was threefold. demonstrations in favour of the regime The first stemmed from socialist ideology, (Bacanu, n.d.). specifically the concept of monumentality Part of the economic stability was (i.e. creating buildings that served as that the rapid industrialisation of the monuments). In this case, monumentality country had left other services sectors in architecture and art was used to anchor underdeveloped. Cultural opportunities, collective cultural aspects of the landscape stores, restaurants, and other services, as an expression of liberation (Church, including medical care and schooling for 1979). The second aim was to rewrite the children were distinctly inferior outside of history of the country in Ceauşescu's a few big cities. The rapid rate of image by destroying the visual past in the

277 SEA - Practical Application of Science Volume II, Issue 1 (3) / 2014 center of Bucharest (Lykiardopol, 1991). leading po sitions within the communist The third aim was to replicate in Bucharest party as well as within the organizational the symmetrical, artificial landscape he boards and unions” (Jinga, 2008). had seen in Pyongyang (Behr, 1991). “Second, Elena Ceausescu, the wife of Andrei Pandele, a 65 year old Nicolae Ceausescu, played a very active photographer, known as the only role in politics and organizational life. This photographer who shoot the Ceaușescu era had a strong impact on gender equality in in Romania during the 1970s and 80s, held Romania, which was in itself a widespread a vast pictorial archive of the city idea across other communist regimes in hardship. Talking to a magazine in 2012, Eastern Europe” (Metcalfe & Afanassieva, Pandele explained that when Ceaușescu 2005). However, in the social sphere began demolishing churches and whole several legal reforms of the Ceauşescu neighborhoods, he wanted to immortalize regime led women to a physical and the Bucharest he loved and it was ethical wretchedness. disappearing in front of his eyes Three years after becoming the (Moldoveanu, 2012). As seen inFigure No. country's supreme leader in 1965, Nicolae 1, Figure No. 2 and Figure No. 3the Ceauşescu introduced Article 200, which, demolition of some of the old buildings together with an earlier sweeping pro-natal was made for the creation of new programme, was part of a larger campaign standarized apartment blocks following the to increase the available workforce, socialist urban planning. regulate sexual behaviour, create the new socialist man and woman and rid the Gender Equality, Sexuality and Family country of what he considered Planning unacceptable behaviour. For decades gays At first, following the Soviet and lesbians in Romania had to keep their example, the communist party had a clear sexual orientation secret for fear of strategy of involving women in the public prosecution, and many endured long arena, as a practice of the communist rule prison terms for the slightest trespassing of of equality among all individuals. the communist moral code (Turcescu & “Although communist political ideologies Stan, 2005). were similar in many respects, the way was prohibited in they were implemented across Eastern September 1966 by the unpopular Decree Europe was rather diverse. Concerning the no. 770 in order to achieve demographic position of women, two aspects distinguish targets and fulfil Ceauşescu's the Romanian context from other megalomaniac ambition of ruling over a communist countries in Eastern Europe. populous nation. The prohibition of First, following the Soviet example, the abortion resulted in an almost doubled communist party had a clear strategy of birthrate in 1969, but the gains were not involving women in the public arena. sustained in the long run, with most of Organizational structures parallel to the them being lost by the late 1980s. Lack of communist party (but closely associated alternative family planning programmes, with it) were created and women were condoms and pills, sharply deteriorating offered ample support concerning access living conditions, and the state's to (higher) education, improved childcare unwillingness to recognise the existence of systems, and extended maternity leave” family and medical forced Romanian (Curseu & Boros, 2011). “Another women to undergo illegal , even institutional norm was that departments at the risk of losing their lives, giving birth with a large majority of women employees to malformed children or going to jail if were to be managed by women and that the interrupted pregnancy was discovered women should have representatives in (Kligman, 1998).

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Adopting of September industrialized, society that has pursued 29th, 1966 to regulate abortion is now such a harsh pro-natalist line (Chirot, considered the moment of pro-natalist 1978). policy debut in Romania. Spread over a Nothing illustrates more fully the period of almost 23 years, this policy Romanian leadership's attempt to mobilise included several demographic aspects, the population behind its anti-reformist including: the adoption of repressive laws ideology by encouraging xenophobia than on abortions, tightening the requirements the message addressed by President for divorce, income taxes applying to Ceauşescu to a symposium held in people without children. This regulation Bucharest to mark the centenary of the has created numerous problems in the death of Romania's national poet, Mihai medical, social and institutional, Eminescu (Scânteia, 14 June 1989). The economical and last but not least, morally Romanian President quoted several poems fields, many of them felt till today. by Eminescu, and the choice was certainly The deaths of thousands of women not accidental. Citing from Eminescu’s due to complications caused by illegal ‘Emperor and Proletarian’, Ceauşescu abortions are the most dramatic seemed to be reiterating his determination consequence of Ceauşescu's demographic to avoid any deviation from revolutionary project. The increase of the number of ideology: “Hurl to the earth their scheme unwanted children, of children abandoned founded on greed and wrong, this system in orphanages, born with malformations, that divides, making us rich and poor! with hereditary diseases, as well as the Since there will be no prize in death spread of AIDS among children in awaited long, demand the rights today that institutions, the number of the women do to you belong, and let us live in equal presenting physical and psychological brotherhood secure!” (Shafir, 1989). trauma, represents the tangible effects of Nowdays, when Romania still Ceauşescu's demographic policies. confronts its past, critisism over the Unrealistic natal policies of the communist communist regime has taken place with a regime in Romania, in the absence of constant view to compromise, consensus, socio-economic infrastructure necessary to reform, and working through the past prefer incentives rather than coercive (Tismăneanu, 2008). But the most means to increase the birth rate, imperative way to achieve a progressive singularized Romanian case in Central and future is to learn from the blunders of the Eastern Europe area (Istoria past. Comunismului ȋn România, 2011). Conclusions Xenophobia and Puritanism Ceausescu’s Romania was a unique The morality imposed on the daily case in Socialist Eastern Europe. That was social behavior of the population, though it mainly due to the establishment of a has a great deal in common with the dynastic form of Socialism; heavily reliant puritanism, even prudery, so common in on his own personality with power communist societies, is less logically concentrated in the hands of his close.The connected to Marxism; and in Romania it collapse of Ceausescu's regime was has been pushed to an extreme unique in significant not only for Romania but for the European Communist world in at least the entire Eastern Europe in general; and one respect, demographic policy. We may it’s regarded by historians as the crucial one day see similar policies adopted in moment of a long process of post- other European Communist states, but for communist transition for the Romanian the time being, Romania stands out as the society. The critical uniqueness of the only European, or even fairly Romanian revolution was that, because of

279 SEA - Practical Application of Science Volume II, Issue 1 (3) / 2014 the horrendous life conditions, because of [2] Baddorf, Z. (2009). Romanians reflect on life hunger, frost, and the lack of any hope for during communist era, Deutsche Welle, Retrieved from: http://www.dw.de/romanians-reflect-on-life- the future, public opposition rose to the during-communist-era/a-4908800 point where the internal cost of preference [3] Ban, C. (2012). Sovereign Debt, Austerity, and falsification was higher than the external Regime Change: The Case of Nicolae Ceausescu's cost of getting into the streets and openly Romania, East European Politics & Societies, protesting against the regime. This was a 26(4), 743-776. [4] Beissinger, M. R. (2009). Nationalism and the revolutionary occurance, beyond which Collapse of Soviet Communism, Contemporary people in Romania decided to risk their European History, 18(03), 331-347. lives by engaging in spontaneous [5] Ben-Ner, A. & Montias, M. J. (1991). The collective action, having little to lose and Introduction of Markets in a Hypercentralized everything to win (Ivanes, 2003). Economy: The Case of Romania, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5(4), 163-170. The majority of Romanian people [6] Behr, E. (1991). Kiss the hand you cannot bite: experienced property collectivization, the rise and fall of the Ceausescus, Villard Books, heavy industrialisation initiatives, media New York. censorship and human rights negligence [7] Bollerup, S. R. & Christensen, C. D. (1997). policies that halted their financial, cultural, Nationalism in Eastern Europe: Causes and Consequences of the National Revivals and social and personal progress and at times Conflicts in Late-20th-century Eastern Europe, threatened their physical existence. It is Macmillan Press, London. clear that Ceausescu’s Romania was an [8] Bordachev, T. (2008). The Limits of Rational unquestionably efficient police state. The Choice, Russia in Global Affairs, 4. Retrieved lives of many Romanians were dominated from: http://eng.globalaffairs.ru/number/n_11896 [9] Bran, M. (2012). Missing Ceaucescu: Meet The by fear. The crimes of murder, brutality, Young Romanians Nostalgic For Communism, coercion, deportation and genocide were Retrieved from: all associated with the leadership and with http://www.worldcrunch.com/world- the notorious Securitate, right up until the affairs/missing-ceaucescu-meet-the-young- dying days of communism in 1989. Most romanians-nostalgic-for-communism/ceausescu- bucharest-communism-youth- notably, a communist era that lasted forty- roma/c1s9659/#.UGMAro7dKXs two years influenced drastically the entire [10] Callinicos, A. (1990). Against Postmodernism: society, which was left with series of A Marxist Critique, Polity Press, Cambridge. historical communist legacy, urban [11] Chirot, D. (1978). Social Change in heritage and many personal traumas. It Communist Romania, Social Forces, 57(2), 457- 499. might be that not all young Romanians are [12] Church, G. (1979). Bucharest: revolution in interested in the history of their country the townscape art. Socialist city: spatial structure during communism. But all young and urban policy, French, R.A. & Hamilton, F.E.I. Romanians should know that they now (Eds.), Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. live in a country once governed by [13] Coloja, R. T. (2011). Communist: A Child’s Glimpses in Communist Romania, Retrieved from: persecution, censorship, surveillance and http://chuckpalahniuk.net/forum/1000172/communi other forms of state control. The need to sm-a-childs-glimpses-in-communist-romania preserve the Romanians’ history, and to let [14] Coman, M. (2010). Journalistic Elites in Post- those that lived through these times to be Communist Romania: From the Heroes of the heard, is essential for the nature of a Revolution to the Media Moguls, Journalism Studies, 11(4), Special Issues: The Future of progressive society. Ultimately, the Journalism, 587-595. learnings of the past serve as a useful [15] Curseu, P.L. and Boros, S., (2011). Gender guide for the future. Stereotypes in Management: A comparative study of communist and post-communist Romania, Bibliography International Journal of Psychology, 46(4), 299- [1] Bacanu, P. M. (n.d.). Romania during 309. [16] Danta, D. (1993). Ceausescu's Bucharest, Ceausescu’ Dictatorship, Retrieved from http://www.procesulcomunismului.com/marturii/fo Geographical Review, 83(2), 170-182. nduri/mmioc/anticomrev/docs/02.html

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[17] Das, K. (1988). On , http://estost.photoshelter.com/gallery/Romania- Economic and Political Weekly, 23(25), 1294- Life-1975- 1296. 89/G0000E5xgbtlGc7w/C0000EH2QxD87wQE [18] Elster, J. (1989). The Cement of Society, [34] Petrescu, C. & Petrescu D. (2005). Resistance Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. and Dissent under Communism: The Case of [19] Eyal, J. (1989). Romania: A Hermit under Romania, Totalitarismus und Demokratie, 2, 323- Pressure, The World Today, 45(5), 85-90. 346. [20] Giddens, A. (1981). A Contemporary Critique [35] Petrescu, D. (2009). Continuity, Legitimacy of Historical Materialism, University of California and Identity: Understanding the Romanian August Press, Berkeley & Los Angeles. of 1968, Cuadernos de Historia Contemporánea, [21] Ionescu, G. (1958). Social Structure: Rumania 31, 67-86. under Communism, Annals of the American [36] Pollack, M.A. (2007). Rational Choice and EU Academy of Political and Social Science, 317, 53- Politics, In Jørgensen, K.E., Pollack, M. A., & 62. Rosamond, B. (Eds.) , Handbook of European [22] Istoria Comunismului ȋn România (2011). Union politics, London: SAGE Publications. Institute for the Investigation of Communist Crimes [37] Pop-Eleches, G. (2008). From Economic & Association of History Teachers. Retrieved from: Crisis to Reform: IMF Programs in Latin America www.istoriacomunismului.ro and Eastern Europe, Princeton University Press, [23] Ivanes, C. D. (2003). Streets and Crowds in Princeton, NJ. (Post-) Communist Romania: Opportunity, [38] Predescu, O. & Udroiu, M. (2008). European Collective Action, and Human Emotions, ERAS protection of human rights and Romanian penal Journal. Retrieved from: suit – Treaty, Publishing House, Bucharest. http://www.arts.monash.edu.au/publications/eras/e [39] Quffa, W. A. (2012). The evolution of the dition-5/ivanesarticle.php freedom of the press: the transition from the [24] Jinga, L. M. (2008). Forme de organizare a communist regime to democracy, Revue des ‘‘muncii cu femeile’’ in cadrul PCR, Polirom Press, Sciences Politiques, 35, 429-434. Iasi. [40] Rădulețu, R. (2008). Fundamental freedoms, [25] Kellas, J.G. (1998). The Politics of (2nd ed), (pp. 248-249).Bucharest: Didactică și Nationalism and Ethnicity (2nd ed.). Palgrave Pedagogică R.A, Publishing House Macmillan, Hampshire. [41] Roper, S. D. (2006). Romania: The Unfinished [26] Kligman, G. (1998). The Politics of Duplicity, Revolution, Routledge, Oxon. Controlling Reproduction in Ceausescu's Romania, [42] Scott, J. (2000). Rational Choice Theory, University of California Press, California. Understanding Contemporary Society: Theories of [27] Kolakowski, L. (1970). The Fate of Marxism the Present In G., Halcli, A. & Webster, F. (Eds.), in Eastern Europe, Slavic Review, 29(2), 175-181. Understanding Contemporary Society: Theories of [28] Lykiardopol, M. (1991). Mutilation of the Present. London: Browning, Sage Publications. Bucharest, UNESCO Courier, Vol. 26-27. [43] Smith, A.D. (1991). National Identity, [29] Marx, K. and Engels, F. (1848). Manifesto of University of Nevada Press, Nevada. the Communist Party, Blunden A. (English ed.) [44] Shafir, M. (1989). Xenophobic Communism: Retrieved The Case of Bulgaria and Romania, The World from:http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/ Today, 45(12), 208-212. 1848/communist-manifesto/ [45] Tismăneanu, V. (2008). Democracy and [30] Metcalfe, B.D. & Afanassieva, M (2005). Memory: Romania Confronts Its Communist Past, Gender, work and equal opportunities in Central Annals of the American Academy of Political and and Eastern Europe, Women in Management Social Science, Vol. 617, The Politics of History in Review, 20(6), 397-411. Comparative Perspective, 166-180. [31] Moldoveanu, I. (2012). Life in Communist [46] Turcescu L. and Stan L. (2005). Religion, Romania Was Rough, Interview with Andrei Politics and Sexuality in Romania, Europe-Asia Pandele, VICE Magazine. Retrieved from: Studies, 57(2), 291-310. http://www.vice.com/read/everyday-life-in- [47] Wolff, J., ‘’ (2011). The Stanford communist-romania-0000001-v18n9 Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 [32] Nelson, D. N. (1982). The Worker &Political Edition), Zalta, E.N. (Eds.),Retreived Alienation in Communist Europe, Polity, 15(2), from:http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2011/en 182-201. tries/marx/ [33] Pandele, A.(n.d.). Romania: Life 1975-89. Retrieved from:

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Appendices

Figure No. 1. ROMANIA, Mosilor Av., Bucharest,09.1982. Olari Church is moved and hidden behind a block of flats. © Andrei Pandele. Source: EST&OST.

Figure No. 2. ROMANIA, Drumul Taberei, Bucharest,12.1987. Sunset between apartment blocks. © Andrei Pandele. Source: EST&OST.

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Figure No. 3. ROMANIA, Calinescu Street, Bucharest, 12.1986. Demolished neighbourhood - diagonally, to Armeneasca Street. © Andrei Pandele. Source: EST&OST.

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