ald Trump signed an executive order banning travel from seven countries countries seven from travel order banning Trump executive an ald signed presidentRepublican newly Don elected office, in days seven after paign, cam his during Muslims addition out to attacking rhetoric and singling 2016 the heights new Uniteding In during election. States presidential reach 2009) United the in StatesIslamophobia (Cainkar along has history Introduction media social gender, Islam, USA, Islamophobia, election, Keywords: Muslim women. for particularly Michigan, East in South Muslims young among stress of high and levels futility of to a sense lead messages has online Islamophobic of ubiquity high and The amount overwhelming. as perceived messages was online Islamophobic of the number as coping mechanisms as contextualization and ignoring used often men and Muslim women than men. strongly more and frequently more to be Muslim in America it means what of online exemplars as to act efforts their emphasized Muslim women but online, Islam about others to educate labored Muslim men, and Muslim Both, women president. as 2016 Trump’s and United election in office States days presidential hundred first the regarding during responses in their the role gender of Islamophobia understand 2016 2017 October April and Michigan men) 20 East between in to South women, (41 with 61 in gender-separated conducted Muslim groups participants interviews group to 15 focus in-depth intersectionality of We the theory applied election. the 2016 heights during new reached UnitedIslamophobia States presidential Abstract: University Wayne State Kolhoff Sean Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Wallace, Sydney O’Shay Eckert, Stine United States Gender, Media, Social andIslamophobia inthe BestDamnRepresentation ofIslam:” “The Muslims, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 , pp. 4–30 - - -
4 CorrespondingHelga Tawil-Souri author: Stine Eckert, Wayne State University, 571 Manoogian Hall, Detroit, MI 48202, USA. E-mail: [email protected] online spaces (Aguilera-Carnerero and Azeez 2016). Azeez and (Aguilera-Carnerero spaces online in of Islam fear irrational convey an that acts lamophobia speech includes Is cyber This Muslims. as online discrimination experiencing and media social adopting both, includes socialization Center 2017).cultural Their of 18 ages the 29 (Pew and Research is between population States Muslims Center 2018).count (Pew Research 35 percent of United Meanwhile, the ac media 29-year-olds one at least social United the in States managing percent 88 of 18 with to arena, become discursive a new has media Social 2004). vakci Ka 2007; (Droogsma veiling via Center 2017),(Pew Research especially appearance or physical speech, dress, in Muslim distinctly looking closed dis who by incidents Muslims reported frequently with - more affiliation due religious to their year atonce past least over the against discriminated percent men 55 and of Muslim were percent women they of said Muslim of oppression violence (Center and Gender 2018). and for Race Forty-two non-Muslims and acts Muslims through between disparities resource ing (Bleich 2012:182).exist The enactment of aims Islamophobiato maintain hostility” anger, contempt, and rejection, fear, disgust, anxiety, disdain, “aversion, or jealousy, Muslims,” at including suspicion, Islam directed or emotions attitudes negative “indiscriminate lamophobiaas is defined related to Islamophobia. Is of discrimination frequent targets are they people) Center 2017), of United the (Pew Research States population but United the in comprise States one only Muslims percent (3.35 million anti-Muslim. percent were specifically six of those, Trump’s invoking many incidents of harassment, 900 name; almost logged Center Law United (2016) Poverty States 2016 Southern the election, Trump’s (Costello presidency 2016). the following ten days the in Indeed, about happen to during what them could fears expressed have groups these immigrants; and Muslims toward emboldenedbeen slurs to make Center 2017). have students (Pew Research most negative the as American Muslims consistently ranked have United the in groups States, Americans (Stack populations 2017). religious predominately Muslim with all Among yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 ------
5 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff structed as Muslim or non-Muslim, such as the hijab. In sum, Muslims or non-Muslim, Muslims hijab. Muslim the as sum, as In such structed one’s con be to can express that on identity markers visible depending differ of how “good”-”bad.” experiences construction it illuminates Further, “groups” the larger of their “women” “men” and tion revealing within and loca menamong (Crenshaw specific their in 1989), individuals situating among womenand differences emphasizes intersectionality Additionally, Center United 2017). the in States (Pew Research Muslims cent) against United is the “a in there lot States said of discrimination” women more (83 Muslim survey, representative percent) men (68 than per women’ men’s and of Islamophobia. For a2017 in experiences instance, Muslim adequate lens to is an analyze identity religious conjunction with ism” (Crenshaw 1989:141). of gender in Weconstruction the that suggest sex and of racism “greater sum the than experience intersectional dering of identity, other aspects conjunction ren in with constructed is always of people (Crenshawperiences subordinated who been have 1989). Gender ex the together to understand gender to and have examined be class, race, as such of humanity aspects interwoven demonstrates that tersectionality of in theory the as Islamophobia agendered discourse as We analyzed Theory of Islam. models, ideal exemplars or good be to efforts online their women stressed Particularly Islamophobia. when confronted with ignoring and contextualization as such coping techniques and media social through ucate about others Islam women’s Muslim revealed Focus men’s and discussions group to ed desire Islamophobia? to respond to United the in States identity to women positionMuslim men and Muslim the men? women How with on Muslim gender does and intersect Muslim have Islamophobia does impact online questions: What following the asked study respond toOur and IslamophobiaUnited online. States experience women men, women centered and how menlim the and Muslim in around 61 with of groups 15 focus Mus We analysis concepts our in applied these yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 ------
6 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff bani and Wills 2012; Aly 2012). With hashtags such as #notinmyname, 2012). #notinmyname, as Aly such 2012; With hashtags Wills and bani 2014; 2013; Heb 2010; 2015; Sreberny Echchaibi Chaudhry Cinnirella and (Jaspal connection and activism, management, identity Muslim in role asignificant played have media social turn, In 2007). 2016; Larsson 2014; Azeez Awan and 2016; Awan Zempi 2016; and Aguilera-Carnerero (Awan violent extremist as and Muslims to frame #jihad as such hashtags via for used been Islamophobic manifested also messages have media Social 1996; 1997). Reece Reece 2009; (Mir religiosity their in perceived are how they concerned with women especially been have lim 2017). (Suleiman rendered more Muslim them as visible appearance Mus not For their did mean of religion appearance. men, importance a higher their in religiosity their expressing were also they to say this; more likely 2017). (Suleiman were far religious Womenculture very are they who said of United mainstream the States not public would part consider as Islam women men. more Perhaps said Muslim Muslim not Arab surprisingly as rate of the hate twice 9/11 women experienced Chicago in Muslim Arab 2017). found after 2016; (2009) Es that Suleiman For Cainkar instance, Van 2012; et al. Kunst 2009; (Cainkar hate and due religion to their tacks at women experience Muslim that evidence provided other studies several (21 16 vs percent) men. Similarly, security than out singled be by airport percent)vs 13 offensive(26 names and to called be more likely were also United Women the them. suspiciously peoplein toward States acted said found women more (34study Muslim adult percent) men (29 percent) than Center 2017) (Pew Research Life Public and Religion A Pew Research Islamophobia online. may experience Muslim son as perceived per any that recognize we albeit used they spaces online the and Muslim We on women United focused men the and in States who self-identifiedas Review Literature gender. with secting inter affiliation acombination in and of religious religion that their with on identifying based environments their United the in States experience yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 - - - - -
7 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff men themselves. men voices women the of contributions and Muslim by foregrounding these aims to make study States 2016 This on Muslims. election presidential Center 2017; 2017) of United out the impact or Suleiman the teased have Pew Research 2009; United men the in of States Muslim (Cainkar those of Islamophobia women of with Muslim experiences contrasted ies have 2013). (Echchaibi public limited stud sphere the few in Similarly, was women’s when forms of resistance Muslim everyday participation offering 2017), or considered Kraepelin and blogs group (Kavakci Instagram and statements fashion with on Twitter expression religious hijabs combining on websites (Van activities 2016), Es organizations minority women with 2016), on women’s focused so, (Janmohamed for they if Muslims and gender and spaces of online intersections the regarded have Few studies 2015). (Waltorp borhood neigh their of residence, “and” country their of origin, country of their culture the a“composite with enact to fitin habitus”, channels providing tools to are media women, social immigrant for Muslim 2015). Especially (Croucher were to embracely they United Rahmani and States culture like less the online, respondentsconnected home were to their culture Islamophobia; more from combat the stemming isolation loneliness and in-groups to to with connect spaces online use immigrants ation Muslim 2010; 2016). Janmohamed Semaan and (Mishra For first-gener instance, differences to cultural adapting while how Islam toderstand practice un to better spaces online used United the in States also have Muslims Johns 2012; 2014). Wills and (Hebbani to notions create spaces identity, of citizenship, freedom online and using 2016); (Janmohamed media embraced modernity, have social and faith combine confidently and to openly attitude their sharing those and lims, Mus millennial middle-class Especially to offer anotheronesolidarity. and of Muslims, stereotypes generalizing to ridicule terrorism, against to speak media social used United Muslims election, States presidential 2016,2013andthe the lead up in to between globally viral going portstuff #muslimsre and #muslimapologies, #jesuismuslim, #asamuslimwoman, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 ------
8 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff 20 men. The higher number of women participants was anticipatednotwas higher men. The 20 number of womenparticipants with with groupsgroups 41 women; eleven days: four first 100 his cluded 2017, April and election, States presidential President Trump after con seven participants each participants seven to three with 61 conducted we with groups 15 focus participants, total, In Two transcript. each coded researchers transcripts. applied to were subsequently all of that aset in codes resulting transcripts two first the analyzed researchers subthemes emerged after and Themes Atlas.ti. with analyzed and sions were audio-recorded, transcribed, on emotions, Islamophobia. responses Discus and abouting experiences, prob guide interview followed asemi-structured group; discussions focus each guided assistants Amoderator two and a demographic questionnaire. out filled participants ences of Islamophobia. Before started, group a focus or experi older, 18 are years interested discussing Muslim, and in as tify who iden people to asked participate pool information research and Flyers to 37 credit provided of which 61 pool, participants. research university’s a using and organization, aMuslim with partnering media, on social calls and area theDetroit around metro flyers through We participants recruited topic. about adifficult length at to talk everyone allowing also ofprovide asense “not while alone” being to groups focus mini organized we guidelines, their Following periences. ex to how groups contrast on genderfocus may play arole reflecting in (2015:23).groups” approach, conducted we gender-separated Using this people into these different you must issue, separate about an people talk of types how contrast to you certain and want compare groups: “If focus for comparative Casey’s instruction and Wederstand. followed Krueger to un community Muslim important an this Hence, making developed. 2014:1) (Howell, congregations” most oldest, influential and have largest, of [United States’] the reside“several and Muslims thousand about 200 men’s whereMuslim area Detroit worked metropolitan the we accounts, in women’s how and with Muslim To if contrasts sense-making analyze Method yber C yber 1 , between October 2016, shortly before 2016, October United the shortly , between O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 ------
9 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff majority held (39) Unitedmajority States citizenship The years. 20 was For 18 median from the to ranged women, 50 years; ages felt to and address. compelled experienced they pressures and stress of levels higher perhaps indicating men more yet women participating kept to We outreach where additional recruited. we undertook university the due number of tohigher atbut the women most enrolled likely students need approval via friends’ requests. Through invitations or open joining, invitations or joining, open Through requests. friends’ via approval need options. Connections dislike and of like avariety with posts marking as re-posts well and as links, video, images, including similarly posts, based word- option). private ple the use lengthier Facebook contrast, In allows option (fewer peo public setting the other in follow each freely ple can favorites. Peo as posts other, of contents others’ re-tweets by marking and to included), be to each replies links and polls, videos, for images, lowing but al characters to 280 updates (limited short people by posting interact site on which of Twitter networking publicness. social is amicro-blogging levels and dialogues types of different offer platforms media social These Vine. and WhatsApp, terest, to four, most Twitter, often Facebook Snapchat, Pin but also Instagram, two most account, used media one at least used social women participants Center 2017). ahijab (Pew women Research ten wear in Muslim four All roughly suggests that one data cap, and jabs, consistent abase national with 16 groups, focus the (42.5 percent) school diploma. During high wore hi (35); amaster’s had or some master’s degree held three a education; three some had bachelor’smajority or bachelor’s associate education, an degree The (34), one and question, noted the not to pansexual. did be answer six straight as themselves Most question. described the one notand did answer (32), single was majority overwhelming eight arelationship,An were in United the in for States. Muslims typical origins diverse the demonstrating “Arabic-Russian,” as such “Arab-Scottish-Italian,” and “Pakistani-Indian, backgrounds noted mixed Several Asian. and Chinese, danese-Indonesian, Yemeni, Somali, Sun Palestinian, Iraqi, Bengal, Bosnian, as oneand each (13); Eastern or Middle (9);American, (5); (3); Lebanese Indian Pakistani Arab Arab, Women India. backgrounds: and of ethnic noted range awide yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 2 ; two were citizens of Canada of Canada were citizens ; two 1, 2018 ------
10 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff an, Moorish-American an, Ethiopi were African-American, they (2). said can each One participant (2), (4), or Indian-Domini American Indian and orPakistani Arab Arab and links. Our sample revealed the many nuances of discrimination partic of nuances discrimination many the sample revealed Our links. and form of the comments, in posts, general in to as Muslims well as personally them 14ophobia and to directed online face-to-face. included messages This face-to-face; 28 Islam and online men 16 experienced of 20 the they said 42 face-to-face: of 41Islamophobia the women, experienced 31 they said and Islamophobia online experienced 47 they said 61 participants, all Of Analysis and Findings nadian held (17), United also States citizenship majority the years; were Ca four of 22 amedian 19 from with to 56For years similarly ranged men, ages channels. video to other users’ subscribe as well as vote on videos others’ comment upload and and can videos where platform users video-sharing Youtube or connections. group to by others join individual is a permission to phone invitation or agroup to an users’ need is tied and users numbers; messages either one orencrypted with person a group.uses The platform images and audio, videos, share to and chat users application allows that is amessenger other. each WhatsApp or to snap with codes connect names user precise to more need followers know as isas perceived private and captionsand photos and modifications of use brief videos the with through messaging and other freely. chatting follow each emphasizes Snapchat can brief captions; users Vine with photo emphasis place and on video sharing and Facebook acommon to Instagram, Pinterest, space are interact. groups WhatsApp. four, most Twitter, often YouTube, Snapchat, Facebook, Instagram, and to two most used account; media one Menatquestion. least used social school diplomas; one held apost-graduate this one not did degree; answer high had (16); lor’stwo degree or bachelor’s education, associate held an of some majority had men The question. bache this not did answer three andin a relationship,were three as straight; as single, 14 identified All 3 yber . Men noted a similarly wide range of backgrounds: Lebanese (7), Lebanese of backgrounds: range wide . Men noted asimilarly C yber 4 or white; one person did not answer this question. question. or this white; not one did person answer O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 ------
11 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff dential TV debate on TV 9, October dential 2016. thesecond United States presi arose during which #muslimsreportstuff, of Yemeni a20-year-old as American ofsource solidarity, of descent said were a of Muslims Twitter,On expectations to ridicule used hashtags comments. political from arefuge as on images, focuses which Instagram, perceived they Facebook, while increasingly butcome also more political, public microblog Twitter highly be the Women having as especially saw Trump or what did he’s of sort.” that doing or or protesting something ... about towhat Ican’t this. read serious something on go seeing without to need alittle be Iactually for now me, like Ifeel thing entertainment an before [the just strictly just feel like was “I election] media social served: roots ob 18-year-old Pakistani-Indian an as with media, American social by amplified presidents vious likely (Patterson 2017). was coverage This pre more than times three coverage dominated United media States news the of days as president, first 100 he the Trump Trump. during Indeed, about rate of ahigh and opinion exchanged posts more political taining con become more politicized, having as media social viewed participants women election, the 2018). after and (Cassese Barnes and During terparts white coun women their and minority between solidarity the in fracture more a demonstrating white women candidate, voted for Republican the proportionately votedagainst while Trump, women specifically Minority Women’s sense-making 2016 United Presidential States Election Islamophobia and to Islamophobia. responses and women men‘s during and sense-making Below, Muslims. fellow to detail non-Muslim we with known share and discriminations these to make urge an and spaces online ipants in perceived to show that we do stuff regularly just like everyone else. else. everyone We like just regularly to show do we stuff that wentor out “I to simple school.” just stupid and Something “Oh,went I say: eatthey would go to then andtoday” stuff or, report that, Muslims report Muslims saying, was Everyone yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 ------
12 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff from outside the group offer protection from harassment and assault and assault and outsidefrom offer group from protection the harassment relationships social “organized Such allies. LGBTQ women, their and and straight, disabled, immigrant, white, Native American, Asian, Latinx, African-American, Muslim, between collaboration the programming and statements person, Perez in advocate -emphasized Carmen ry, Latina and leader Tamika Mallo African-American Sarsour, Linda activist Muslima including - backgrounds varying their with women.across The organizers, en’s convention 2017, Detroit October in in solidarity emphasized similarly 21, 2017 (one Trump’s after day president), as inauguration wom the and women’s United the from global States, the Emanating on January marches descent explained: a 19-year-old of Pakistani American helped women as groups election to across the process solidarity Especially dent-elect, descent described: a19-year-old as of Pakistani American Trump United emotions as States presi regarding similar with others with to connect women helped the participants media social election, the After really motivated me. motivated really people [...] that and important it’s and is huge, really solidarity people trans gay and including groups, other oppressed and Hispanics, and Muslims and Muslims, black includes that people, and black and Muslims but between Muslims, tween not So just be minorities. all between solidarity and zation on FacebookA lot Twitter and of activists the for ask organi justified. and valid are feelings your that and way, same you’re the feel you that feel they it makes not alone emotions same the and they’re through going that media, cial follow on so not Istill to people and who me, close are close when So, people Isaw who shocked. are just very numb and just and for depressed day me. Ifelt very awful It just an was funny. world same the of really it and people. I’ve was that seen don’t we’reor different. like stuff doWe’re weird not kind of yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 ------
13 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff social media users who are Muslim expressed a similar level of exhaustion of level exhaustion asimilar expressed Muslim who are users media social more them gave controland (Van 2016). Es women study, our In everyday safer was this as concerns, their protests and events, to air lectures, books, magazines, websites, leaflets, preferring or articles, wrote interviews gave Few hate threats. and of cost the facing with came and tooit stressful was as media news mainstream to with interact resources and muster time the them for to difficult it said was Netherlands the to and 2010 Norway in 1975 from organizations minority in who were active background Muslim mirrors Es’ exhaustion that(2016) a Van of level with women This findings ground: back of 18-year-old Lebanese-Iranian by an American described Arab her from phone.best womenwas impact on The Muslim Instagram and who deleted Snapchat a23-year-old for American as them instance Arab from took ahiatus they that media on social Muslims toward hostility constant Trump by the and coverage fatigued were so women they said Several this. to were seen amplify media social and ophobia by participants to most connected often Islam was persona believing.” His are supporters [other presidentour is saying group: in woman right] Trump what the and most of Islamophobia of election, what from the the is coming “Because summarized: A21-year-old them. post background of Pakistani American to to views Trump’s comments,” similar with emboldening others “hateful spike the attributing election, the after hate in crimes increase an witnessed they as were supportive others to know Detroit area metro the in ticipants for women were important par of solidarity displays and messages Such 2009:7). of demonization” (Cainkar discourses in engaged of those power the mitigate they while government, overbearing of an excesses from a very draining thing to be a Muslim in America right now. America in to aMuslim be thing draining a very day, a times toknow. Ihave my pray parents. five you It is 18-year-old Ihave work. Ihave school. Ihave student. college an am I it’sbeing. And it’s nothave I just selfish, to recognize [...] person single well on atoll my personal take would that Iwere to sitIf here [pause] and of fightevery to back kind yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 - - - -
14 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff 11/9 2017] day [United States election generation’s is this 9/11. That’s how that “It’s saying no around going coincidence people are that background: put Pakistani perhaps best by a49-year-old as for with Muslims, American Trump brought about negativity the more men talked inauguration, ter the about Trump it’sknow Idon’t so of to going all be this.” Af to part want be okay, I like, Iwas he got elected. right after too, like accounts took ahiatus, media social “My he said: Muslims.” Nevertheless, people who “like with a“bubble” in he was accounts as media Islamophobia in social ona rise his not he did roots said notice a 19-year-old Pakistani instance, with American due to not Trump. had Islamophobia increased that and online see” Forand to it “wait best men be said would several election, the store. after Similarly, family related stories to their men participants several Detroit area; metro the in business family or work their businesses in own Muslims en many to improve economy. do the he something would plausiblewas giv This approach Trump, toward hoping apractical had they said Yet, also several States to Trump, a21-year-old as argued: American Arab United the in turn anegative men many attributed campaign, the During Men’s sense-making instant. responded to an and in control perceived and were being on how messages of level safety relative a only participants offered our media social applications as such 2.0 web more forvoice, medium controlled their alternative, an Van participants Es’ 1.0 web websites gave While cycle. news arelentless in ofthat participating to similar stress faced women our participants is, That media. news with when working did Van as media participants Es’ on social when interacting itself is in amess. is in itself [...] attacked being who are Muslims have whole the country officers. by police We brutalized being are that Americans We rights. women have their for fighting African have We [...]premacism is on arise [...] itself. is repeating history for president Trump white su Donald is running When yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 - - -
15 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff ed into harmful policies and everyday encounters. Several men blamed encounters. Several everyday and policies intoed harmful rhetoric translat but campaign were notto on confined Muslims attacks verbal his later that endorsed Trump to realize coming only initially pants some men partici Trumpstart, the from outright regarded negative as one volunteered man he voted that for women Trump. while sum, In choice, voting their to reveal not did we participants ask Trump. While votedthey forsaid stood outalso as study no womenin our example This 2009:3). (Cainkar accorded rights and to other citizens” guarantees one excluded inferior that an as citizenship their “described and identity due religious to their of asense insecurity experienced cago 9/11 Chi around after Muslims when years to Arab the similar remarks, by Trump’s disrupted was Muslim “and” insistence American onHis being “and” American: as identities Muslim ipant concluded he feltintertwined his offendedin desires.” Yet,partic Trump’s for this sexual after in office, days first 100 despite objectionand to Trump’s his of treatment women “objects as [...] he it voted had help economy said for would the man Trump believing honestly.” this time, scary same It’s At the to era. anew uprising pretty an acoup. It’s like It’s like of amount hatred. great almost such almost [social] [...] media through seen alive of being my years all I’ve in never “After Trump’s Donald traumatization: this ized [...] election especially verbal further American a in office, 22-year-olddays Lebanese first of Trump’s men’s anniversary the fourth In 100 the around group focus moment for alot of people.” [...] media. social in it’s framed being commonly Clearly, atraumatic it was going togoing say. now we’re what apresident’s point at the where can’t we trust because way disappointing avery, very in aMuslim, as only notAmerican, an as completeme the opposite, affects that does and around turns then and forto country do better the how he wants Trump explaining you see media, When on the yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 - - - - -
16 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff Such Such scribed: de roots Indian with a22-year-old media; American on social views anti-Muslim and Trump racist for to to them emboldening express close counseling each other were work if-how each out, men participants counseling to speak (Van risks 2016). Es associated assess and By structure power metrical one asym to had an each do in so a Muslim, as speaking while types stereo subvert and to normalize working yet Muslims; as must speak and discourse this escape cannot they come that have to understand Muslims individual Muslims, as collectively them only, addressed and religion to their background aMuslim of identity peopleduced the with re of Trump. discourse election the views As negative had whelmingly over Trump participants albeit against too not boldly tolims speak censored Mus Muslims roots said Indian with a 22-year-old American for groups, instance, focus several in Discussed by Muslims. ternalized Islamophobia to encouraged in be media social that argued Men also amplified. be could hostility and of polarization feelings the animus platform political is combined identity with religious on their based on a group Trump. attack an like When by group Republicans opposed an as consistently been have framed Muslims relationships. terpersonal in strain significantly can polarization of heightenedstances affective in such spectrum; other on sidepeople groups the and of political the for hostility and dislike expressed openly 2015):Westwood Americans and (Iyengar society American in divide second-largest the social be found to previously been has and groups political opposing felt against outparty election. play out of this because of dynamic sort to that see teresting in Ijust don’t it’s that bic And really guy anymore. know of some Islamopho sort into like dent turned he suddenly when ideologies then [Trump] and his and presi became Trump he supported primaries the in Trump running was [...] afriend I have [...] for awhile I’ve that known when yber animus refers to feelings of disdain and discrimination discrimination and of disdain refers to feelings animus C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 ------
17 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff ing, which was echoed by a19-year-old echoed [that] get was “I which woman: ing, Lebanese Islamophobic of to proper attributed woman alack teach behaviors can may hold For 18-year-old Islamophobic an views. instance, Arab-Ameri why aperson to situation understand the examined they meaning general, in Muslims or toward to personally them bic directed comments online Islamopho contextualized groups focus of women six in athird Almost Contextualizing avoidedthey content humor solidarity. used and and Additionally, online. when concerns model interacting stood out their in arole being Especially to Islamophobia when responding online. exemplar an being and ignoring, educating, women contextualizing, most used often cognition.” our fect To by Islamophobia, emotions the triggered with cope [...] not if verbally respond to emotionally them do, you know, they And af a37-year-old as them, ophobic impacted “We online posts said: American or not, simply Islam online noticing women to respond chose verbally hijabs. Whether women wearing especially members, forbut family also themselves for they feltor worry fear said of womenone-fifth participants Moreover, almost backward. and oppressed being as about stereotypes larly defeat, anger, and particu of consistent frustration, their mapped feelings 1970s the from to 2010 Norway and women Netherlands the in Muslim of Van nation due religion. to their analysis (2016) Es’ discourse historical discrimi and of othering decades endured have who similarly countries women’swith Muslim line in other in is responses emotional This sad. and felt vulnerable they said half almost or annoyed; felt angry they said half more than those, Of Islamophobia online: or when hopeless experiencing helpless, frustrated, feeling described of women participants half Almost Women’s Responses Responses Islamophobia to Muslim. as speaking “and” discourse dominant the to of space break resistance narrow that to ing navigate yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 ------
18 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff spaces. This feeling of pressure was especially true for women with hijab, forwith womentrue especially was of pressure feeling This spaces. Internet and physical in lives daily their in positively Islam representing to off respond to stave Islamophobia and by responsibility their itthat was perceived They online. including of models Islam, to had perfect be they felt they that discussed groups focus of women six in athird More than Being exemplars time. the of content such all ubiquity the with to deal too tired are they that and overwhelming be easily Islamophobic that contentenergy.” described frequently can Participants It’s not ‘it’s not true. [...] true.’ saying, day sit all there Ijust don’t the have it’s [...] I know because not true scrolling, just keep “I said: an I can’t just 18-year-old an to as respond, to aduty avoid wom feeling Somali-Oromo comment a hostile noticing after response written “not”or to offerverbal a meant which employed of ignoring, women participants two-thirds Almost Ignoring for Muslimas. frustration into omnipresent an this turned has media social in persistent discussion 2016; Van womening out (Janmohamed 2016); Es a proliferation of this never-ending oppression debates around relation to in tir hijab been have seemingly Idon’t on I’m Especially my own. this at oppressed all.’” think of you know, picked ‘Well, Ikind like, be hijab.’ the wear I’ll they And because are womenoppressed Muslim ‘Ohyeah, like, be “They’ll situation: one described woman Arab 20-year-oldas felt itthey effective, be would to hence, educate women when only were selective frustration; in resulted Islamophobicwhen with faced behavior. Yet, attempts frequently to teach Two-thirds to educate of others tried women 10 they in said groups focus Educating about reality.”they’re clueless So, things. were taught where environment they certain up an in grew they yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 - -
19 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff amount of visual material, and extend public discourse, turning Muslim Muslim turning public discourse, extend and material, ofamount visual a vast include which media, to social of argument We lines these extend (2016). behavior daily their in Muslims “good” as example an set can they other that to each remind was used they One strategy rejected. is continuously but questioned and belonging where live their they which in (78) of country the majority notand oppressed” as ethno-religious to the emancipated being to as represent themselves toneed lengths to go great citizenship full their women to want “who claim Muslim concluded that Van Norway, and (2016), Es Netherlands on the study her in longitudinal un-American” Similarly, interpreted as (2009:230). are that values tion and women openly, “these as proudly, even a threat to conform of aset prescrip hijab as women were perceived with women. ofgroups Especially Muslim or small out individual an on singling focused groups small and individuals amendmentright, afirst as of freedom religion ensuring laws up by formal protests as atsuch were shut mosques, enforcement, by law down backed groups, by large Muslims against of hostility expressions As level. a moral neighborhood to the athreat on as were perceived they because communities their in women were attacked Muslim that She argued incarcerations. and arrests, United by the form of States the registries, government in targeted were more men systematically often Muslims while attacks physical and bal of United bylevel scrutiny, ver the a high punished States public through 9/11. women after that Chicago were in She argued experiences Americans’ Muslim and of Arab analysis (2009) Cainkar’s Louise extends media cial on so of Islam exemplar Women to concerns an strong be participants’ this.’” do Muslims ‘Oh, all ‘Cause there’s up,sibly they’re slip like: and can. like-one [...] know they representation I pos of damn Islam best to I have So, the be they’re meeting Muslim [...] first the be could the Muslim only be Icould I you to have think, meeting, people the you are remember, for all like “Youan put by was best have 18-year-old to Arab-American: This always online. other users with when interacting attitude apositive maintaining and manners good meant displaying hijab, without and this women, with photos To and videos, online. for avatars, in visible which some many was yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 - - - -
20 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff angry. Overall, comparatively more men comparatively about spoke Islam encountering Overall, angry. or annoyed felt fatigued, helpless or also hopeless; eighttrated, they said 10 felt Islamophobia encountering frus they men of said online, 20 When Men’s Responses of “American category ened women.” the broad women United ultimately of the in Muslim States, they stereotypes publicly, of level emancipation confounding to thus speak and this strating women. as demon freedoms By and rights repeatedly their notdoes curtail that Islam for apeaceful case the to and make oppressed, of being reotypes to counter ste public discourse, in participate to actively media social used United women the in our States participants as working also dynamic this to belong. achance have We they would then gendered violence. Only see of free and emancipated, strong, public sphere, being the as in ticipating women par to as had perceived have Muslim be that She argued, equality. is compatible gender to had have demonstrate Islam with that particular, women, in Muslim countries European Muslim minority accepted in VanSimilarly, (2016) Es’ to for concluded remain become that and Islam 2009:244). (Cainkar hijab” cluded [that] “American an feminity pre challenged and womanhood” American of “boundaries the to push media way. which social in replied used They about, how posted to who and whom they posted, they what they behavior: by aheightened threat or of moral level self-monitoring online of their tural worked and to perceptions of counter acul exemplars these role cultural as their enacted and Womeninternalized, anticipated, study our in Muslims terrorists. as form framed of the being in athreat as perceived been ly have traditional men who Muslim than contested been have level on adifferent media women’s 2009), Muslim on social expressions and (Cainkar existence morale and of culture carriers as women perceived on. so apps As and are YouTubers, preachers, bloggers, fashion celebrities, dating bloggers, travel 2016) content online ofscape Muslim-produced with (Janmohamed visual land entire an include media Social of Islam. hijab or other markers with when displayed -especially targets visible women and to into reach easy yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 ------
21 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff family, so I was taught always at a young age for those who are ignorant ignorant for who at age are those ayoung taught I was family, so always religious come avery, from very “I responsibility: religious of his part was others educating said man A20-year-old Lebanese to learn. willing as people perceived when so they did only they emphasized they ticipants, to women par Similar noticed Islamophobia whenothers they online. to educate tried they said groups, focus of all men, across athird Almost Educating society.” more their cocooned are in viduals indi it these as Iunderstand perspective, ments amore from conservative com Isee “When Islamophobia online: when experiencing background a21-year-oldSimilarly, considers aposter’s he always said Arab-American described: Indian (17 groups focus menamong all in men) of 20 a22-year-old as American most common the to Islamophobia response was online Contextualizing Contextualizing contexts. online in exemplar an as to act tried rarely to they response Islamophobia in while ignoring and ucating, ed contextualizing, most used often study our in Men participants spaces. public encountered women mostly physical Muslims in previously that groups small and individuals from of Islamophobia levels same originating men to perhaps Muslim the 9/11,subjecting are men after media social than andhate in publicspaces that women faced morescrutiny findings (2009) Cainkar’s in other than that women, indicating ophobia than online things they say about Islam and Muslims, and ISIS. and Muslims, and say about Islam they things these believing are and sources to media listening mindlessly Islamophobia where just people like who are things ly with side of story. You the Especial value. to every have see always Internet on you at see the face anything you take never should about the Internet, learned I things first onethe like That’sof yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 - - - - -
22 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff a 21-year-old described: best American Arab as of anti-Muslim views, lamophobic recalcitrance aperceived and posts number of Is due Islamophobia overwhelming toignored the online they said groups, focus three across of men participants, half More than Ignoring 2011:158). [ofmessage (Howell Islam], isolated” you are do it you cannot while “in ordergenerations: for younger the you spread to especially affecting 9/11 to put have do on dawa, more Muslims pressure scholars Muslim put it, since Ali, Mahdi Michigan, mosque Dearborn, in lem Society Mos former the president As to of do American dawa. ways the creases in to communicate also number of channels duty, increased an as stant” may become “con aperceived media on social other people; especially dawa brought As examples. it in up themselves conceptthe of dawa about We aboutnotask Islam. to to others did learn and invite religion to their witness to bear Muslims asking media, on behavior social to their concept women, of Islamic as dawa applied the well men, as educating, In women participants. by more discussed often by far was time the all online on display Muslim anti-Muslim ideal the sentiments preventing by and being anticipating idea of the while about post Islam prompted incorrect an saw when they being “after” teaching and of terms correcting in toreferred educating my mission.” as that for me, around me to Itake Men educate And them. do about it. about do inferior.’people are really there’s you So, can that nothing these and great, am is ‘I mind their in invested ISIS, they as radical as are just They radical. themselves are spective per conservative people who this because have spective,’ ‘Hey, comment just say: and you’ve per every wrong got the You You can’t warrior. aFacebook be keyboard can’t on go yber C yber in discussions directly but participants frequently frequently but participants directly discussions in O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 means interactions with with interactions means ------
23 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff ed States presidential election, especially Muslim women: as a minority women: aminority as Muslim especially election, Statesed presidential 2016 the Unit of during due Islamophobia to ubiquity the online minority as a of stress high levels suffered users media social regular States who are the women and in men United young Muslim finds study our Similarly, 2017). ciation Asso Psychological 2017 (American for level men the whereas decreased in increasing men, further than of stress levels higher women reporting with them, to source of stress a significant was election States presidential outcome the that to of 2016 reported whites compared fewer the United Hispanics) Asians, minorities (African-Americans, of different a majority notions positive any about Trump. entertained never Indeed, participants women contrast, In inauguration. the after vanished ic this point of view apragmat or displayed cautiously optimistic still fore appeared election the men be several ButUnited negative. while as election States presidential outcome the saw of 2016 women the men and participants all Virtually Conclusion and Discussion riences.” - expe their to and share rituals important with to engage opportunity the world the counts people of around to what present. it’s give be Both like passionate Twitter are there hajj intimateand ac emotional offering feeds Qur’an’. the people ‘tweet During Ramadan, “During millennials: Muslim (2016:95) Janmohamed As for hobbies, described activities. and lives, daily about going their themselves showing longer photos, and texts with videos, to posts create participants allowed media about feel Muslims.”they Social to way [...]is abetter to how what and people contradict say about Islam [...] is like my life show [a] as how I can Iam like Ifeel that and person, to show media what Ido, what social use people, Ican those attack directly to media of social using “instead life: his he way leads by the people wrong to patience taught and prove him mother always his descent, said Pakistani to more many Compared women, a19-year-old one only man, of American Being exemplars yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 - - - - -
24 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff Farnham: Ashgate. 163-178. Pp. eds. Mason, Robert and Hayes Anna Australia. Modern in Sanctuary Seeking In Forums. Online in Sanctuary Seeking Online: Fear 2012. Anne. Aly, References well-being. comefor for cost at great their women also and it as can minorities tool change-bringing positive, amostly as media social credits oric that rhet to counter prevailing disadvantages and practices map withdrawal 2017). to is needed More research (Eckert harassment sexual as such harassment of online types ly women of who level certain ahigher face especial times, at certain minorities, for in certain engaging worth are media social if question the begs voices and heard their to make media social of advantage take can howlimits Muslims substantially This Islam. role as to of models act due higher pressure to the was behavior online for women of whose level self-monitoring especially their participants, aburden for too high was Islamophobic the this through clutter. Often, laborcutand to emotional the time, energy, afford can they but if only for Muslims atool solidarity be and of can expression media Social and foremostas Muslims. first spoke and self-essentialized participants Muslims, orderIn to normalize women online. oflim whom exemplars as more to act were compelled for Mus especially faith, their living with line in are that ways respond in to pressures facing and belonging and of sense citizenship their mining Islamophobia, under to experience probability the increases this time 2016), same at Internet the (Janmohamed the while through connecting e-ummah the to with and connect life personal for professional and is essential online place: engaging hard and a rock 2016). et al. (Reinecke media Young on social ing between are Muslims by simply endured be they frustration and compounded by exhaustion is stress This religion. of their exemplars being and online by interacting CenterUnited 2014) States. burden (Pew ahigher Research bear -they 35 the -women only in percent are Muslims among minority the within yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. , the global Muslim nation Muslim global , the 1, 2018 Cultures in Refuge: Refuge: in Cultures - - - - -
25 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Communication 8:943-61. of Communication Journal International Arabia. Saudi in Progress Twitter Social Promote Can for Change: 2014. #Hashtags Irfan. Chaudhry, 2018. 8, July accessed lamophobia-research-documentation-project/, https://www.crg.berkeley.edu/research-projects/is of California. University Berkeley: project. documentation and research Islamophobia 2018. Gender. and for Race Center 2018. 1, July online accessed 10.1007%2Fs11109-018-9468-2, https://link-springer-com.proxy.lib.wayne.edu/article/ Behavior. Political races. idential 2016 pres and 2012 the in whiteness and class, at gender, A look candidates: Republican for women’s and support sexism Reconciling 2018. Barnes. Tiffany and Erin, Casses, Foundation. Sage 9/11. York: New after Russsel experience can Ameri and Muslim American Arab The insecurity: Homeland 2009. Louise. Cainkar, 46(2):180-189. Studies East Middle of Review Islamophobia. Researching and Defining 2012. Eric. Bleich, 27:1-8. Violent Behavior and Aggression Impacts. and Dynamics Crime: Hate ti-Muslim An Offline and Online between Affinity The 2016. Zempi. Irene and Imran, Awan, 10(1):1-20. Criminology of Cyber Journal International of Hate. Walls book’s Face of the Analysis AQualitative Media: on Social Islamophobia 2016. Imran. Awan, 6(2):133-150. Internet and Policy Media. on Social lims Mus against Hate of Online Twitter: ATypology and 2014. Islamophobia Imran. Awan, 27, on June 2018. accessed state-nation.pdf, http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2017/ Association. Psychological American the Nation. of State The 2017. America: in Stress Association. Psychological American search 9(1):21-40. Re Media and Muslim Arab of Journal Speech. Hate ophobia’:of Cyber Many Faces The Not Islam ‘Islamonausea, 2016. Azeez. Abdul-Halik and Carmen Aguilera-Carnerero, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 ------
26 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff evidence on group polarization. American Journal of Political Science 59(3): Science 690-707. of Political Journal American polarization. on group evidence New lines: party across loathing and Fear 2015. J. Westwood. Sean and Shanto, Iyengar, Press. University Oxford Oxford: Detroit. in 2014. Old Islam Sally. Howell, Press. 151-85. Pp. University Wayne State eds. Detroit: Shryrock, Andrew and Howell, In Mosques. Detroit’s in Critique Internal and Scrutiny External Targets: Moving as 2011. Muslims Sally. Howell, 39(1):87-100.nication of Commu Journal Australian of Hijab/Burqa. (Mis)Representations Media through igate Nav Women Australia in HowMuslim 2012. Wills. Charise-Rose and Aparna, Hebbani, 20(4):1282-1302. & Society Media New States. United the and Kingdom United the many, Switzerland, Ger in of Women Bloggers Abuse Online 2017. for Recognition: Stine. Fighting Eckert, 14(7):852-67. SAGE Journalism Publications. Change. of Social phies Choreogra Muslim and Activism Watch: Media Media Muslimah 2013. Nabil. Echchaibi, 35(3):294-319. Research Communication of Applied Veiling. Journal on Women’s Muslim Standpoints American Hijab: Redefining 2007. Rachel. Droogsma, 8(4):330-345. tion Communica Intercultural and of International Journal Adaptation. on Cultural Facebook of Test Effects of the ALongitudinal 2015. Rahmani. Diyako and M., Stephen Croucher, 27, June 2018. accessed cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1052&context=uclf, 1(8):139-167. Forum Legal of Chicago University https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/ Politics. Antiracist and Theory Feminist Doctrine, of Antidiscrimination Critique Feminist ABlack Sex: and of Race Intersection the 1989. Demarginalizing Kimberlé. Crenshaw, June 2018. 27, accessed fault/files/splc_the_trump_effect.pdf, Center. https://www.splcenter.org/sites/de Law Poverty Southern Nation’s Schools. Our on Campaign Presidential the of Impact The Effect: The 2016. Trump Maureen. Costello, yber Arab Detroit 9/11: Life in the Terror Decade. Nabeel Abraham, Sally Sally Abraham, Nabeel Terror 9/11: the in Decade. Detroit Life Arab C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 ------
27 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff donald-trumps-first-100-days/, accessed on June 27, on June 2018. accessed donald-trumps-first-100-days/, 18. Policy. https://shorensteincenter.org/news-coverage- May Public and Politics on Media Center Shorenstein Days. of 2017.100 First Trump’sCoverage Thomas. News Patterson, 54:87-101. Media Electronic and of Broadcasting Journal In. Log America in Muslims Asian South Cyberspace: in Islam 2010. Semaan. Gaby and Smeeta, Mishra, 40(3):237-256. Quarterly Education and Anthropology Women’s Discourses. Gendered dergraduate Un Muslim American Not Too Not Too 2009. Normal: “College-Like,” Shabana. Mir, 1(1):53-67. Islam Contemporary of Wikiislam. Case The Cyber-Islamophobia? 2007. Goran. Larsson, 36(4):518-532. Relations Intercultural of Journal International Formation. Identity Minorities’ Muslim on Stigma Religious of Effects The lamophobia: Is with Coping 2012. Ulleberg. Pal and Sam, David Tajamal, Hajira with Jonas, Kunst, Sage. Oaks: Thousand edition. 5th Research. plied for Ap Guide APractical Groups: Focus 2015. Casey. Ann Mary and Richard, Krueger, 39(6):850-868. Society and Culture Media, Personalities. Media Social Hijabi of Construction Identity Online The Bodies: Fashionable in Beings 2017. Religious Kraepelin. R. Camille and Elif, Kavakci, 142:66-67. Policy Foreign Heresey. Headscarf 2004. Merve. Kavakci, 2(2):71-80. Inclusion Social Spaces. worked Net Socially in “Acts of Citizenship” Young People Online: 2014. Muslim Amelia. Johns, 4(3):289-310. Islam Contemporary to Identity. Threats Hybridised and Muslims of British Representations Media 2010. Cinnirella. Marco and Rusi, Jaspal, Taurus. B. I. London: world. the changing Young M: Muslims Generation 2016. Shelina. Janmohamed, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 - - - -
28 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff trump-refugee-ban-muslim-executive-order.html, accessed June 27, June 2018. accessed trump-refugee-ban-muslim-executive-order.html, 29. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/29/us/ We January New Don’t. The Times, York What We and Know What 2017. on Immigration: Liam. Order Trump’sStack, Executive 47(2):357-361. Studies East of Middle Journal tional Interna East. Middle aChanging in Activism Women’s 2015. Digital Annabelle. Sreberny, 2018. 27, June accessed splcenter.org/sites/default/files/com_hate_incidents_report_2017_update.pdf, Center. https://www. Law Poverty Southern .Report. November Election. of the Aftermath the in Intimidation and Harassment Ten Center. 2016. Law After Days Poverty Southern 20(1):90-115. Psychology Media Sample. Probability aGerman in Impairments Health Psychological and Stress onPerceived Multitasking Internet and Load Communication of Effects The Span: Life the over Stress 2016.Digital Müller. Kai and Wölfing, Stark,Klaus Quiring,Birgit Dreier,Oliver Beutel,Michael E. Auffenanger,Manfred Stefan with Leonard, Reinecke, 20(1):37-47. Religion and Communication of Journal The States. United the in women of Muslim study ethnographic An prayer: of 1997.gendering Debra. The Reece, 7(1):35-52. of Communications Journal Howard women. Muslim among dress of symbolism The communication: and Covering 1996. Debra. Reece, 27,June 2018. accessed 5. http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheet/social-media/, Technology. February and Center. Internet Pew Research Fact Sheet. Media Social Center. 2018. Pew Research 27, June 2018. accessed U.S.- MUSLIMS-FULL-REPORT.pdf, http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2017/07/25171611/ 26. July Life. Public and Center. Religion Pew Research Dream. American the in to Believe Continue but Society, in Place Their About Center. Concerned 2017. Muslims U.S. Pew Research 2018. 28, June accessed org/religious-landscape-study/gender-composition/, http://www.pewforum. group. religious by composition Center. 2014. Gender Pew Research yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 -
29 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff 4 3 2 1 Notes 58:49-67. SMID. research communication and of media Journal MedieKultur: Women of Copenhagen. Young in Muslim Habitus Composite the and Media Social Virtuous. Staying Cool, Keeping 2015. Karen. Waltorp, Macmillan. Palgrave Switzerland: Cham, Oppressed. Being of Stigma The Background. lim aMus of Women with Self-Representation and Stereotypes 2016. A. Van Margaretha Es, 4(1):1-12. Journal Studies Youth. Islamophobia Muslim of American Crisis Identity and Faith the Exploring Islamophobia: 2017. Omar. Internalized Suleiman, making numbers not add up to 20. One participant chose not to answer this question. this not to answer chose participant One upto 20. not add numbers making that of the oppressed negro” (Howell 2014:83). (Howell negro” oppressed of the that to identity an “alternative Americans Black offering Morocco, from of Moors descendants Several held dual citizenships with Canada, Egypt, Russia and Lebanon. and Russia Egypt, Canada, with citizenships dual held Several day. that no show unexpected to an due participants two one had Only Several held dual citizenships between the United States, Canada, Lebanon, and India, India, and Lebanon, Canada, States, United the between citizenships dual held Several Moorish Americans distinguish themselves from Black Americans seeing themselves as as themselves seeing Americans Black from themselves distinguish Americans Moorish yber C yber O rient, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, 2018 -
30 StineHelga Eckert, Tawil-Souri Sydney O’Shay Wallace, Jade Metzger-Riftkin, Sean Kolhoff