The teleological argument looks at the purpose of something and Cosmological arguments start with observations about the way The Third Way: contingency and necessity William Paley (1742 – 1805) observed that complex objects work from that he reasons that God must exist. Aquinas (1224 – 1274) the universe works and from there these try to explain why the with regularity, (seasons, gravity, etc). This order seems to be the gave five ‘ways’ of proving God exists and this, his teleological universe exists. Aquinas gives three versions of the cosmological Aquinas’ point here is that everything in the universe is result of the work of a designer who has put this regularity and arguments, starting with three different (although similar) argument, is the fifth of his five ways. contingent – it relies on something to have brought it into order into place deliberately and with purpose. For example, the observations: motion, causation and contingency. Aquinas, influenced by Aristotle, believed that all things have a existence and also things to let it continue to exist. eye is constructed perfectly to see. For Palely, all of this pointed to purpose, but we cannot achieve that purpose without something The First Way: the unmoved mover a designer, who is God.  In nature, there are things that are possible ‘to be’ and to make it happen – some sort of guide, which is God. Inspired by Aristotle, Aquinas noticed that the ways in which things ‘not to be’ (contingent beings)

The analogy of the watch move or change (changing state is a form of motion) must mean  These things could not always have existed because

that something has made that motion take place. they must have not existed at some point because o Things that lack knowledge act for a purpose / end In ‘Natural Theology’ (1802) Paley asks his readers they rely on something for their existence o Anything that lacks knowledge needs something with to imagine walking in a heath: 1. Everything is both in a state of actuality (how it is) and potentiality  If we trace this back, then we get to a point where knowledge to guide it – just like an arrow needs an archer (what it might become) 2. All things that are moved (the potentiality becomes the new nothing existed, but then nothing would have begun to o Therefore, there is an intelligent being that directs all natural  If I came across a rock, I could explain its origins actuality) are moved by something else – things cannot just move exist as nothing can come from nothing things to their end, i.e. God referring to natural causes themselves  Therefore, there must be a type of being that is not  But if I came across a watch, there would be no explanation 3. The mover is itself moved by something else, which in turn is contingent – a necessary being Analogy of the Arrow and Archer: Aquinas’ point is that in the  The watch is made up of cogs and spring, etc, and this moved by something else, and then something else again 4. This cannot go on to infinity because otherwise there would be no  Perhaps necessary beings could have their necessity same way that the archer guides the arrow to where it is meant to design couldn’t have come about by chance – there must be a watchmaker who designed it with the purpose of telling first mover and so nothing would have started moving at all come from another being go, God guides natural bodies to where they are meant to go. 5. So, there must be a first mover the time  You cannot go back infinitely with necessary beings The natural body needs to get to its purpose, just like the arrow 6. This first unmoved mover is what everyone understands as God given their necessity by other beings needs to get to its target; the arrow needs an archer and the  The world is even more complex than a watch in how it is put The Second Way: the uncaused causer  Therefore, there must be a being that has of itself its natural body needs something to direct it – and this is God. together, so there must be a creator, God. own necessity (its existence can be explained only by

Paley also said: Using very similar logic, the Second Way talks about itself) which causes other beings. Some people argue that arguments from analogy are weak. how everything we observe (an effect) is caused by something  This is what people call God. At best, they can only suggest something probably o Whether or not we had seen a watch before, it is clearly else. Using Aristotle’s idea of an ‘efficient cause’, Aquinas is talking shares a characteristic. Others say they are useful different to the rock in nature and origin about makers of objects (or situation) ways to illustrate a complex argument but are on o Even if the watch is broken, there is enough design to Hume’s Criticisms of the their own not sufficient. Is it valid to compare the o suggest a watchmaker: he is not commenting on the quality Nothing can be its own efficient cause because it cannot Cosmological Argument relationship between humans and God to the of the design have existed before itself relationship between an arrow and an archer? o Even if we didn’t fully understand the watch, we would still o Things that are causes must themselves be caused, otherwise Hume questioned whether identify design the effect would be taken away it is possible to make the o We cannot go back to infinity because that would mean jump from what Aquinas there was no first cause of everything and so all later effects observed and the God o Just because we cannot fully and causes would never have happened that Christians believe in. understand God, why should the o Therefore, there must be a special case, a first efficient cause Hume said that causation logic of the arguments be dismissed? that is not itself caused is a psychological o It is reasonable to look for total Hume’s Criticisms of the Finally, Hume makes some points about the nature of the God o The first uncaused cause is what everyone understands to be concept and we cannot explanations of all events – so why Teleological Argument who is supposedly proven: God make links between cause not look for a reason for all 20 and effect that is beyond  It is not necessarily true that o Our world is finite and imperfect; why should God be infinite particles being grouped together? experience. the world is like a watch and perfect – why couldn’t God be finite/or imperfect, too? o Modern science suggests that there  It might be true that a watch o Hume uses the example of a pair of scales where one side is is a definite beginning to the universe Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) in ‘The Origin of the Hume argued that we looks as if it is designed, but it is hidden: just because we know one side of the scales is o We need faith to make the final Species’ proposed his Theory of Evolution - evolution cannot make the jump harder to say that the world heavier than the other, we don’t know the exact weight of leap to understanding God by natural selection – things exist as they are from the idea that just has these characteristics the other side o A vegetable only grows because because of natural methods, selectin what will because everything in the survive and what will not; some suggest there seems  In fact, the world could be said o In the same way, just because we might see evidence of a the laws of biology work – where universe has a cause or to be no space for God in this approach. to be more like a vegetable designer, we do not know anything about the nature of the do these laws come from? reason to exist, then the that has characteristic of designer o Just because we have no experience entire universe must have “In the case of living machinery, the ‘designer’ is unconscious natural selection, the blind intricacy (a complex natural o The designer could have created this world through a series of something, it does not mean that our a cause or reason to exist watchmaker.” – Richard Dawkins object) rather than a machine of trial and error experiments (just like a watchmaker would, current understanding cannot explain it (this is called the Fallacy of like a watch in fact) o God does not have to share all the Teleological arguments have largely not continued in modern times; however, the Composition). He said that  Hume used the Epicurean o The world could even be the first attempt of an ‘infant deity’ same characteristics as a human anthropic principle suggests that there is too much that has gone right in the world in just because you can hypothesis from about the who then abandoned the world designer; for example, God does not leading to the existence of humankind for it to have come about by chance. The explain the cause of each year 200BCE, which said that, o Hume uses the example of a shipbuilder who makes a have a body aesthetic principle suggests that the ability to recognise beauty is not something that of a collection of 20 given an infinite amount of wonderful ship, but when we meet him turns out to be a o The creation of the world / universe is a would have come about by evolution (because there is no evolutionary advantage particles of matter, it does time, all the particular in the ‘stupid mechanic’ who has imitated others and copied an unique event; why should there be a to it) and so must suggest a divine creator. not mean that you can universe would be able to art-form that has been through many failed attempts special case, such as God, to explain it explain the cause of the combine in every possible o There could be a number of designers – after all, a ship or o God does not have to share all the The medieval principle of preferring the simplest option when there is more than one group of the particles. combination. Eventually, a house is created by a number of people; why should there same characteristics as a human possible explanation (Ockham’s Razor) has led some thinkers to suggest that a designer stable environment would be only be one God? designer; for example, God does not God is the easiest solution to how things have come about. Some fundamentalist Equally, why does it have created and that could be the o The designer could be immoral (after all, the creator(s) of a have a body Christian groups think that there are organisms that do not conform to the processes of to be God that is world in which we live. Thus, perfect ship aren’t necessarily perfect people! Just because o The creation of the world/universe is a natural selection and so there must be an intelligent designer behind the world. However, necessary: why can’t the randomness explains the a watch is perfect, it doesn’t mean the watchmaker is unique event; why shouldn’t there be a given the size of the universe, it is difficult to see how our earth can be anything other universe be necessary? universe, not a designer. perfect – or a ‘good’ person! special case, such as God, to explain than the lucky planet. it?