SPORTS EVENTS FOR THE CITIZENS OF THE NELSON MANDELA BAY
S.B. Solomon
2016
SPORTS EVENTS FOR THE CITIZENS OF THE NELSON MANDELA BAY
By
Steffen Brett Solomon
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Business Administration to be awarded at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
April 2016
Supervisor: Professor Margaret Cullen
Co-Supervisor: Professor André Calitz DECLARATION
I, Steffen Brett Solomon (214358267), hereby declare that the treatise for Master in Business Administration (MBA) is my own work and that it has not previously been submitted for assessment or completion of any post graduate qualification to another University or for another qualification.
Steffen Brett Solomon
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There have been many individuals who have supported me on this road throughout this journey called the MBA. I would like thank each and every person who has played a part in encouraging, assisting and believing in my ability when I could not see it in myself. I would like to especially thank and acknowledge the following:
My Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ, for all opportunities and talents He has afforded me; My parents, Frank and Penny Solomon, thank you for your love, support, and unwavering belief in me. Without you, I would not be the person I am today; Granny, aunty Felicity and uncle Peter for all your love and support throughout my life; My family, who have been “parents” to me offering love, guidance and direction, I will never forget the sacrifices you have made for me; My supervisors, Professor Margaret Cullen and Professor André Calitz who believed in my abilities and potential when I could not see it; Carlien Jooste, for her guidance and support throughout the MBA; and Kayode Ayakoya for his statistical assistance.
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ABSTRACT
The concept of city branding has sprung to prominence in recent years. This can be attributed to globalisation and the ease of access to all corners of the globe with the improvements in technology and modes of transport. This increased competition for resources, skills, talent and revenue has made cities not only compete with other cities in close proximity to one another, but also with cities across the world.
The answer to this conundrum was found to be a comprehensive marketing strategy composed of clever and catchy slogans, beautiful logos, media campaigns and public relations drives. This process only led to the loss of large amounts of money since the benefits were not longstanding and the results were not tangible as these avenues only benefitted the home country’s tourism industry.
A long term solution for cities was needed to build a favourable image. Corporations were used as models to build a brand since manufacturers of similar products are in constant competition to gain market share and revenues from their competitors. The similarities between corporations and cities are undeniable and efforts were made to incorporate successful branding strategies from corporations into city branding efforts.
Cities and corporations must be effective in developing and incorporating social, economic and political aspects of their culture into a successful city brand image. The major difference between cities and corporations stems from the fact that it takes considerably longer to leverage a comprehensive brand of a city, when compared to the brand of a product since their lifespans are completely different. In the past, city brands were based on historical significance. Today, city brands are exclusively influenced by the events it hosts.
The hosting of events has been seen as a guaranteed way for a city to improve its brand image. On the contrary, the hosting of events has been found to either improve a city brand or tarnish it. Sports events have been deemed as the best way to improve a city brand because sports appeal to a wide audience and are relatively inexpensive to host in comparison to the benefit and improvements they bring.
This treatise investigates the approach and various types of sports events which must be included for the successful branding of Nelson Mandela Bay as part of a
III | P a g e destination marketing strategy. The suggestions from this study were formulated upon scrutiny of the available literature and case studies on various branding efforts undertaken by cities around the world to establish and improve their brand image. A survey was conducted amongst the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay using a questionnaire. A total of 952 responses were received. The questionnaire measured the respondents’ attitude to what types of sports events they will support, their feelings on the standard of facilities and quality of events in Nelson Mandela Bay.
This treatise served to identify which sports events should be used in any branding effort undertaken by Nelson Mandela Bay. Literature and case studies served as the foundation for this study. The survey insights and expectations enabled a plan to be developed that will be unique for Nelson Mandela Bay based on its location, characteristics, tastes and preferences of its residents. This plan would serve to benefit the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay, the city itself and encourage additional investment from external sources.
The results of this study indicate that the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay advocate the use of sports events as the main driver in branding the city. Furthermore, the residents have made it clear that cricket, rugby and Iron Man-type of events are favoured and more likely to be supported than any other type of sports event in Nelson Mandela Bay.
Keywords: City, City Marketing, City Brand, Events, Sports, Mega Events, International Events.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ...... I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... II
ABSTRACT ...... III
LIST OF TABLES ...... VIII
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT ...... 1
1.1 Introduction ...... 1
1.2 Main Research Problem...... 4
1.3 Research Questions ...... 5
1.4 Research Objectives ...... 6
1.5 Research Delimitation ...... 9
1.6 Research Significance ...... 9
1.7 Research Methodology ...... 10
1.8 Assumptions ...... 11
1.9 Ethics Clearance ...... 11
1.10 Summary ...... 12
CHAPTER 2: BRANDING A CITY THROUGH SPORTS EVENTS ...... 13
2.1 Introduction ...... 13
2.2 City Marketing ...... 15
2.3 City Branding ...... 16
2.4 City Branding Through Events ...... 21
2.5 City Branding Through Sports Events ...... 26
2.6 Summary ...... 41
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ...... 43
3.1 Introduction ...... 43
3.2 Research ...... 44
3.3 The Literature Review of the Study ...... 45
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3.4 The Research Onion ...... 46
3.5 Research Design ...... 47
3.6 Research Approach ...... 47
3.7 Sampling Design ...... 49
3.8 Data Collection Methods ...... 50
3.9 Pilot Study ...... 57
3.10 Limitation of Study ...... 57
3.11 Summary ...... 58
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF THE EMPIRICAL STUDY ...... 60
4.1 Introduction ...... 60
4.2 The Questionnaire ...... 61
4.3 Descriptive Statistics ...... 61
4.4 Summary ...... 92
CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 95
5.1 Introduction ...... 95
5.2 Summary of Research ...... 96
5.3 Recommendations ...... 101
5.4 Limitation of Study ...... 104
5.5 Future Research ...... 104
5.6 Summary ...... 105
REFERENCES ...... 107
APPENDICES ...... 119
Appendix A: Survey Distribution Email ...... 119
Appendix B: Questionnaire ...... 120
Appendix C: Ethical Clearance ...... 126
Appendix D: TurnItIn Report ...... 127
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Overview of Chapter 1...... 4 Figure 1.2: Layout of All Chapters...... 12 Figure 2.1: Overview of Chapter 2...... 14 Figure 2.2: The Getz (2008: 404) Event Characterisation...... 22 Figure 2.3: The Portfolio Approach to Event Planning (Getz, 2008:407)...... 23 Figure 2.4: The Sports Event Strategy Quadrant (Herstein and Berger, 2014:133). 30 Figure 3.1: Overview of Chapter 3...... 43 Figure 3.2: The Research Process Onion (Saunders et al., 2009:2)...... 46 Figure 4.1: Overview of Chapter 4...... 60 Figure 4.2: Gender Distribution of Survey Respondents...... 62 Figure 4.3: Ethnicity of Survey Respondents...... 63 Figure 4.4: Marital Status of Survey Respondents...... 63 Figure 4.5: Number of Inhabitants in Survey Respondents Households...... 64 Figure 4.6: Employment Status of Survey Respondents...... 65 Figure 4.7: Age Distribution of Survey Respondents...... 66 Figure 4.8: Home Language of Survey Respondents...... 67 Figure 4.9: Household Income Distribution of Survey Respondents...... 69 Figure 4.10: Dwelling Distributions of Survey Respondents...... 70 Figure 4.11: Distribution of Survey Respondents Born in Nelson Mandela Bay...... 72 Figure 4.12: Distribution of Survey Respondents Who are Proud of Nelson Mandela Bay...... 72 Figure 4.13: Ambassador Distribution of Survey Respondents for Nelson Mandela Bay...... 73 Figure 4.14: Distribution of Survey Respondents Who Identify with Nelson Mandela Bay...... 74 Figure 5.1: Overview of Chapter 5...... 96
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: The Consistency Matrix...... 7 Table 2.1: Components of Kavaratzis Framework (2009)...... 20 Table 2.2: Effects of the IRB Rugby Sevens Event on Nelson Mandela Bay (Du Pisani, 2014)...... 37 Table 2.3: Economic Benefit of Hosting International Rugby Matches on Nelson Mandela Bay (Du Pisani, 2014)...... 39 Table 3.1: Summary of Research Methodology ...... 59 Table 4.1: Age Frequency Distribution of Survey Respondents...... 66 Table 4.2: Frequency Distribution of Home Language Spoken by Survey Respondents...... 68 Table 4.3: Income Frequency Distribution of Survey Respondents...... 69 Table 4.4: Frequency Distribution of the Dwellings Survey Respondents Occupy. .. 71 Table 4.5: Nelson Mandela Bay has a Strong Portfolio of Sports Events...... 76 Table 4.6: Frequency Distribution for Various Events Supported by Survey Respondents...... 76 Table 4.7: I Consider the Price of Entrance Fees Before Attending an Event...... 77 Table 4.8: Frequency Distribution of Sports Events Survey Respondents Will support...... 79 Table 4.9: Hosting a Mega Event Will Improve the Image of Nelson Mandela Bay. . 80 Table 4.10: I Am Proud of Nelson Mandela Bay's Provincial Teams...... 81 Table 4.11: Nelson Mandela Bay has Adequate Infrastructure to Host Sports Events...... 81 Table 4.12: The Location of an Event is Important...... 82 Table 4.13: I Support International Events in Nelson Mandela Bay...... 83 Table 4.14: Food and Facilities are Important at Events...... 83 Table 4.15: Sports Events Create Job Opportunities...... 84 Table 4.16: Nelson Mandela Bay has a Wide Variety of Leisure Activities...... 85 Table 4.17: The Most Desirable Development of Nelson Mandela Bay is it Becoming a Place of Adventure...... 86 Table 4.18: Frequency Distribution of Attributes Associated with Nelson Mandela Bay...... 87
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Table 4.19: Nelson Mandela Bay Should use Radio to Communicate Upcoming Events...... 89 Table 4.20: Nelson Mandela Bay Should Encourage Residents to Attend City Events...... 90 Table 4.21: I Inform My Peers About Upcoming Events in Nelson Mandela Bay. .... 90 Table 4.22: I Share Upcoming Events With My Friends on Facebook...... 91 Table 4.23: I Attend Events I Read About on Facebook...... 92
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CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.1 Introduction
City branding is defined as the creation of a network of associations in the consumers’ mind based on visual, verbal and behavioural expressions of a city, which is embodied through the aims, communication, values and the general culture of the residents and the overall place design (Braun, Kavaratzis and Zenker, 2013). City branding has roots in corporate branding and city marketing (Zenker, 2011). According to Hanna and Rowley (2011) city branding has advanced from the disciplines of tourism marketing and destination branding.
Corporate branding is defined as expressing a corporation’s business framework and culture visually, verbally and behaviourally to the world (Kavaratzis, 2009). City marketing evolved from product marketing which is focused exclusively on the customer where value creation, communication and delivery are important attributes for the customer (Zenker, 2011). City marketing was effective as it enabled a city to show off its assets that would result in the attraction of inward investment, tourism and residents (Deffner and Metaxas, 2008). City marketing moved cities away from the mundane roles of city politics, governance, public service management towards the aggressive promotion of economic competitiveness to show profit driven characteristics of businesses (Edizel, 2013). Today, many cities employ the same marketing activities prescribed by literature. However, there is a need for cities to undertake new ventures which could provide greater and longer lasting payoffs which city marketing failed to provide. The answer is provided by city branding (Kavaratzis and Ashworth, 2008).
City branding is the answer for cities to differentiate themselves from other cities around the globe. Once a city has been differentiated it is able to create a sustainable competitive advantage (Herstein, Berger and Jaffe, 2013). A sustainable competitive advantage is created when a city brand can continuously attract tourists, business and labour as sources of direct and indirect income (Westerbeek and
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Linley, 2012). Events are proposed as the most viable option when branding a city (Getz, 2008).
Events are unique because an experience at an event cannot be duplicated anywhere else in the world. The interaction between the location, stakeholders and management make an event irreplicable anywhere else in the world (Getz, 2008). Events have been used to create associations in tourists, residents and businesses minds for a long time. The Eiffel Tower is immediately associated with France, the Sydney Opera House and Olympic Games are associated with Sydney, New York is associated with the New York City Marathon and Milan is associated with fashion shows. Events have become a marker for consumers to identify cities (Gelders and van Zuilen, 2013).
All events can be divided into one of the following categories: cultural celebrations, political and state, arts and entertainment, business and trade, educational and scientific, private events and sports events. Cultural celebrations refer to festivals, carnivals and religious events. Political and state events refer to summits, royal occasions, political events and VIP visits. Arts and entertainment refer to concerts and award ceremonies. Business and trade events refer to meetings, conventions, consumer and trade shows, fairs and markets. Educational and scientific events refer to conferences, seminars and clinics. Private events refer to weddings, parties and social events. Sport events refer to any sport that is professional or amateur.
According to the World Tourism Organisation (2011), tourism is the largest industry in the world. According to Biddiscomb (2004) the fastest growing segment in tourism is travelling for sports events and activities. Travelling for sports events and activities includes: sport camps, sport conferences, sport cruises, sport tours, attendance at live events and participation in the sport event itself (Kurtzman and Zauhar, 2005). In 2008, sports tourism was valued at $600 billion which equates to 10 percent of the world wide tourism market in the world (Roche, Spake and Joseph, 2013). As a result, city branding through sports events has been publicised as the best and most cost effective method to brand a city (Herstein and Berger, 2013b).
Marketing of sports events is easy since the fan base for sports is large and dynamic. Therefore, no clever slogans or catch-phrases are required as the event can speak for itself. Sports events also have a tendency to release human emotions 2 | P a g e like no other event as spectators cannot help but get captured in the special experience resulting in that specific highlight being engrained in their memories forever. Sports events are also the best method to display what a city is about because the team representing the city and the event itself relays the culture as visitors to the stadium or viewers on television can feed off the atmosphere of the event. As a result, these groups of people draw conclusions on the city based on what they see and experience (Herstein and Berger, 2013b). Therefore, many cities and nations have leveraged their successful brand image off the sport event or team itself, for example: Rome is known for Olympia, Sydney is associated with the 2000 Olympic Games (Westerbeek and Linley, 2012), the All Blacks with New Zealand Rugby (Rein and Shields, 2007), the city of Manchester with Manchester United Football Club (Lucarelli and Berg, 2011) and the 2002 Commonwealth Games (Gratton, Shibli and Coleman, 2005).
As a result, the lack of studies and analysis done on the topic has culminated in Nelson Mandela Bay not only falling behind major cities in South Africa: Cape Town, Johannesburg and Durban but also cities around the world who have undertaken branding strategies to some degree and are reaping the rewards thereof. This study will investigate the readiness and ability for Nelson Mandela Bay to be branded through sports events as part of a destination marketing campaign with input from the residents, as well as, available literature and case studies on the subject.
Chapter 1 provides a synopsis of the problem identified by this treatise study and further identifies the relevant questions that are anticipated to provide a solution to the main problem. Figure 1.1 on the following page outlines the layout of Chapter 1. In this chapter an introduction to the paper and problem statement are discussed. Thereafter, the research questions and research objectives will be discussed. A consistency matrix will consolidate the problem statement, research questions and research objectives. The following section of this chapter will include: research delimitation, research significance, research methodology and ethics clearance. The concluding section of the chapter will summarise the chapter.
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Figure 1.1: Overview of Chapter 1.
Chapter 1: Introduction and Problem Statement
• 1.1 Introduction • 1.2 Main Research Problem • 1.3 Research Questions • 1.4 Research Objectives • 1.5 Research Delimitation • 1.6 Research Significance • 1.7 Research Methodology • 1.8 Assumptions • 1.9 Ethics Clearance • 1.10 Summary
Chapter 2: Branding a City Through Sports Events
Chapter 3: Research Design and Methodology
Chapter 4: Results and Analysis of the Empirical Study
Chapter 5: Findings, Recommendations and Conclusions
1.2 Main Research Problem
Corporations have extensively used branding to relay a message of their business mission, values and culture through visual, verbal and behavioural expressions. This has enabled successful corporations to create a sustainable competitive advantage over their competitors (Kavaratzis, 2009). Cities have extensively used marketing techniques to attract tourists as the revenues brought by tourists were thought to fund projects the city wished to undertake. However, this was not sustainable and cities have adapted the marketing techniques infused with the corporate branding lessons to create a sustainable competitive advantage that is able to attract residents, tourists and investment into cities (Zenker, 2011). Nelson Mandela Bay has steadily fallen behind other cities in South Africa like Cape Town, Johannesburg and Durban. Therefore, this research is undertaken to determine a suitable branding strategy for Nelson Mandela Bay using sports events as a driver for the change.
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Based on the brand image deficiency, this study will postulate a plan of action for Nelson Mandela Bay to be branded through sports events which will aid in the creation of a destination marketing plan which will be supported by residents of Nelson Mandela Bay. This leads to the main research problem which is:
Nelson Mandela Bay managers and event organisers do not know which sports events to host that residents will support.
The result of answering the main research problem will be a sustainable competitive advantage that will uplift the city to compete with the more renowned South African cities and various cities around the world. This introduces the main research question of this study:
Main Research Question (RQM): What portfolio of sports events must be developed for Nelson Mandela Bay as part of a destination marketing campaign?
1.3 Research Questions
In order to answer the main research question, the following secondary research questions have been identified and will be investigated:
RQ1: What role does marketing play in promoting the image of a city?
RQ2: How has city branding transcended city marketing?
RQ3: What are the key attributes of cities to be successfully branded?
RQ4: What are the benefits of events?
RQ5: What are the benefits of sports events?
RQ6: How can a detailed research methodology be provided to understand and reproduce this study in future?
RQ7: Is there a demand for sports events from residents of Nelson Mandela Bay?
RQ8: Which sports events will the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay support?
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1.4 Research Objectives
The main objective of this study is:
ROM: To develop a portfolio of sports events which residents of Nelson Mandela Bay will support as part of a destination marketing campaign.
Other objectives for this study include:
RO1: To define and understand the role of marketing in promoting the image of a city.
RO2: To determine the benefits of branding a city instead of merely marketing a city.
RO3: To identify the key attributes which a city must have to be successfully branded.
RO4: To identify the benefits of branding a city through events.
RO5: To identify the benefits of branding a city through sports events.
RO6: To explain the research methodology used for this research study with sufficient detail to allow it to be reproduced in future.
RO7: To conduct a survey to ascertain the types of sports that a portfolio of events must contain for Nelson Mandela Bay.
RO8: To identify the sports events which residents of Nelson Mandela Bay will support in the city.
Table 1.1 on the following page presents a consistency matrix that portrays the link between the research questions, research objectives, chapter outline and deliverable for each chapter. It also describes a storyline of how each element of the study fits together.
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Table 1.1: The Consistency Matrix.
Title: Sports events for the citizens of Nelson Mandela Bay.
Main Research Problem:
Nelson Mandela Bay managers and event organisers do not know which sports events to host that residents will support.
Thesis Statement: A sports events portfolio for Nelson Mandela Bay.
Main Research Objective (ROM): To develop a portfolio of sports events which residents of Nelson Mandela Bay will support as part of a destination marketing campaign.
Main Research Question (RQM): What portfolio of sports events must be developed for Nelson Mandela Bay as part of a destination marketing campaign?
Secondary research Research objective Chapter Deliverable questions
RQ1 What role does To define and understand the 2 An understanding marketing play role of marketing in promoting the short term in promoting the image of a city. benefits of city the image of a marketing which city? city branding rectifies.
RQ2 How has city To determine the benefits of 2 An understanding branding branding a city instead of of the benefits cities transcended merely marketing a city. have realised upon city marketing? undertaking a branding campaign
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instead of a marketing campaign.
RQ3 What are the To identify the key attributes 2 Key attributes a city key attributes which a city must have to be must have or of cities to be successfully branded. develop to be successfully successfully branded? branded.
RQ4 What are the To identify the benefits of 2 An evaluation of the benefits of branding a city through benefits that events events? events. bring when incorporated in a branding strategy.
RQ5 What are the To identify the benefits of 2 The benefits of benefits of branding a city through sports branding a city sports events? events. through sports.
RQ6 How can a To explain the research 3 Description of the detailed methodology used for this research process research research study with sufficient and the methodology detail to allow it to be methodology that be provided to reproduced in future. will be used to understand and conduct the study. reproduce this study in future?
RQ7 Is there a To conduct a survey to 4 An evaluation of the demand for ascertain the types of sports data and responses sports events that a portfolio of events must based on the from residents contain for Nelson Mandela research results of Nelson Bay. gathered from the Mandela Bay? sample.
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RQ8 Which sports To identify the sports events 5 Recommendations events will the which residents of Nelson and suggestions on residents of Mandela Bay will support in which events the Nelson the city. residents require Mandela Bay and will support. support?
1.5 Research Delimitation
Delimitation is defined as setting the scope and boundaries of research to answer the main research problem and the research questions (Leedy and Ormrod, 2005). The scope of this study will be limited to the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay. This exploratory research study forms part of a larger study to brand Nelson Mandela Bay as part of a destination marketing campaign. The respondents of this research study were part of a convenience sample as the respondents were requested to complete a questionnaire online.
1.6 Research Significance
This research will provide insight into which sports events the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay will support. The results of this study will constitute part of a larger study comprising of a branding proposal for Nelson Mandela Bay. Literature shows that the best way to brand a city is through events (Gelders and van Zuilen, 2013). In addition, the literature also indicates that sports events yield the most benefit for a branding campaign yet the cost is relatively inexpensive when compared to other event types (Herstein and Berger, 2013b).
The outcome of this study will also be useful:
For the Nelson Mandela Bay municipality; Event planners in Nelson Mandela Bay; For any city wishing to use sports events as a focal point in any branding effort;
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Sports clubs in Nelson Mandela Bay; and As a roadmap, step by step guide for the branding of Nelson Mandela Bay through sports events. It is expected that this research will highlight the potential of Nelson Mandela Bay as a city with branding potential thus encouraging stakeholders to work toward a common goal and vision.
1.7 Research Methodology
This treatise is designed as an exploratory study to ascertain which sports Nelson Mandela Bay residents will support. Previous in depth studies in the area of sports events have not been administered for Nelson Mandela Bay. Therefore, an exploratory study is required to understand the issue more thoroughly which will guide the research in a focused direction enabling meaningful data and conclusions to be drawn from the study. This study will lay the foundation for further studies of this nature in the future. The result of this study will be a proposal based on literature and Nelson Mandela Bay residents’ views and opinions outlining which sports events should be hosted as part of a branding strategy. This proposal will form part of a plan to brand Nelson Mandela Bay in accordance with a destination marketing campaign.
In order to finalise this proposal a discussion will be administered in a literature review to understand the key aspects of city marketing, city branding, city branding through events and city branding through sports events. Thereafter a quantitative research approach will be followed to evaluate the views and opinions of the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay to ascertain which sports events should be hosted that they will support. Chapter three provides information on the adopted research process for this study. It further elaborates on the research philosophy, design, approach and strategy for this study.
The main research instrument used is a questionnaire that is specifically designed for the purpose of this research. This questionnaire was only administered online. This study forms part of a larger study in terms of destination marketing for the Nelson Mandela Bay. Therefore, only certain sections of the questionnaire are evaluated for this study. The measuring instrument addressed by the questionnaire includes: Section One: Demographic Information;
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Section Two: Media used for communication; Section Three: Event options; Section Four: Brand and image of Nelson Mandela Bay in general using a five point Likert scale and open ended questions which record positive and negative views of the city. This section also allowed for suggestions that cover environmental issues, lifestyle, business opportunities and the benefits of living and visiting the city; and Section Five: Best channels to communicate with city residents. The questionnaire was presented to a qualified statistician who assisted by structuring and ordering the questions correctly. This ensured that the data extrapolated were accurate and rich in value for the study. Based on the results, recommendations were made as the opinions and views of the respondents were analysed and inferences were made.
1.8 Assumptions
At the outset of this study certain assumptions were made. It was assumed that there is sufficient literature on the topic of city branding through sports events. Another assumption made is that the respondents are all familiar with sports codes and sports events hosted by Nelson Mandela Bay. Assumptions were also made that the sample of respondents will offer a true reflection of the views and opinions of the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay. Finally, it is also assumed that the outcome of this study can be used by the Nelson Mandela Bay municipality and event planners when organising and planning events for the Nelson Mandela Bay.
1.9 Ethics Clearance
The completed pro-forma for Ethics Clearance was submitted to the NMMU Business School. Ethics Clearance was granted for the study by the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Faculty of Business and Economic Sciences. The Ethics clearance number is: H14-BES-BS-083. The full ethics clearance is attached as Appendix C.
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1.10 Summary
This chapter provides an overview of this study, the questions that this study seeks to answer and the objectives that it seeks to achieve. It highlights the challenges that cities are faced with attempting to stay competitive by branding themselves in an ever changing globalised world. Literature shows that it is a difficult undertaking. However, if done correctly it exhibits an enormous opportunity to distinguish a city from those who do not undertake this exercise or those who have not implemented this strategy correctly. This chapter further highlights the consistency matrix that provides a link between each of research questions and research objectives. In addition, each of the chapters and the expected deliverable from each chapter is also identified. Finally, it provides the significance of this study and a brief overview of the methodology that this study follows. Figure 1.2 below depicts a graphical layout of the Chapters, the research question and the research objective addressed by each of the Chapters.
Figure 1.2: Layout of All Chapters.
In the following chapter the benefits of branding a city through sports events will be discussed.
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CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2: BRANDING A CITY THROUGH SPORTS EVENTS
2.1 Introduction
An outline of the treatise was given in chapter one where the research questions and research objectives to be investigated were introduced. In this chapter, a literature study will be conducted to provide an overview of the available literature on branding a city through sport events. This research will result in the formulation of a questionnaire which is to be distributed to residents of Nelson Mandela Bay to ascertain which sports events they require and will support in the city. This chapter will address the following research questions, namely:
RQ1: What role does marketing play in promoting the image of a city?
RQ2: How has city branding transcended city marketing?
RQ3: What are the key attributes of cities to be successfully branded?
RQ4: What are the benefits of events?
RQ5: What are the benefits of sports events?
The research questions will culminate in answering the main research question. The main research question is RQM: What portfolio of sports events must be developed for Nelson Mandela Bay as part of a destination marketing campaign? To answer the main research question, the research objective will also be addressed; ROM: To develop a portfolio of sports events which residents of Nelson Mandela Bay will support as part of a destination marketing campaign. The ROM will be supported by answering the following secondary research objectives:
RO1: To define and understand the role of marketing in promoting the image of a city.
RO2: To determine the benefits of branding a city instead of merely marketing a city.
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RO3: To identify the key attributes which a city must have to be successfully branded.
RO4: To identify the benefits of branding a city through events.
RO5: To identify the benefits of branding a city through sports events.
The chapter starts with a discussion on City Marketing, Branding a City, Branding a City through Events and Branding a City through Sports Events. Figure 2.1 below illustrates the layout of this chapter.
Figure 2.1: Overview of Chapter 2.
Chapter 1: Introduction and Problem Statement
Chapter 2: Branding a City Through Sports Events
• 2.1 Introduction • 2.2 City Marketing • 2.3 City Branding • 2.4 City Branding Through Events • 2.5 City Branding Through Sports Events • 2.5.1 Mega Sports Events • 2.5.2 International Sports Events • 2.5.3 Medium Sports Events • 2.5.4 Minor Sports Events • 2.6 Summary
Chapter 3: Research Design and Methodology
Chapter 4: Results and Analysis of the Empirical Study
Chapter 5: Findings, Recommendations and Conclusions
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2.2 City Marketing
Braun (2008) defines city marketing as the use of marketing tools which focus on a customer-orientated philosophy for creating, communicating, delivering and exchanging urban offerings that have value for its residents. City marketing is a long term plan which includes different related activities that are aimed at the attraction and retention of specific target groups of people for a city (Hospers, 2010).
Kavaratzis (2004) argues that city event strategies in the past have all focused on marketing because inward investment, tourism and attraction of residents was a focal point for cities to highlight their features (Deffner and Metaxas, 2010). As a result, the term “entrepreneurial city” was coined as cities were thought to be managed as businesses (Kavaratzis, 2004; Seisdedos, 2006). Edizel (2013) defines an entrepreneurial city as the movement away from city politics, governance and public service management to the aggressive promotion of economic competitiveness. According to Kavaratzis (2004) this definition implies cities are businesses because they are faced with the similar business risks, namely: risk taking, inventiveness, promotion and profit motivation.
According to Anholt (2008) and Kavaratzis (2008), cities create a competitive advantage over rival cities when they show off their attractiveness so people become aware of their appealing characteristics. Hankinson (2004) proposes two approaches in which this occurs. The first approach focuses on the marketing implications on the nature of the city. The second approach views the city as a product and subsequently studies its brand, image and values, as well as, the development of marketing communication strategies (Hospers, 2010).
Ashworth and Kavaratzis (2007) found building blocks which lead to a successful city marketing campaign. Firstly, place marketing must be understood and the value identified before a city starts their marketing effort. Secondly, co-operation and co-ordination of marketing efforts must take place amongst all parties. Thirdly, city marketing is a long process and activities must occur sequentially. The knowledge of marketing must be expanded and not only focus on tourism development. Fifthly, all residents must be involved in the process and their needs must be addressed in the city marketing plan. Sixthly, inter-city competition should be analysed and
15 | P a g e opportunities should be probed to exploit their weaknesses. Finally, checks-and- balances must be in place to monitor and analyse the process as it unfolds.
According to Kavaratzis and Ashworth (2008) city marketers and planners have become bored with the marketing mix and the “4ps” strategy for marketing cities and even suggest that its utility has been surpassed with the new types of economies in the world. Seisdedos (2006) proposes Ashworth and Voogd (1990); Kotler, Asplund, Rein and Heider (1999) extensively used the “4p” marketing mix in their city marketing strategies. As a result, Kavaratzis (2008) argues focus, debate and literature moved from city marketing city branding as cities want to garner positive associations in the consumers’ mind in order to further develop and promote their brand (Zenker, 2011).
Braun, et al. (2013) define a city brand as a network of associations in the consumers’ mind based on visual, verbal and behavioural expressions of a city which is embodied through the aims, communication, values and the general culture of the residents and the overall place design. According to Zenker (2011) this reiterates that the brand of a city is constructed in the minds of the audience. However, Anholt (2010) argues city branding does not exist.
2.3 City Branding
Kavaratzis (2009) defined corporate branding as a visual, verbal and behavioural expression of a corporation’s business framework. Zenker and Braun (2010) adapted this definition to define city branding as a web of associations in the stakeholders’ minds encapsulating the visual, verbal and behavioural essence of a city through its identity, culture and values. Ashworth and Kavaratzis (2007) defined city branding as a new discipline which envisions a city as a brand using mature methods of marketing, traditional commerce and services. These methods culminate in unique tailoring being devised and adapted to a region, city or country (Braun, et al., 2013).
City branding has evolved from city marketing and corporate branding (Zenker, 2011). According to Hanna and Rowley (2011) city branding has advanced from the disciplines of tourism marketing and destination branding. Kavaratzis (2004) and Anholt (2005) agree that city branding stems from product branding. The literature is
16 | P a g e unclear on the origin of this discipline, instead, it borrows from the disciplines of product, corporate and service branding (Björner, 2013).
Since city branding borrows from other branding disciplines, there must be characteristics shared amongst the various branding disciplines (Kavaratzis, 2009). According to Anholt (2002) city branding is a metaphor for corporate branding. City brands and corporate brands are both: multidisciplinary in nature, intangible, complex, responsible for their stakeholders and have multiple identities. As a result, city branding is similar to corporate branding (Kavaratzis, 2009; 2004). Hankinson (2007) created five rules that must be present for a city as a brand to be successful.
Firstly, a city must have leaders in power who are brave and forward thinking in their decisions. Secondly, there must be a culture of brand identification. Thirdly, the supporting administration must be aligned to the goals that are to be achieved. Fourthly, a constant dialogue must exist between all the stakeholders. Finally, there must be a city wide buy-in in the vision that the city branding plan proposes (Ashworth and Kavaratzis, 2007; Hankinson, 2007; Kavaratzis, 2009).
Hankinson’s (2007) research proves that there are valuable lessons to be taken from corporate branding. Therefore, existing frameworks need only be adapted to suit city branding strategies. The Rainsto (2003) framework is such an example where a city is assumed to be a corporation.
The Rainisto (2003) study found nine factors that lead to the success of an organisation which translate into the successful branding of a city. Firstly, decision- makers must be knowledgeable and bold to enact and execute policies and decisions. Secondly, a city must have a vision and goals to identify a desirable future state for the city. Thirdly, the key success factors must be identified to create a competitive advantage or the city. Fourthly, the leadership and stakeholders must be able to interact with each other. Fifthly, the leadership must be entrusted to make the best decision for the benefit of all stakeholders involved. Sixthly, there must be political unity which adds stability to the city. Seventhly, the newest trends must be analysed world-wide for the city to stay current with its offerings. Eighthly, upliftment and development projects must be introduced to keep the city current. Finally, the planned events must be significant in stature to elevate the standing of the city (Kavaratzis, 2009; Rainisto, 2003).
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Anholt (2006) created a yardstick to measure the strength of a city as a brand (Ashworth and Kavaratzis, 2007). Anholt’s GMI City Brand Index (2006) ascertains why certain cities have good reputations like Paris or Amsterdam and why others do not, like Lagos. The result of the research was the Anholt GMI City Brand Index (2006). The Index consists of a hexagon with each point representing six factors which enhance the brand of a city, namely: Presence, Place, Pulse, People, Potential and Prerequisites. Presence refers to the world’s familiarity with the city. Place refers to the physical attributes that enhance the beauty of the city. Pulse refers to the activities that the city offers. People refers to the hospitability and friendliness of the residents. Potential refers to the economic and educational experiences the city offers. Prerequisites refer to the cost of accommodation and entertainment activities (Anholt, 2006; Ashworth and Kavartatzis, 2007; Herstein and Berger, 2013a; Kavaratzis, 2009; Zhang and Zhao, 2009).
The Index is an important scorecard to guide the branding process (Anholt, 2006). Hildreth (2008) disagreed with Anholt’s (2006) GMI City Brand Index and created the Saffron European City Strength Brand Barometer to also measure the strength of a city brand. The Saffron European City Strength Brand Barometer uses ten qualitative factors which are dispersed into two categories, namely: cultural factors and amenity factors which a city must focus on to improve their brand image irrespective of prior brand strengths or efforts undertaken (Hildreth, 2008). Hildreth (2008) focuses on city brand strength and city asset strength instead of the six factors Anholt (2006) uses (Zenker and Braun, 2010). Hildreth (2008) proposes that from this theory a city generates the brand it deserves. Zenker (2011) argues that both Anholt (2006) and Hildreth (2008) have pertinent points as both have corporate branding roots.
The Kavaratzis Framework (2004) concentrates on communication with residents only. Kavaratzis (2004) argues that the brand of the city is portrayed to its residents via two communication channels, namely: a primary communication channel and a secondary communication channel. Primary communication refers to the unspoken attributes the city offers like quality of services, events, cultural activities and infrastructure. Secondary communication refers to the marketing channels that the city uses to relay its messages (Ashworth and Kavaratzis, 2007; Kavaratzis 2009; 2004). Hankinson (2004) disagrees with this view.
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Hankinson (2004) argues that communication between the city and the stakeholders must exist thus fostering a relationship between the city and the stakeholders. Hankinson (2004) accomplishes this by allocating a personality to the city. This personality subsequently offers services, media and consumer relationships and infrastructure. In this approach the stakeholders are tasked with enhancing the core of the brand (Kavaratzis, 2012). Baker (2007) finds that this approach is more successful in comparison to decision-makers creating branding strategies without consulting other stakeholders. Hankinson (2007) revised this theory by introducing a Destination Marketing Organisation or DMO.
The DMO in the city branding process in this theory is tasked with creating the vision for the city. The DMO then strengthens the brand with values from the top level before allowing it to filter down to its other stakeholders culminating in stronger relationships and alliances being forged (Kavaratzis, 2009).
Trueman and Cornelius (2006) created a place-branding toolkit. The toolkit identifies five key factors which must be present when branding a city: presence, purpose, pace, personality and power. Presence refers to iconic symbols and visibility which distinguish the city from its surroundings. Purpose refers to distinct boundaries, ownership and a diverse society which stimulate city pride and new idea generation. Pace refers to mitigating tensions amongst stakeholders. Personality refers to the specific landscape of the city. Power refers to social purpose and empowerment to galvanise trust and relationships (Kavaratzis, 2009).
Kavaratzis (2009) proposed an integrated framework, illustrated in Table 2.1 on the following page, incorporating key points from Hankinson (2007), Rainisto (2003), Anholt (2006), Kavaratzis (2004), Hankinson (2004) and Trueman and Cornelius (2006). Kavaratzis (2009) found eight attributes that lead to successful city branding. Firstly, a city must have a clear vision and strategy. Secondly, the city must have a culture that can be adopted by various stakeholders. Thirdly, stakeholders must prioritise the needs of the city instead of furthering their own agendas. Fourthly, there must be synergy in the completion of tasks amongst all stakeholders. Fifthly, infrastructure must be in place to support the improvements of the city branding experience. Sixthly, the natural environment must support and enhance the plans of the city branding. Seventhly, opportunities must exist for the city brand to target the
19 | P a g e skills, investment and people it requires to support this venture. Finally, constant communication streams must exist between all stakeholders.
Table 2.1: Components of Kavaratzis Framework (2009).
Frameworks: Hankinson Rainisto Anholt Kavaratzis Hankinson Trueman (2007) (2003) (2006) (2004) (2004) and Cornelius Factors: (2006) Vision and ● ● Strategy ● ● Culture City Focus ● ●
Synergy Among ● ● ● ● ● Stakeholders Infrastructure ● ● ●
Natural Assets ● ● ●
Opportunities ● ●
Communication ● ●
Herstein, et al. (2013) argue that city branding frameworks have not been adequately scrutinised. Herstein, et al. (2013) studied Israeli cities from the cosmopolitan city of Tel-Aviv, to the historical city of Jerusalem. Herstein, et al. (2014) found the five M’s as to why city branding fails. Myopia refers to the lack of forward-thinking as the stakeholders are not considered in the city branding process. Misguided refers to the lack of goal homogeneity amongst all the stakeholders. Minimised refers to diminishment of budgets allocated to the city branding process as the importance is undervalued. Mispositioned refers to a city not carrying out adequate research resulting in the wrong brand being portrayed. Mismarketed refers to the incorrect channels used to deliver the message to all stakeholders (Herstein, et al., 2013).
Herstein, et al. (2013) propose techniques to avoid the errors made in the branding process. To avoid myopia, the human and physical assets of a city must be understood from a marketing perspective to give the stakeholders what they need and not focus on the decision-makers or municipalities. To combat misguidance, the stakeholders must be segmented appropriately through physical and demographic
20 | P a g e needs as cities are heterogenic and a formula must be discovered to satisfy all stakeholders. To avoid minimisation, there must be a constant stream of information flowing between all stakeholders regarding the short term and long term goals along with any potential problems that could be encountered. To avoid mispositioning, the needs of stakeholders must be aligned to the proposals of the city as the stakeholders are the ones who inevitably support the initiatives. The mistaken problem can be avoided by incorporating only interpersonal communication as the messages can flow directly to the intended stakeholders (Herstein, et al., 2013).
Kavaratzis (2009) found an underlying theme of events amongst the Rainisto (2003), Hankinson (2004) and Kavartatzis (2004) frameworks. Gelders and van Zuilen (2013) argue that events are the key to the city branding process. Herstein and Berger (2013a) make a city more attractive and appealing to various audiences. Malfas, Houlihan and Theodoraki (2004) argue that all events enhance the brand of a city. Herstein and Berger (2014) argue that the significance of events in the city branding process is overlooked.
2.4 City Branding Through Events
Kotler and Gertner (2002) defined events as occurrences where a message is relayed to a target audience. Thomas, Hermes and Loos (2008) define events as temporary occurrences that are either planned or unplanned. Events contain qualities which differentiate them from other methods of communication (Crowther, 2010). Getz (2008) added that events appeal to people because the experience and emotions attached to the event cannot be replicated. According to Getz (2008), events are important because they can satisfy numerous strategic goals. According to Thomas, et al. (2008) events are divided into the target groups they wish to attract, namely: public events, corporate events and exhibition events. Herstein and Berger (2014) propose that events are based on various characteristics, namely: people or fictional characters, film themes, cultural themes and sports.
Gelders and van Zuilen (2013) defined city branding as decisions taken to initiate, promote, facilitate, foster and execute activities mandated in the city strategy. According to Getz (2008) events can be used as a tool in city branding. Herstein, et al. (2013) argue that the main aim of city branding is to create competitive advantage. Kavaratzis (2008) explained that the competitive advantage occurs 21 | P a g e because of the increased investment into a city. Westerbeek and Linley (2012) found that for competitive advantage to be sustainable, a city must create a city that is better at attracting tourists, business and labour as sources of direct and indirect income.
Getz (2008) proposes that events are unique because an experience at an event cannot be duplicated anywhere else in the world. The interaction between the location, stakeholders and management make an event irreplicable (Gelders and van Zuilen, 2013). Hannigan (2003) added that a brand should be recognised with immediate effect and associated as a benchmark for similar brands. According to Anholt (2006), the Eiffel Tower is immediately associated with France, the Sydney Opera House and Olympic Games are associated with Sydney, New York is associated with the New York City Marathon and Milan is associated with fashion shows. Therefore, events are used by consumers to identify cities (Gelders and van Zuilen, 2013).
Dawkins (2009) found that expositions, cultural events, Olympic Games and smaller scale events are used by cities to leverage and resurrect their economies, improving their infrastructure and uplifting their image. According to Getz (2008) all events are characterised into one of the following groups: cultural celebrations, political and state, arts and entertainment, business and trade, educational and scientific, private events and sports events. The Getz (2008) event characterisation is illustrated in Figure 2.2 below.
Figure 2.2: The Getz (2008: 404) Event Characterisation.
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Hoyle (2002) offers a different classification by grouping events according to associations that an event creates. Hoyle (2002) defines associations as a group of people who have a similar interest. Hoyle (2002) groups include: conventions, expositions, seminars, board and committee meetings, awards presentations celebrations and anniversaries, community service events, symposia, educational and video conferences, presentation of papers, receptions, sport and recreation programs, political rallies, installation of officers/leaders, tours and study missions and training programs (Hoyle, 2002).
Getz (2008) offers an easier system which aids in the classification of events. Getz (2008) divides events into a four layer pyramid called the Portfolio Approach. Occasional mega events are at the pinnacle of the pyramid, followed by periodic hallmark events, regional events and while local events are found at the foot of the pyramid. The Portfolio Approach classifies events based on their size or magnitude (Getz, 2008). Getz (2008) argues that the Portfolio Approach is adapted from corporate branding where the main aim is to create value and to reach goals. Zenker (2011) agrees with the notion by Getz (2008). The Portfolio Approach is illustrated in Figure 2.3 below.
Figure 2.3: The Portfolio Approach to Event Planning (Getz, 2008:407).
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Mega events generate worldwide appeal and hold international significance (Lee, 2013; Marin-Aguilar and Vila-López, 2014). Roche (2003) agrees that mega events, whether recreational, commercial, sport or cultural, are dramatic in character and amass popular appeal. Therefore, their benefits are significant. Mega events refer to events that only occur once in a city’s life time, for example, the Olympic Games in Sydney (Getz, Svensson and Gunnervall, 2012). Gelders and van Zuilen (2013) found mega events have a positive effect on the awareness and knowledge of a city. Following the FIFA Football World Cup in Germany, Florek and Breitbarth (2008) proved in a study that 76.7 percent of people had a positive opinion of Berlin after the World Cup compared to 19.4 percent before the World Cup. Glasgow’s reputation also increased after hosting a cultural mega event called the European Capital of Culture (Gelders and van Zuilen, 2013). The second level on the portfolio approach is hallmark events.
Hallmark events refer to events that offer a city and its inhabitants a competitive advantage through attractiveness, quality, publicity and tradition. Examples of hallmark events include the Boston Marathon, Kentucky Derby, The Masters golf tournament, New Orleans Mardi Gras, Munich Oktoberfest, Calgary Stampede and the Running of the Bulls in Pamplona (Getz, et al., 2012). Hallmark events rely on offering a unique experience to attract tourists or visitors to a city, as well as, creating a favourable image that is branded along with the residents to create a benefit to all parties involved (Dolles and Wang, 2008; Getz, et al., 2012; Westerbeek and Linley, 2012).
Regional and local events are found at the base of the pyramid. The benefit is questionable because large investments are required and the payoff is not guaranteed (Getz, et al., 2012; Getz, 2008). Gelders and van Zuilen (2013) found that regional and local events are often overlooked in research since a body of knowledge does not exist on the subject.
Richards and Wilson (2004) argue that research on the effect of events on host cities is not extensive enough and that mega events overshadow the literature on events. Horne and Manzenreiter (2006) added that pre-event research is often mis- represented and biased as the benefits tend to be exaggerated. As a result, BrandCapital developed the EventCities framework which encapsulates branding
24 | P a g e and marketing research theory. The framework is based on the strength and impact of a city brand and how events strengthen the city as a brand (Westerbeek and Linley, 2012).
The EventCities framework aims to rate the strength of a city brand based on familiarity with a city, available knowledge of a city, attractive attributes a city holds, likelihood of visiting a city, likelihood of visiting or living in a city, association with a city and association with an event in a city (Westerbeek and Linley, 2012). The EventCities framework concluded that, firstly, a city brand is stronger when people are more familiar with it, for example, Paris in France, Milan in Italy, Barcelona in Spain or Tokyo in Japan (Anholt, 2006).
Secondly, an event attracts visitors to a city and a strong portfolio of events increases the brand of a city (Westerbeek and Linley, 2012). The EventCities framework compared two Australian city brands, Melbourne and Sydney. Sydney is renowned for its hosting of the 2000 Olympic Games, the Opera House and the Sydney Harbour Bridge, however, Melbourne ranks higher than Sydney in the EventCities framework. The only reason is that Melbourne has a larger portfolio and diverse portfolio of events (Westerbeek and Linley, 2012).
Herstein and Jaffe (2008) reiterate the importance of city branding in accordance with the city’s image and available assets. Herstein and Berger (2013a) argue that if city branding is not done correctly the results could be catastrophic to the brand and event. Herstein and Berger (2013b) found three most common errors in the city branding process, namely: extreme city positioning, unrealistic city image positioning and exaggerated city image positioning. Extreme city positioning occurs when cities want a quick fix for a poor image. Extreme city positioning does not work as the negative stigma lingers long after new images have been implemented. Unrealistic city image positioning occurs when the city assets do not speak to the city image it hopes to portray. Exaggerated city image positioning is similar to product over positioning (Herstein and Berger, 2013a).
City Branding through sports events has been publicised as the most cost effective method to brand a city (Herstein and Berger, 2013b). The World Tourism Organisation (2011) proposes that tourism is the largest industry in the world. According to Biddiscomb (2004) the fastest growing segment in tourism is travelling
25 | P a g e for sports events and activities. Kurtzman and Zauhar (2005) define this as sports vacations which include: sport camps, sport conferences, sport cruises, sport tours, attendance at live events and participation in the sport event itself. Roche, et al. (2013) estimated that in 2008 sports tourism was valued at $600 billion which equates to 10 percent of the world wide tourism market in the world.
2.5 City Branding Through Sports Events
Herstein and Berger (2013b) propose three benefits of branding a city via sports events. Firstly, sports are the easiest events to market and promote as the audience is extremely large. Secondly, sports epitomise the human spirit of survival and competitiveness, as a result, spectators cannot help but be engrossed in the match or event. Rein and Shields (2007) added that sports create an energy and emotional bond amongst athletes and supporters that cannot be replicated at a museum or cultural events ever. Thirdly, sports events enable a city’s image to be displayed to audiences watching the event, whether it is live or on a secondary medium. Rein and Shields (2007) added that the media coverage is free but the benefits can generate a visibility that attracts residents, tourism and investment into the city.
Rein and Shields (2007) also point out that sport has become an identity to many nations in the world. Rome is synonymous with Olympia, Sydney with the 2000 Olympic Games (Westerbeek and Linley, 2012), the All Blacks with New Zealand (Rein and Shields, 2007), Manchester with Manchester United (Lucarelli and Berg, 2011) and the 2002 Commonwealth Games (Gratton, et al., 2005).
Rein and Shields (2007) added that sports are also used as a political tool to change perceptions or ideologies. Nazi Germany, in the 1930s and the United Socialist Soviet Republic, during the cold war used sports to impress the world with their sports prowess. In South Africa, at the 1995 IRB Rugby World Cup, Nelson Mandela, wore the number six jersey of the white Springbok captain, Francois Pienaar, as a sign to show the strides which South Africa was making at reconciliation amongst all her people (Matheson, 2006). These two different scenarios show that sports can either symbolise freedom or oppression irrespective of the platform (Rein and Shields, 2007).
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Rein and Shields (2007) propose that three platforms for branding a city via sports events exist, namely: event platform, team platform and the place platform. The event platform is the most commonly used platform used for branding a city. The event is seen as a representation of the economy and culture. Therefore, it is the perfect tool to reposition or establish a city brand (Rein and Shields, 2007).
According to Westerbeek and Linley (2012) examples of these events include: Summer Olympic Games, Winter Olympic Games, America’s Cup, Commonwealth Games, International cricket, Tennis Grand Slam, International Rugby Board (IRB) Rugby World Cup, Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) Football World Cup, Professional Golfers Association (PGA), International marathons, International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) World Championship/World Cup athletics, World-famous horse races, Formula One Grand Prix and the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) World Swimming Championship. Lee (2013) added that China benefitted through hosting the Olympic Games by transforming a third world image to a thriving free market economy. As a result, Beijing’s city brand image was uplifted (Chung and Woo, 2011; Lee, 2013). Russia also benefitted from the hosting of the 2014 XXII Olympic Winter Games in Sochi. Sochi as a city and Russia as a country used the event as a spectacle to represent a more powerful, improved and more glamorous brand compared to previous perception of the country (Lee, 2013; Ostapenko, 2010).
China and Russia offer blueprints on how to use large scale events to uplift the brand image of a city. China and Russia used the hosting of the Olympic Games and the Winter Olympics respectively to strategically reposition itself and improve its brand image to the world (Lee, 2013). Miller (2005) provides Greece as an example of the negative effects that occur when city branding efforts go astray through incorrect investment in facilities which are not financially viable or which are not usable upon completion of the event. Rein and Shields (2007) propose that the strengths and weaknesses of an event portfolio should be analysed with reality and contingency plans available. Matheson (2006) added that large proportions of budgets should be spent on general infrastructural improvements not solely on sport infrastructure improvements. Matheson (2006) added that Beijing spent a miniscule amount of their $22 billion infrastructure budget sports infrastructure improvements while the rest was spent on improving the city’s general infrastructure. Feddersen,
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Grotzinger and Maennig (2009) added that after studying the effects of the FIFA World Cup in Germany there is no income or employment benefit linked to the construction of sport infrastructure.
Rein and Shields (2007) argue that smaller size events can also have the same impact as mega events on the brand of a city. Bertella (2014) added that small scale events can improve the image of smaller towns by offering experiences different to larger events and larger cities. Lowenthal (2005) proposes that small towns can improve brand image by incorporating the natural environment and local culture into their sports events.
The event platform can be successful if planned appropriately. The benefits can outweigh the risks if infrastructure is to be used long after the conclusion of the event (Rein and Shields, 2007). The second event platform Rein and Shields (2007) propose is the team platform in branding a city.
Atilgan, Aksoy and Akinci (2005) argue that a brand is an asset for a company. Mizik and Jacobson (2008) and Richelieu and Desbordes (2013) argue brands are assets for sports organisations and sports teams too. According to Rein and Shields (2007) two team platforms exist, namely: privately owned teams and national teams. Both teams become attractions for tourism, investment and business attraction for the city like New York Yankees for New York, United States of America and Manchester United for Manchester, England. According to Forbes (2007), Manchester United has 75 million active fans worldwide. Forbes (2007) valued the New York Yankees at £140 million and Manchester United at £225 million. Chelsea and Real Madrid have attempted to follow a similar strategy to Manchester United (Rein and Shields, 2007). As a result Real Madrid has increased their value to £185 million (Chanavat and Bode, 2009).
Rein and Shields (2007) propose that national sports teams are also used to brand countries. As a result countries like Brazil, have exported their culture to potential tourists, residents and investors using the Brazil Football team to showcase its art, films and culture. According to Bauer, Sauer and Schmitt (2005) sports teams have an advantage because of an emotional connection to their fans. As a result, Richelieu and Pons (2011) argue sports teams are actually brands themselves.
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However Richelieu, Lopez and Desbordes (2008) point out that not all sports brands are equal. As a result, apparel companies and football teams look for ways to strengthen their relationships and ultimately the city in which they are based by improving their brand image, for example, Nike with Barcelona, Manchester United and Inter Milan or Adidas with Real Madrid (Richelieu and Desbordes 2013; Thomson and Strutton, 2012). Chang (2009) warns that there must be a fit between the parties entering into a partnership. Rein and Shields (2007) highlight Ghana who performed so well at the 2006 FIFA Football World Cup. Rein and Shields (2007) added that the Ghanaian football team and Ghana received so much media coverage in various forms, however, they are not able to capitalise on that window of opportunity since the country is so poor. This proves that not all brands are created equally (Desbordes, 2007; Richelieu, et al., 2008). The final event platform is the place platform in city branding via sports events.
The place platform entails the development of an entirely new “supercity” with the sole purpose of hosting sports events. The city is to be constructed in Dubai. According to International Reports (2005), Dubailand will cost $5.7 billion. This platform aims to centralise various sports in one city location by hosting the Dubai Desert Classic, the Dubai Tennis Championships, Dubai Rugby Sevens and many international auto races and horse races. Manly (2006) claims Dubailand to be the greatest marriage between sports events and a city. Rein and Shields (2007) argue that the best sport event platform to use in the city branding process is the event platform instead of the team platform or the city platform.
Herstein and Berger (2014) argue that different sport event strategies exist for various types of sports events. Herstein and Berger (2014) propose that two aspects are considered in the sports event quadrant. The first aspect refers to whether the event is a local event or an international event. The second aspect refers to whether the event is once off or continuous (Herstein and Berger, 2013b). The top left of the quadrant displays international events. According to the quadrant, international events are international and continual in nature. Examples of international events include: events on the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) Tour or football seasons in England, France or Spain. The top right quadrant displays mega events. Mega events, according to the quadrant, are international and once off in nature. Examples of mega events include: the FIFA Football World Cup, the Summer
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Olympic Games, the Winter Olympic Games and the IRB Rugby World Cup. The bottom right of the quadrant represents minor events. According to the quadrant, minor events are classified as local and once off in nature. Examples of minor events include: school tournaments or city fun runs. To the left of minor events in the quadrant, medium events are found. Medium events are classified as local and continuous in nature. Examples of medium events include: marathons, collegiate sports, or in season sporting competitions like ice hockey, basketball, soccer and rugby leagues. The sports event quadrant is illustrated in Figure 2.4 below.
Figure 2.4: The Sports Event Strategy Quadrant (Herstein and Berger, 2014:133).
2.5.1 Mega Sports Events
A mega event is defined as a planned event within a finite period of time with an increase in: travel volume, tourist expenditure, promotions resulting in brand awareness and infrastructure (Lee, 2013). Edizel (2013) defined mega events as high profile spectacles held over a limited time that require an investment in infrastructure which has global significance and cultivates national and international interest in the city. Roche (2000) expanded further on the definition, adding that mega events are major cultural landmarks that attract attention, are popular and have world significance. Mega events are synonymous with increasing local economic development and tourism (Galdini, 2007; Lee, 2013; Rogerson, 2008).
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Mega events must satisfy three conditions. Firstly the event must generate significant economic activity. Secondly, the event must project a return to the service sector of the economy. Thirdly, the event must show the identity of a unified effort from all the stakeholders involved (Herstein and Berger, 2013a). The Rugby World Cup 2003 hosted by Australia generated AU$494 million in industry sales, AU$55 million to the government and an addition of AU$289 million to the Gross Domestic Product of Australia (Bohlmann and van Heerden, 2005).
Mega Events are regarded as the best way to build a strong brand image (Kavaratzis, 2008). Lee (2013) added that mega events have a strong correlation with urban economic development that can improve social consensus and cohesion producing loyalty and over-shadowing social problems. O’Brien and Chalip (2007) highlight the importance of mega events being leveraged according to short term and long term goals in mind resulting in the maximum benefits in tourism, business and social aspects accruing.
On the other hand, Jones (2001) argued that mega events can be the root of city financial ruin when too much debt is created and infrastructure is underutilised. Rein and Shields (2007) put forward Greece as an example. They created too much debt to host the 2004 Olympic Games. Although this was not the only factor leading to the economic crisis, it certainly contributed to it. Gursoy and Kendall (2006) add that the outcome is an increase in taxes and inflation. Matheson (2006) studied mega events in California, in the USA, over a twelve year period and found no positive relationship between increased taxes for the city and consumer spending in relation to the mega event.
Owen (2005) and Toohey (2008) argue that the funds used to host mega events should be used to build hospitals and improve education. Therefore, Karadakis, Kaplanidou and Karlis (2010) stress the importance of planning and leveraging the event correctly. Schimmel (2006) proposes using mega events to improve a brand of a city as Russian roulette, as results could be extremely beneficial or detrimental to the existing brand of a city. The benefits of mega events can be viewed in terms of a short term time horizon and a long term time horizon (Karadakis, et al., 2010).
In the short term, trade and revenue impacts associated with hosting mega events include increases in: employment, spending within the community and tourism 31 | P a g e
(Chalip and Leynes, 2002; Karadakis, et al., 2010). According to Malfas, et al. (2004), Atlanta, Georgia, the 1996 Olympic Games host, invested $2 billion in Olympic Games projects between 1990 and 1996. The resulting benefit was approximately 580 000 jobs and an economic benefit of $5.1 billion. Tourism also increased in Atlanta, Georgia by 2 million people following the hosting of the Olympic Games.
Bohlmann and van Heerden (2005) added that Australia created 4000 jobs from hosting the 2003 Rugby World Cup. Barcelona, the 1992 Olympic Games host, experienced similar benefits after the unemployment rate dropped from 18.4% to 9.6% (Malfas, et al., 2004). However, Feddersen, et al. (2009) disagree. Feddersen, et al. (2009) argue that the 2006 FIFA Football World Cup in Germany created no jobs, not even in the development of new projects. Hagn and Maennig (2009) agreed with this statement. Hagn and Maennig (2008) added after the 1974 FIFA World Cup in Germany there were no benefits of job creation associated with hosting the event.
Whitson and Horne (2006) disagree with Chalip and Leynes (2002) and Karadakis, et al. (2010) regarding the increased spending on the community. According to Whitson and Horne (2006), after studying the effects of mega events in Canada and Japan, the large investments in infrastructure to host these mega events resulted in no significant benefits for the inhabitants of the city. Maennig (2007) added that the only real benefit is the novelty of the stadiums which improve the city brand image.
Herstein and Berger (2014) agree with Whitson and Horne (2006) about the increase in tourism when hosting mega events. Herstein and Berger (2014) added that the promises of large windfalls rarely materialise in numerous economic divisions besides in tourism. The 2002 FIFA Football World Cup in South Korea and Japan increased the tourism revenue of South Korea by $700 million and 57.7% of tourists travel for the World Cup (Duminy and Luckett, 2012). According to Maennig (2007) emphasis is often placed on the large cash injection mega events produce, however, there is no data to substantiate these claims.
The long term benefits include the development of infrastructure and media attention (Karadakis, et al., 2010). Wembley, the national football stadium in England was overhauled at an estimated cost of $500 million while general structural
32 | P a g e improvements equalled $150 million. Montreal spent $1.2 billion dollars on infrastructure for the 1972 Summer Olympic Games (Matheson, 2006). According to Dolles and Wang (2008) $8.5 million was spent on infrastructure to host the 1964 Summer Olympic Games. Dolles and Wang (2008) added that Doha spent $2.6 billion on infrastructure for the 2006 Asian Games. In 2002, Manchester spent £200 million on sports venue upgrades and £470 million on non-sport infrastructure after they won the bid to host the 2002 Commonwealth Games (Gratton, et al., 2005).
Matheson (2006) argues that sports infrastructure does not offer economic benefit, however, non-sport infrastructure does offer economic benefit long after the mega event is concluded. Matheson (2006) added that Beijing spent a miniscule amount of their $22 billion infrastructure budget on sports infrastructure improvements while the rest was spent on improving the city’s general infrastructure. According to Lee (2013) this was a catalyst in raising the profile of Beijing to an economic, political and diplomatic leader.
Duminy and Luckett (2012) argued that the benefits of hosting mega events are highlighted with more vigour than the possible negative effects of hosting the event. Large amounts of funds are loaned or dispensed through grants or sponsors increasing pressure to make the benefits outweigh the costs which result in the gross misrepresentation of the facts and figures. Therefore, optimistic or pessimistic projections should be scrutinised as with the same enthusiasm (Matheson, 2002; 2004).
The misrepresented projections occur in one of the following manners: the use of sale figures instead of income multipliers, misrepresentation of employment multipliers, the use of incremental instead of normal multiplier coefficients, incorrect defining of the areas specified in the research, the inclusion of local spectators while failing to exclude 'time-switchers' and 'casuals', using 'fudged' multiplier coefficients, claiming total benefits instead of marginal economic benefits; purposefully confusing the terms turnover and multiplier; minimising or completely omitting opportunity costs and measuring only benefits while omitting total costs (Duminy and Luckett, 2012).
Mega events are also described with regard to their internal and external characteristics. Internal characteristics refer to the number of athletes and
33 | P a g e spectators, as well as, the complexity of the event. External characteristics include media and tourism attractiveness, as well as, the impact on the host city (Malfas, et al., 2004).
The association of mega events makes other events seem insignificant. The Olympic Games create awareness around the globe of 87 percent while the FIFA Soccer World Cup reaches 18 percent. A large number of these spectators travel to just be part of the event not to support a particular team (Anholt, 2006). In addition, the association with a city and the Olympic event occurs 100 percent of the time, for example, when Sydney, Australia is mentioned, people automatically think of the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. The association with an Olympic city never decays and the brand only declines after 80 to 100 years (Anholt, 2006). Subsequently sports mega events are the epitome of creating brand awareness and uplifting the image of a city (Lee, 2013).
Humphreys and Prokopowicz (2007) studied the effects of mega events in developing economies using Poland and the Ukraine, who wished to host the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) 2012 Football Championship, as a case study. Their results found that developing economies are increasingly interested in hosting mega events. In addition, they found that the number of spectators and television viewers increase. However, the cost of hosting the event exceeds the direct economic benefit due to increased tourist spending especially for third world nations and under developed regions.
2.5.2 International Sports Events
Herstein and Berger (2013a) define international events as sports events that transpire throughout the year. The success of these events occurs when a link is made between the city and the team or sports event itself. Rein and Shields (2007) define international events in their event platform theory as the team platform. Herstein and Berger (2013a) offer tennis grand slam tournaments like the Australian Open, Rolan Garros or the French Open, Wimbledon and the United States (US) Open as examples. Herstein and Berger (2013) add football leagues’ teams and include the likes of Manchester United and Chelsea in England, Barcelona and Real Madrid in Spain and AC Milan and Internazionale (Inter Milan) as examples.
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According to Chanavat and Bodet (2009), Manchester United pioneered this event strategy as it understands internationalisation thus becoming a global brand for themselves and the city of Manchester too. Martinez (2012) added that these events must be of international repute. Martinez (2012) added Bayern Munich, a German football club; major golf tournaments like St. Andrews in the United Kingdom and Augusta in the USA and basketball teams like the Los Angeles Lakers and Boston Celtics, both in the USA who could benefit from incorporating the international events theory into their city brand plans.
Cities who host international events become associated with that city. For example, when people hear the word London they immediately think of the Wimbledon Tennis Championships and strawberries and cream (Herstein and Berger, 2013a). Herstein and Berger (2013a) added International events help with the leveraging of the city brand as interest and excitement is generated by the event. For example, when Barcelona, the football team, is searched for in an Internet search engine, images of events are displayed along with famous landmarks making the team or event synonymous with the city. This strategy is best implemented by creating a sense of homeliness for fans and tourists. For example, the FC Barcelona museum, at the FC Barcelona soccer stadium is the second most visited museum in Catalonia attracting 1.2 million visitors annually (Herstein and Berger, 2013a).
Chanavat and Bodet (2009) argue that many European football clubs have modified this strategy to some extent. Kase, Urrutia, Marti Sanchis and Opazo (2007) propose that with the media coverage of the Union of European Football Associations’ (UEFA) Champions League and the Feration Internationale de Football Association’s (FIFA) Club World Cup, football teams have been leveraging the biggest names in football off their clubs. Yu (2005) uses David Beckham and Zinedine Zidane as examples for Real Madrid Football Club. Desorbes (2007) mentions the names of Junichi Inamoto of Japan and Park Ji-Sung of Manchester United as further examples where these clubs hoped to attract merchandise sales and media coverage for the team.
Richelieu and Desbordes (2013) define this leveraging strategy as co-branding. Kapferer (2008) defines co-branding as combining two or more brands in producing, commercialising or promoting a product or service. According to Thompson and
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Strutton (2012) co-branding creates consolidation which enables the created relationship to reach more markets resulting in higher revenues and greater competitiveness.
The increased revenues and competitiveness materialise into three advantages. Firstly, financial risks are reduced as the costs of research are shared while both parties have access to each other’s resources. Secondly, each party can reach new markets with the sharing of each other’s expertise. Thirdly, each party is able to leverage off each other’s reputation (Chang, 2009). Richelieu and Desbordes (2013) offer Paris Saint-Germain Football Club (PSG) as an example who has leveraged its reputation off Paris, the city where it is based. Martinez (2012) adds the New Zealand All Black Rugby team and the Brazilian Football team who have successfully achieved similar feats. Chang (2009) and Kapferer (2008) disagree as they argue co-branding does not make an image of a city or team great. Chang (2009) and Kapferer (2008) propose that what makes a team truly a great brand is a winning record or a succession of trophy wins.
The city of Nelson Mandela Bay has been branded with the IRB Rugby Sevens event. According to Chantal Du Pisani (2014), Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium Chief Executive, the economic benefit of the IRB Sevens event to Nelson Mandela Bay was R154 million in 2012 and R217 million in 2013 (Rugby15). According to Table 2.2, on the following page, the successful hosting of the IRB Rugby Sevens have increased, the number of spectators from 2011 to 2013 resulting in the direct impact of the event reaching R217.8 million. The statistics show that tourism has increased as the revenue generated by domestic and foreign tourist reached equalled R83 million in 2013 whereas R59 million in 2012.
The JBay Open Association of Surfing Professionals World Tour, in Jeffreys Bay, South Africa returned to the Nelson Mandela Bay area after an absence of two years. This event regularly attracts the world’s best surfers. According to Kelly Slater (third best surfer in the world), every surfer loves taking part in this event. Organisers have added additional attractions to this event which include, surfing, skating, music festival, trail run, a mountain bike event, the Cold Water Classic open water event and the Oakley X-Over challenge (Basson, 2014; Zoetmulder, 2014d).
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In Nelson Mandela Bay, Chippa United have moved from Cape Town to make the Nelson Mandela Stadium their home ground for their Premier Soccer League future. This move will increase the tourism industry and a plan has been devised to maximise the benefit of a professional football team making Nelson Mandela Bay their home (Tandwa, 2014).
Table 2.2: Effects of the IRB Rugby Sevens Event on Nelson Mandela Bay (Du Pisani, 2014).
Event Criteria 2013 2012 2011
Number of 58 569 over two 35 000 over two 42 000 over two Spectators days days days Direct, Indirect R217,8 million R154,5 million R148,3 million and Induced Economic Impact for Nelson Mandela Bay Estimated impact R24,3 million R17,3 million R32 million to low income households Foreign tourist R46 million R30 million R40 million expenditure related to tournament Domestic tourist R37 million R29 million R47 million expenditure related to tournament Government tax R13,9 million R10 million R30 million collections Advertising value R11,1 million R13, 354 million R15,8 million
Jobs created 704 497 686
Income derived R46, 35 million R32, 8 million R53, 4 million by employees
2.5.3 Medium Sports Events
Herstein and Berger (2013a) define medium sports events as events that mainly attract spectators and supporters from the host country. Examples of these events include: marathons, collegiate sports, local soccer and rugby league matches.
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Herstein and Berger (2013a) add these events must be upgraded annually to keep attracting more people, regardless of their gender.
Collegiate sports influence city revenue and community spirit while increasing visitors’ awareness of the university city (Herstein and Berger, 2013a) According to Matheson (2006) the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Basketball Final Four Tournament is worth an estimated $30 million to $110 million while the 1997 NCAA Women’s Final Four created revenue for the city of Cincinnati to the value of $7million. Herstein and Berger (2013a) added, Southern Cross University which is situated in a small town, in Australia, hosted a Northern Conference University Sports Association found the event gave the community an economic boost. In addition, approximately two-out-of-three of the attendees said they would not have visited Lismore, the host community, had it not been for the event (Herstein and Berger, 2013a).
Another benefit of medium sports events occurs because there is no need for investment into new infrastructure (Herstein and Berger 2013a). Tzetzis, Alexandris and Kapsampeli (2014) added that the investment of funds is almost zero which does not end up taxing the residents of the city or its resources. According to Tzetzis, et al. (2014) medium sports events also result in longer and sustainable benefit to the host communities. Herstein and Berger (2013a) propose medium events also combat the effects of seasonality if a city relies on tourism. Gibson, Willming and Holdnak (2003) added that medium events also enhance brand image and boost a city’s moral as ordinary residents are involved in many aspects of organising and executing the event, like promoting volunteerism and solidifying relationships between residents, businesses and officials.
In Nelson Mandela Bay, the international rugby matches were studied and the economic benefits were summarised in Table 2.3 on the following page. The revenue generated from these three events equalled R406.5 million. The spectators over the three events were 131 793, the expenditure by tourists equalled R238.4 million and the total jobs created were 1906 (Du Pisani, 2014).
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Table 2.3: Economic Benefit of Hosting International Rugby Matches on Nelson Mandela Bay (Du Pisani, 2014).
Event Criteria South Africa vs South Africa vs South Africa vs Scotland 2014 England 2012 New Zealand 2011 Number of 40 793 46 000 45 000 Spectators Direct, Indirect R83 million R167 million R156,5 million and Induced Impact for Nelson Mandela Bay Impact to Low R17 million R35 million R33 million Income Households Foreign Tourist R33 million R65 million R26,8 million Expenditure Related to Event Domestic Tourist R12 million R39 million R62,6 million Expenditure Related to Event Government Tax R9,8 million R34 million R31 million Collections Jobs Created 447 734 725 Income Derived R33 million R61,3 million R56,4 million by Employees
According to Saayman and Saayman (2012), South Africa has a rich culture of medium sports events such as the Two Oceans Marathon, the Comrades Marathon, the Midmar Swimming Mile, the Premier Soccer League (PSL), the Currie Cup Rugby League and the Cape Argus Cycling Tour. Saayman and Saayman (2012) found the Comrades Marathon generated R70.5 million for the households along the route of the marathon and created 629 jobs. In Durban, South Africa, the Vodacom Durban July horseracing event and the Mr Price Pro surfing competition generated R400 million for the city, the Comrades Marathon generated R186 million, the Dusi Canoe Marathon generated R17 million and the Volvo Golf Championships generated R51 million (Savides, 2014).
In Nelson Mandela Bay, the South African Judo Championships were hosted at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University where participants were from numerous provinces across South Africa, as well as, a small contingent of athletes from
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Botswana, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The visitors to the city for this event numbered 5000 people (Chetty, 2014).
2.5.4 Minor Sports Events
Herstein and Berger (2014) define minor events as events which include school sports and local fun runs which do not occur very often. In addition, minor events are promoted in pubs, restaurants and notice boards of cities as the participants are exclusively from the city hosting the event (Herstein and Berger, 2013).
According to Gibson, et al. (2003), minor events foster local pride, promote volunteerism and charity work by involving ordinary residents in the organisation and execution process of the event. As a result, stronger relationships among residents, local business and authorities are forged (Tzetzis, et al., 2014). For example, in Nelson Mandela Bay, the Investec Night Relay attracted over 500 athletes. The sponsors included: Access Management, East Cape Traffic Services, City Lodge Hotel Group, Nelson Mandela Bay Tourism and Kingfisher FM (Zoetmulder, 2014a). Bertella (2014) disagrees and found that the lack of professional expertise is a hindrance to minor events.
The Nelson Mandela Urban Run was sold out this year with the entry of 2000 participants with an extra event for children. In addition, the proceeds will benefit numerous charities in the city (Zoetmulder, 2014b). According to Chéron, Kohlbacher and Kusuma (2012) partnerships between a party and non-profit organisations result in the improvement of the brand image of the party. Hoyle (2002) added that this partnership is pivotal when trying to reinforce a positive brand image while reducing a negative one and offered examples of tobacco and alcohol companies who follow this strategy extensively.
The Nelson Mandela Bay Train Race was held in 2014 with all entries sold out with special family activities added to include the whole family (Zoetmulder, 2014c). The 2014 Volkswagen Rally held in Nelson Mandela Bay recently attracted its largest rally field which consisted of 25 entries (Zoetmulder, 2014c). The annual fun run Running with the Bulls has grown successfully where runners are chased by “bulls” through 5 watering holes where shots of alcohol are consumed (Lucas, 2014a). Lucas (2014a) has seen an increase in events in Nelson Mandela Bay that benefit
40 | P a g e charities or human rights issues because they are not only profitable but serve a good cause.
The Zumba-licious 5km Women of Worth (WOW) Run is aimed at raising awareness of women and children abuse in Nelson Mandela Bay. This past year added extra festivities like a Zumba class or head, shoulder and hand massages by registered beauticians (Lucas, 2014b).
2.6 Summary
This chapter has reviewed the key aspects that a city must consider before undertaking any effort to improve or foster a positive brand image through sports events. The earliest attempts at branding included various marketing associated techniques which were primarily based on the marketing of products. City marketing became an accepted method to promote a city by highlighting its key attributes as a company did when promoting a product. City marketing only appeared to focus and benefit the development of tourism and attraction of residents and investment. City marketing achieved what is was set out to accomplish, however, the benefits were found to be short term in nature and city planners needed to find an answer which would enable longer term benefits and upliftment of their cities.
The answer to the problem came in the form of city branding which was based on the branding of corporations who successfully compete with other corporations as they battle for a competitive advantage over their rival corporations. Since globalisation granted people access to areas where they could not venture to before, the competition amongst cities around the world has intensified irrespective of distance. As a result, the idea of sustainable competitive advantage has sprung to prominence as cities now compete for the limited resources of people, skills and raw materials which is vastly different to attracting tourists as city marketing set out to accomplish.
The answer to creating this sustainable competitive advantage was found in the hosting of events (Getz, 2008). Events are deemed to showcase the attributes of a city in a manner that other forms of communication cannot achieve (Crowther, 2010). Events are able to create a unique experience for the attendees who are physically at the event or those who experience it in a secondary manner. According to Getz
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(2008), the experience created by an event cannot be replicated, therefore, once it has occurred the opportunity to experience it has been forever lost. Gelders and van Zuilen (2013) added that events create the best opportunity for all stakeholders in a city to work together creating a unique identity which creates a unique experience.
All events are divided into one of the following categories, namely: cultural celebrations, political and state, arts and entertainment, business and trade, educational and scientific, private events and sports events. Cultural celebrations refer to festivals, carnivals and religious events. Political and state events refer to summits, royal occasions, political events and VIP visits. Arts and entertainment refer to concerts and award ceremonies. Business and trade events refer to meetings, conventions, consumer and trade shows, fairs and markets. Educational and scientific events refer to conferences, seminars and clinics. Private events refer to weddings, parties and social events. Sport events refer to any sport that is professional or amateur.
City Branding through sports events has been publicised as the most cost effective method to brand a city because the cost of hosting an event is relatively small in comparison to the lasting benefit a sports event can bring. In addition, sports events also capture the imagination of spectators and creates a bond with the athletes that cannot be compared to other events.
This Chapter addressed the research questions RQ1: What role does marketing play in promoting the image of a city? RQ2: How has city branding transcended city marketing? RQ3: What are the key attributes of cities to be successfully branded?
RQ4: What are the benefits of events? RQ5: What are the benefits of sports events?
The review of literature in Chapter 2 also addressed the RO1: To define and understand the role of marketing in promoting the image of a city, RO2: To determine the benefits of branding a city instead of merely marketing a city, RO3: To identify the key attributes which a city must have to be successfully branded, RO4: To identify the benefits of branding a city through events, RO5: To identify the benefits of branding a city through sports events.
The proposed research methodology will be discussed in the following chapter.
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CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The previous chapter introduced concepts vital to this study such as city marketing, city branding, mega events, international events, medium and minor events with a focus on sports events. The frameworks of Rainisto (2003), Anholt (2006), Hankinson (2004), Hankinson (2007), Kavaratzis (2004) and Trueman and Cornelius (2006) were introduced and discussed. An overview for Chapter 3 is illustrated below.
Figure 3.1: Overview of Chapter 3.
Chapter 1: Introduction and Problem Statement
Chapter 2: Branding a City Through Sports Events
Chapter 3: Research Design and Methodology • 3.1 Introduction • 3.2 Research • 3.3 The Literature Review of the Study • 3.4 Research Onion • 3.5 Research Design • 3.6 Research Approach • 3.7 Sampling Design • 3.8 Data Collection Methods • 3.8.1 The Questionnaire • 3.8.2 Reliability and Validity • 3.9 Pilot Study • 3.10 Limitation of Study • 3.11 Summary
Chapter 4: Results and Analysis of the Empirical Study
Chapter 5: Findings, Recommendations and Conclusions
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Chapter three will address the research methodology in this study and address research question RQ6: How can a detailed research methodology be provided to understand and reproduce this study in future? Research objective RO6: To explain the research methodology used for this research study with sufficient detail to allow it to be reproduced in future will also be addressed in this chapter. The research onion will be used extensively to identify the research paradigm and various parts of which this research study is composed (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2009). Section 3.2 will define research and analyse the research as it pertains to this study. Section 3.3 will discuss the six layers that constitute the research onion. Section 3.4 will discuss the design of the research. Section 3.5 and Section 3.6 will discuss the sampling design used to gather the data from the sample. Section 3.7 will analyse and the questionnaire administered in this study. Section 3.8 will discuss the limitations of the research methodology. Section 3.6 will discuss the reliability and validity and section 3.7 will summarise the chapter.
3.2 Research
The phenomenon, Research, is defined as the systematic process of gathering, analysing and interpreting data in a scientific manner to increase the available body of knowledge on a specific subject that is of interest or concern to the researcher (Kumar, 2012; Leedy and Ormrod, 2010). Collis and Hussey (2014) define research as the systematic and scientific exploration for facts and knowledge for information on a specific topic. Research allows for the creation of knowledge through enquiries and investigation of an area that requires attention (Collis and Hussey, 2009). According to Leedy and Ormrod (2010) scientific research consists of six sequential steps:
Research begins with a specific issue which requires further analysis; Research defines the goal in the form of a clear problem statement; Research must subdivide the research question or problem into sub- problems or questions; Research is focussed by the specific question or problem it intends to solve based on reasonable assumptions; Research collects the data and analyses it using scientific methods; and
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Research interprets the data and ultimately solves the problem (Leedy and Ormrod, 2010).
Globalisation has made the world smaller. It is now easier to travel and move around than ever before. The competition for resources, tourism, skills and investment has never been fiercer. Therefore, cities have found it necessary to differentiate themselves from each other. Sports events are extensively used around the world to create a competitive advantage and to improve the brand image of cities. As a city, Nelson Mandela Bay, in South Africa, has always been overlooked and overshadowed by Cape Town, Johannesburg and Durban. Today, Nelson Mandela Bay is not only competing with other South African cities but also with cities of the world. Cape Town is constantly highly rated amongst tourists, however, Nelson Mandela Bay is on the other end of the Garden Route and receives no acclaim. Therefore, this represents an opportunity and relevance for a study of this nature where a plan is proposed for Nelson Mandela Bay to be branded through a portfolio of sports events.
3.3 The Literature Review of the Study
Collis and Hussey (2014) define literature as all published data on a particular topic. Literature is secondary in nature and includes all secondary sources such as:
e-resources, such as journal databases and the internet; research published in books; newspapers; government statistics; archives; statutory and voluntary corporate annual reports; and records and internal documents from companies (Collis and Hussey, 2014).
The literature review is a critical summary of the existing body of knowledge on the problem the researcher wishes to solve or understand. The purpose of the literature review is to display that the researcher has become knowledgeable about the problem and has analysed it accordingly (Collis and Hussey, 2014; Thody, 2009). Kumar (2012) agrees and added that new ideas or perspectives and approaches
45 | P a g e that have not occurred to the researcher may also surface while the literature review is conducted. This insight is required before the researcher can critically review the available literature, identify gaps and deficiencies in knowledge and design a research methodology for the study to be performed (Collis and Hussey, 2009).
The literature review for this study consisted of the analysis of city branding efforts undertaken by various cities in the world. The literature also demonstrated strengths and weaknesses that cities experienced in this branding exercise. The literature identified existing frameworks which have been used in branding cities. The Kavaratzis Framework (2009) was developed as the tool that all city branding efforts must consider. Kavaratzis (2009) developed this tool by studying the existing branding frameworks and composing his framework on the commonalities of the existing frameworks.
3.4 The Research Onion
Saunders, et al. (2009) use the research onion as a model to explain the issues underpinning the selection of data collection and research methods. The research onion is displayed in Figure 3.2 below.
Figure 3.2: The Research Process Onion (Saunders et al., 2009:2).
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The research onion consists of six layers that are peeled away to arrive at the core of research through a step-by-step process. The six layers are: philosophies, approaches, strategies, choices, time horizons, techniques and procedures.
3.5 Research Design
Research design refers to the planning of tasks and procedures to be undertaken during the research process. In addition, research design must guarantee the validity of the outcome of the research process (Collis and Hussey, 2014). The first step in the research design process is establishing the research philosophy. The research paradigm is a set of assumptions which will guide the research process from beginning to end (Collis and Hussey, 2009).
Positvism or the positivistic paradigm is the oldest of the research paradigms. It refers to the natural sciences which include the properties of matter and physics and how the two interact with each other. The positivistic paradigm is grounded in realism. Quantitative methods of analysis are used in positivistic research as these variables can be measured (Collis and Hussey, 2014). Positivistic research uses deduced logic coupled with empirical observations of behaviour resulting in a generalised framework that can be used in forecasting general outcomes of future behaviours of subjects which studied (Leedy and Ormrod, 2010).
This study falls under the positivistic research paradigm. It is independent of the researcher. The objective of this research is to determine which sports events Nelson Mandela Bay must host that the residents will support. This study will evaluate the city based on the Kavaratzis Framework (2009) along with the insights gained regarding the feelings and thoughts of the Nelson Mandela Bay residents. The sample who responded to the questionnaire will be used to generalise the feelings of the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay.
3.6 Research Approach
The chosen research design and paradigm will determine the approach of the research. Research approach refers to whether the research study is inductive or deductive in nature. An inductive study starts with the information and attempts to derive a theory from the available body of knowledge. A deductive study starts with a
47 | P a g e question or statement and the research aims to answer or solve the question. The inductive or deductive research approaches are differentiated by the type of information generated for the study (Blumberg, Cooper and Schindler, 2008). The choice of the research approach is either qualitative, quantitative or a combination of both (Collis and Hussey, 2014).
Qualitative or quantitative methods used exclusively in research are referred to as mono-method statistical research methods. When qualitative and quantitative methods are used together the statistical method is referred to as mixed-method statistical research methods. Multi-methods are used when the researcher uses both qualitative and quantitative methods but their outlook is only rooted in one research method (Collis and Hussey, 2014). This research study will make use of the mixed- method statistical approach since aspect of qualitative and quantitative statistical methods will be employed to answer the main research question, (RQM): What portfolio of sports events must be developed for Nelson Mandela Bay as part of a destination marketing campaign?
Qualitative research is based on a series of open-ended questions asked to a focus group of candidates to arrive at their views or experiences on a specific topic (Shah, 2006). The resulting data are subjective as inductive reasoning is used to arrive at the results along with the understanding and interpretation of the person who is carrying out the study (Collis and Hussey, 2014).
Qualitative research attempts to understand the actions of humans through a variety of methods to study and analyse, as well as, gain an understanding of why they behave, act or feel a certain way in their organisations or their general environment (Collis and Hussey, 2014). Qualitative researchers believe that all knowledge is interpretive and dependant on social context. A certain amount of bias can be introduced as the researchers use their own perspective when analysing or interpreting these contexts. Qualitative research tends to use small sample sizes. These studies lean towards generating theories with meaningful, subjective data that have low reliability but high validity (Collis and Hussey, 2009).
Quantitative research is based on numerical measurements of data. The researcher is detached from the study as their personal opinions do not play a part in the
48 | P a g e capturing of data. Quantitative research is founded in a controlled and systematic approach to research (Collis and Hussey, 2014). Statistics are generated from the data using various statistical tools and indicators to aid researchers with analysing a particular problem. The sample size of a quantitative study must be large and be representative of the population. The data produced are precise and objective which have high reliability, but low validity. It is imperative that the data are representative of the population because generalisations are made about the population from the data retrieved from the sample (Collis and Hussey, 2009). The resulting data provides answers in the form of relationships between the independent and dependent variables to aid the prediction, explanation and control of phenomena (Leedy and Ormrod, 2010).
According to Kumar (2012) three factors are shared in all quantitative studies:
Quantitative research attempts to numerically determine the variation of the situation, phenomenon or problem; Quantitative data are collected and measured using predominantly quantitative variables; and Quantitative analysis is geared to determine the degree of the variation (Kumar, 2012). This study will make use of mixed-method statistical research methods. The mixed- method research method entails the use of both qualitative and quantitative data. The primary focus of the empirical study use quantitative techniques to ascertain which sports events the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay will support as part of a destination marketing campaign. This approach will enable the research questions to be answered. Qualitative data will be collected as part of the respondents’ views and feelings to determine the portfolio of sports events that Nelson Mandela Bay should host.
3.7 Sampling Design
A population is referred to as a group of people who a researcher wishes to study. The term sample is used to describe a representative subset of a population (Leedy and Ormrod, 2010). The sample must be unbiased (Collis and Hussey, 2014). Cooper and Schindler (2008) defined a sample as a vehicle to infer conclusions of
49 | P a g e an entire population without testing each member of the population individually. According to Blumberg, et al. (2008) a population can either be sampled by a non- probability or a probability sampling method. The non-probability sampling method is subjective while a probability sampling method offers a more precise representation on the population since every member of the population has an equally likely chance of being selected (Blumberg, et al., 2008).
This study will make use of a non-probability sampling technique to gather responses. The types of non-probability sampling this study will employ are: convenience sampling and snowball sampling. Convenience sampling refers to gathering responses from members of the population who are available for the study (Saunders, et al., 2009). Snowball sampling refers to asking respondents of the measuring instrument to identify further respondents to be asked for their opinions (Collis and Hussey, 2014).
An email containing a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) to the questionnaire was sent to various bodies including the BWA (Business Woman Association) of Nelson Mandela Bay and the Nelson Mandela Bay Business Chamber. The Nelson Mandela Business Chamber agreed to distribute the link to members in their database which includes concerned businesses and residents of Nelson Mandela Bay for their views and opinions. Therefore, snowball sampling was then employed as respondents from the databases were then encouraged to forward the URL to their friends, colleagues and family members.
3.8 Data Collection Methods
Research must be measured to make decisions or to draw conclusions (Blumberg, Cooper and Schindler, 2011). The measured aspects are found in the form of properties or characteristics from the patterns or opinions of the respondents in the form of data (Collis and Hussey, 2009).
Data are collected and analysed in seven strategies, namely: experiment, case study, action research, grounded theory, ethnography, archival research and survey (Saunders, et al., 2009). These data are gathered at a point in time or over successive points in time. This is referred to as time horizons. The time horizon can either be cross-sectional or longitudinal.
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A longitudinal study looks at patterns or opinions of subjects over a period of time (Saunders et al., 2009). Qualitative studies are often longitudinal in nature. The most common approach for collecting data in a qualitative study includes personal interviews, the use of diaries, focus groups and observations. These approaches enable the record of sequential events (Collis and Hussey, 2014). However, it is important to note that these approaches may also be used in the quantitative studies (Collis and Hussey, 2014). A cross-sectional study measures the patterns or opinions of subjects at a single point in time. Quantitative studies are often cross- sectional in nature and frequently use the survey strategy (Saunders et al., 2009). This study exclusively employed the survey strategy in the form of a questionnaire. An online survey service hosted by Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (NMMU) was used to distribute the questionnaire and collect responses. The data were analysed by a qualified statistician using the software package Statistica. The questionnaire received 952 favourable responses.
The online survey service hosted by Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University had the following strengths:
It was an inexpensive method as questionnaires are distributed using email; It saved time as responses can be returned almost instantaneously; Respondents can stay anonymous, which results in more honest answers; Sensitive questions are more easily answered; and Coding and statistical analysis is easy.
The online survey service hosted by Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University had the following weaknesses:
Likert scale questions give limited depth to answers; Respondents are unable to provide any additional information other than that specifically asked; Respondents are able to answer questions even if misunderstood, unclear or if he/she has no opinion or knowledge of the subject; and Answers are very simple with little detail.
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3.8.1 The Questionnaire
The questionnaire is one of the methods to gather data according to the survey strategy (Saunders, et al., 2009). The questionnaire contains structured questions to ascertain what respondents think, know, feel, do and who they are (Collis and Hussey, 2014). Questions must be meticulously constructed to ensure that the responses are reliable and useful (Collis and Hussey, 2009). The characteristics of a well-constructed questionnaire are:
To provoke accurate and truthful answers; To encourage complete answers; To ask one question at a time; To make questions as clear and concise as possible; To avoid offensive and embarrassing questions; To encourage all the questions to be answered; and To communicate the value of the questionnaire (Blumberg, et al., 2011).
Questionnaires can ask questions in a variety of ways to elicit answers from respondents. The types of questions are:
Open ended questions where respondents answer in their own words; Multiple choice or closed questions where answers are predetermined; and Ranking or rating style where give answers on a rating scale (Collis and Hussey, 2014).
The questionnaire for this study started with an introduction to the City Destination Marketing Survey. The introduction prepared the respondent for answering the questionnaire by introducing the research topic, providing a confidentiality statement, benefits of participating for both the respondent and the industry and lastly instructions for answering the various questions.
The questionnaire was divided into six sections. Section One captured biographical information such as Gender, Age, Home Language, Ethic Group, Religion, Marital Status, Occupation, Employment Status, Sector Worked in, Number of People in the Household, Income Level of Household, Housing Level, Area Lived In, How long Respondents Lived in Nelson Mandela Bay and initial feelings toward the city.
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Section Two through to Section Five were designed to capture the respondent’s perception of Nelson Mandela Bay under the following headings:
Media; Events; Branding; and Communication.
In Section One, biographic information of the respondents was captured using a nominal scale. It is regarded as the weakest form of data to analyse as it contains no numerical properties, as a result, it can only be counted (Wegner, 2012).
The Likert scale, is a widely used scale in survey research as it provides an ordinal measure of a respondents attitude (Kumar, 2012; Leedy and Ormrod, 2010). Likert- type questions are used to measure the attitude or opinion of respondents under the assumption that these attitudes can fundamentally be measured (Wegner, 2012). A Likert scale is commonly used by asking respondents to what degree they agree or disagree with a given statement. The Likert scale is very convenient when wanting to measure a construct (Kumar, 2012; Leedy and Ormrod, 2010).
Section One through to Section Five of the survey comprised of five point Likert scale questions where respondents were instructed to indicate the most suitable answer. Statements were made and the respondents had to indicate to what extent they agreed or disagreed with the statement. The scale weighting ranged from strongly disagree (one) to strongly agree (five) as follows: 1. Strongly Disagree = 1; 2. Disagree = 2; 3. Neutral/Do not Agree or Disagree = 3; 4. Agree = 4; and 5. Strongly Agree = 5.
Once the questionnaire had been compiled it was presented to and discussed with two senior academics at the NMMU, namely Professor Margaret Cullen and Professor André Calitz, the research supervisors of this study.
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3.8.2 Reliability and Validity
There are two aspects to the credibility of research findings: reliability and validity (Collis and Hussey, 2014). The probability of being able to learn something from the study, the probability of obtaining statistical significance and the extent to which meaningful conclusions can be drawn from data analysis are all influenced by the reliability and validity of the measurement tool (Leedy and Ormrod, 2010). These two aspects will be discussed in this section.
Reliability refers to the ability of the results to be duplicated if the same accuracy and precision were used in subsequent tests (Collis and Hussey, 2014). Kumar (2012) identified reliability as an integral part in establishing credibility. Collis and Hussey (2009) also found that reliability is proven when the research is conducted on numerous occasions with the same results being achieved under the same parameters.
A number of tests can be performed to determine the reliability of a study:
Test-retest reliability. This test involves performing the study on the same group of subjects more than once. The results of the two tests are then compared using correlation coefficients. A measuring instrument with low reliability will have a coefficient close to zero while an instrument with a coefficient close to one has high reliability. A known problem with this test is that respondents might remember their initial responses and repeat them during the repeat study. This memory effect results in artificially high reliability (Collis and Hussey, 2014; Maree, Creswell, Ebersohn, Eloff, Ferreira, Ivankova, Jansen, Nieuwenhuis, Pietersen, Plano Clark, van der Westhuizem, 2012); Equivalent form reliability. This test involves administering two different but equivalent measuring instruments to the same group of subjects. As the second test is performed with a different instrument the correlation coefficient will not be affected by memory effects (Collis and Hussey, 2014; Maree, et al., 2012); Split-half reliability. This test involves splitting the measurement items into two separate instruments. The correlation coefficients of the two instruments is
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then calculated to indicate reliability (Collis and Hussey, 2014; Maree, et al. 2012); and Internal reliability. This test involves calculating the internal consistency of measuring instrument responses. Responses to all items used to measure a single construct should be very similar. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is used to measure this internal consistency. A high coefficient value indicates a high internal consistency while a low value indicates the opposite. Researchers have defined the following guidelines: o Cronbach Alpha ≥ 0.90 - high reliability o Cronbach Alpha ≥ 0.80 - moderate reliability o Cronbach Alpha ≥ 0.70 - low reliability o Cronbach Alpha < 0.70 - unacceptable reliability
A Cronbach Alpha value of between 0.50 and 0.69 has been indicated as acceptable for new and experimental research (Collis and Hussey, 2014; Nunnally, 1978; Maree, et al., 2012).
Validity, is an indicator of how accurately the results reflect the phenomenon being researched (Collis and Hussey, 2009). It is the extent to which the measuring instrument is in fact measuring what it is intended to (Leedy and Ormrod, 2010).
There are several strategies with which the validity of quantitative research can be assessed:
Face validity. This method simply involved ensuring that there is a logical link between the test measures used by the researcher and the objectives of the study. While this method is very easy to implement it has the drawback that it based on subjective logic (Collis and Hussey, 2014; Kumar, 2012; Nunnally, 1978; Maree, et al., 2012); Construct validity. This method is important in business research where the measured phenomena are not directly observable, such as motivation, satisfaction, ambition and anxiety. Only the effects of these hypothetical constructs are observable (Collis and Hussey, 2014; Kumar, 2012; Nunnally, 1978; Maree, et al., 2012);
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Content validity. Content validity is achieved when the instrument measures the complete content of the construct that it attempts to study. This is normally achieved by presenting the instrument to a panel of subject experts and implementing comments if there are any (Kumar, 2012); and Concurrent of predictive validity. Concurrent validity is achieved when two instances of the same measuring instrument yields similar results when concurrently performed. Predictive validity is achieved when an instrument can accurately predict an outcome (Collis and Hussey, 2014; Kumar, 2012; Maree, et al., 2012).
It is not only the validity of the measurement tool that must be considered, but also the validity (accuracy, credibility and meaningfulness) of the research project as a whole. The research effort has to enable the researcher to draw meaningful and defensible conclusions (Leedy and Ormrod, 2010).
Validity can be negatively affected by inaccuracies introduced during any of the research steps: study design, sampling strategy, measurement procedures, statistical analysis or during the drawing of conclusions (Kumar, 2012; Leedy and Ormrod, 2010).
There are two subcomponents to research validity: internal- and external validity:
Internal Validity. The internal validity of the study refers to the accuracy of observed relationships (cause-and-effect as well as others) between studied variables. In order to confidently say that a study has internal validity it must be ensured that there are no external, unmeasured, factors that affect the observed relationships. Various strategies such as controlled laboratory studies, double blind experiments, unobtrusive measures and triangulation can be utilised to increase the probability that observed relationships are influenced by measured variables only (Collis and Hussey, 2014; Kumar, 2012); and External Validity. The external validity of a study refers to the ability of conclusions to still be valid when applied to situations outside of the study. It is an indication of how well results can be generalised to other contexts and
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populations (Collis and Hussey, 2014; Kumar, 2012; Leedy and Ormrod, 2010).
Validity is an important consideration as research conclusions generally only contribute to humanity’s world knowledge if they are truly reflective of the measured variables and can be applied to situations outside of the research environment (Leedy and Ormrod, 2010).
3.9 Pilot Study
A pilot study allows researchers to undergo a pre-testing of a proposed research process. It provides a platform for feasibility testing of research elements and can uncover potential issues. The implementation of a pilot study ensures that the questionnaire used in the study is designed to ensure that the respondent does not have a problem answering the questions (Saunders et al., 2009). Saunders, et al, (2009) added that implementing a pilot study increases the validity and reliability of the data collected.
After designing the questionnaire for this study based on the literature review, it was presented to the statistician at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University to verify the structure of the questions to establish content validity. This also assisted in pointing out potential issues of representativeness and suitability of some of the questions that was on the initial draft of the questionnaire. Thereafter, the amended questionnaire was presented to ten residents of Nelson Mandela Bay to check for ease of answering and consistency. Finally, the questionnaire was checked by the Nelson Mandela Bay University statistician, Professor Cullen and Professor Calitz to ensure that all the areas questioned would enable the research questions to be answered.
3.10 Limitation of Study
Limitations refer to shortcomings that could substantially affect the study’s legitimacy regarding conclusions and recommendations (Kumar, 2012). The following limitations of this study have been identified:
Likert scale questionnaires fail to extract further detail in new areas of interest which may be revealed by the answers of the respondents; 57 | P a g e
The scope of the study was limited to residents of Nelson Mandela Bay who have access to the internet; The time the survey was available was limited; The researcher has little influence over the response rate from the respondents; The respondents might provide answers that they think the researcher wants to receive; The respondents might have to give answers to questions that they have not considered; and The respondents may give their opinion on subjects of which they are not experts.
3.11 Summary
Chapter three addressed the research question RQ6: How can a detailed research methodology be provided to understand and reproduce this study in future?
Research objective RO6: To explain the research methodology used for this research study with sufficient detail to allow it to be reproduced in future was also addressed in this chapter.
In addition, chapter three reviewed the theories of which this research study is composed. This research study is based on the principles of the positivistic paradigm. The positivistic paradigm is based on objective reality which assumes that this reality can be explained and understood. For this study, the reality assumes that there is an optimal portfolio of sports events for Nelson Mandela Bay which the residents require and will support. Therefore, this knowledge must be explained and understood by using literature to explain the process of creating this optimal portfolio of sports events. The questionnaires and data gathered from the sample will be used to understand the combination of sports events the residents require and support. As a result the literature will enable the research to construct a meaningful questionnaire where rich data can be extracted. The data will then be analysed using a mixed method of research approach which consists of quantitative and qualitative research techniques to create a meaningful plan which will be discussed in Chapter 5, Findings, Recommendations and Conclusions. Table 3.1 on the following page summarises the research methodology of the chapter.
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Table 3.1: Summary of Research Methodology
Research Paradigm Positivistic Paradigm Research Approach Deductive, Mixed Method Research Strategy Survey Time Horizon Cross Sectional Data Collection Instrument Online Questionnaire
The following chapter will explain and discern the research findings and insights gathered from the questionnaires.
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CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF THE EMPIRICAL STUDY
4.1 Introduction
The literature review in Chapter two highlighted important factors a city must consider for it to be successfully branded. The literature review also pointed to sports events being used as a key stimulator in the branding process. The research methodology and research design was discussed in Chapter three. An overview of Chapter 4 is illustrated below.
Figure 4.1: Overview of Chapter 4.
Chapter 1: Introduction and Problem Statement
Chapter 2: Branding a City Through Sports Events
Chapter 3: Research Design and Methodology
Chapter 4: Results and Analysis of the Empirical Study
• 4.1 Introduction • 4.2 The Questionnaire • 4.3 Descriptive Statistics • 4.3.1 Demographic Distribution of Respondents • 4.3.2 Events • 4.3.3 Branding • 4.3.4 Communication • 4.4 Summary
Chapter 5: Findings, Recommendations and Conclusions
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This Chapter presents the results of the empirical study. It will describe the data collected, the response rate and the main research items in the questionnaire. Descriptive analysis of the data will be presented including interpretations thereof. The data and analysis will be presented in a format that is easily understood and interpreted to draw meaningful conclusions that will benefit Nelson Mandela Bay.
Research question RQ7: Is there a demand for sports events from residents of
Nelson Mandela Bay? and research objective RO7: To conduct a survey to ascertain the types of sports that a portfolio of events must contain for Nelson Mandela Bay will be addressed by this chapter.
4.2 The Questionnaire
The questionnaire (Appendix B) used for this study was designed to collect data on the following: Demographics; Media; Events; Branding; and Communication.
The demographic data were collected to understand the distribution and the representation of the respondents of the survey. The Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University email survey service hosted the online survey. An email containing a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) to the questionnaire was sent to various bodies including the BWA (Business Woman Association) of Nelson Mandela Bay and the Nelson Mandela Bay Business Chamber. The Nelson Mandela Business Chamber agreed to distribute the link to members in their database which includes concerned businesses and residents of Nelson Mandela Bay for their views and opinions. The survey received 952 positive responses.
4.3 Descriptive Statistics
This study will make use of descriptive statistics. The descriptive statistics aid in presenting data in a summarised format. This summarised format enables data to be easily recognised and interpreted (Collis and Hussey, 2014). Data are displayed in the form of various graphical methods and tables to make it easily interpretable.
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4.3.1 Demographic Distribution of the Respondents
The survey collected data that allowed the researcher to infer as to the biographical and the socio-economic status distribution of the respondents.
Figure 4.2 shows that 50% (n=480) of the respondents were female while 50% (n=472) were male. The distribution of the respondents is representative of the Nelson Mandela Bay population according to Census 2011 by Statistics South Africa (2011) which is 52% female and 48% male.
Figure 4.2: Gender Distribution of Survey Respondents.
Frequency Distribution: Gender
Female Male Male (50%) (50%) Female
The gender distribution of the respondents is perfectly split. Therefore, the opinions of females and males are equally represented in this study.
Figure 4.3 represents the ethnic distribution of the survey respondents. Figure 4.3 indicates that 62% (n=590) of the respondents were White. Twenty-two percent (n=206) of the respondents were Black. Twelve percent (n=114) of the respondents were Coloured. The remaining four percent (n=40) of the respondents were classified in the other category. This distribution is not representative of the Nelson Mandela Bay population since the white population is in the minority according to Statistics South Africa (2011).
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Figure 4.3: Ethnicity of Survey Respondents.
Frequency Distribution: Ethnicity Other (4%)
Black (22%)
Other Black Coloured White White Coloured (62%) (12%)
Figure 4.4 represents the marital status of the respondents to the survey. Married respondents represent the majority sample at 64% (n=611). Single respondents were the second largest group at 23% (n=216). Divorced, living together and widowed respondents comprised the smallest samples of 5%, 7% and 1% respectively.
Figure 4.4: Marital Status of Survey Respondents.
Frequency Distribution: Marital Status Divorced Living Togther Widowed (5%) (7%) (1%)
Divorced Single Widowed (23%) Married
Married Single (64%) Living Togther
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According to Statistics South Africa (2011), 26.1% of the Nelson Mandela Bay population is married, while 62.3% are single. Divorced people represent 1.9% of the Nelson Mandela Bay population, 4% are widowed and 5% live together. Therefore, this sample is not representative of the Nelson Mandela Bay population.
Figure 4.5 represents the number of people who reside in the respondents’ households. Figure 4.5 shows that 74% (n=703) of the respondents households in Nelson Mandela Bay contain two to four people. Ten percent (n=98) of households only contain one person while 14% (n=129) contain five to six people. According to Statistics South Africa our sample is representative of the Nelson Mandela Bay population whose average household comprises of 3.4 people which is aligned to the statistics drawn from the sample.
Figure 4.5: Number of Inhabitants in Survey Respondents Households.
Frequency Distribution: Household Inhabitants 7-10 People (2%) 1 Person 5-6 People (10%) (14%)
1 Person 2-4 People 5-6 People 7-10 People
2-4 People (74%)
When Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5 are considered, it can be assumed that the majority of households in Nelson Mandela Bay consist of a combination of adults and children. Therefore, to attract a larger group of people to sports events in Nelson Mandela Bay there must be an element added which enables the entire family to participate in the sports event. According to Zoetmulder (2014c), the only sports event which offers events for the whole family in Nelson Mandela Bay as the 2014 Nelson Mandela Bay Train Race.
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Figure 4.6 represents the employment status of the respondents in the survey. The majority of survey respondents in Nelson Mandela Bay, 77% (n=735), are employed on a full-time basis. The remaining respondents are either self-employed (12%), employed part-time (5%), retired (4%), students (2%). According to Statistics South Africa (2011), the unemployment rate of Nelson Mandela Bay is 36.6%.
A large portion of the Nelson Mandela Bay population is unemployed. This factor should be taken into consideration when prices for events are to be determined. A suggestion would be to allow non-paying members into the stadia but not allow them the prime seats that paying residents would enjoy or to create a standing section for non-paying residents. This will not add revenue to Nelson Mandela Bay but it would add to the atmosphere at sports events and assist in uplifting the moral and city brand awareness for Nelson Mandela Bay. This atmosphere would be appealing to residents of South Africa outside Nelson Mandela Bay and to international viewers who want to experience the atmosphere of a full stadium. However, the study enables an understanding to be developed regarding the price elasticity of the paying customers who attend events since it can be assumed that the respondents who earn salaries have some degree of disposable income to spend on entrance fees for sports events.
Figure 4.6: Employment Status of Survey Respondents.
Frequency Distribution: Employment Status Part-time Self Employed (5%) (12%) Student (2%)
Retired (4%) Self Employed Student Retired Full-time Part-time
Full-time (77%)
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Figure 4.7 graphically represents the age distribution of the respondents. The highest percentage of respondents were in the age group category between 41-50 years old, followed by the 31-40 year old age group, followed by the 51-60 year old age group. The results were 29%, 26% and 18% respectively.
Figure 4.7: Age Distribution of Survey Respondents.
Frequency Distribution: Age 61+ 18-25 (4%) (11%) 26-30 (12%)
18-25 51-60 26-30 (18%) 31-40 31-40 (26%) 41-50 51-60 61+
41-50 (29%)
Table 4.1 represents the frequency distribution of the age of the respondents to the survey.
Table 4.1: Age Frequency Distribution of Survey Respondents.
Age (Years) Frequency 18-25 42 (4%)
26-30 116 (12%)
31-40 250 (26%)
41-50 275 (29%)
51-60 174 (18%)
61+ 95 (11%)
Total 952 (100%)
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The data according to Figure 4.7 and Table 4.1 gives a fair spread of all the age groups represented in Nelson Mandela Bay as all age groups are fairly represented with no particular age group outnumbering another age group. Therefore, the assumption can be made that the data gathered for this study will create a portfolio of sports events that is representative of the views and opinions of all age groups in Nelson Mandela Bay. This will enable make the sports events attractive to all people irrespective of age which will result in sports events hosted by Nelson Mandela Bay to be well supported by Nelson Mandela Bay residents.
Figure 4.7 represents the predominant language of the survey respondents. The survey found that 57% of the respondents spoke English at home while 22% spoke Afrikaans and 17% spoke isiXhosa at home. Four percent of the respondents converse in a language not English, Afrikaans or isiXhosa.
Figure 4.8: Home Language of Survey Respondents.
Frequency Distriburion: Home Language Other (4%)
isiXhosa (17%)
English English (57%) Afrikaans isiXhosa Other
Afrikaans (22%)
Table 4.2 on the following page represents the frequency distribution of the spoken language at the homes of the respondents in the survey.
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Table 4.2: Frequency Distribution of Home Language Spoken by Survey Respondents.
Language Frequency English 543 (57%) Afrikaans 213 (22%) isiXhosa 159 (17%) Other 37 (4%) Total 952 (100%)
The data shows that the communication to the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay should be conducted in the English language unless the message is for a certain area or geographic location where a specific language is predominant. For example, Afrikaans is the predominant language in Despatch while Xhosa is the predominant language in Motherwell. It is important to note that English may not be the majority of the residents’ first language in the city but everyone to some degree is exposed to the English language at school or work, therefore, the residents can understand English.
Figure 4.9 and Table 4.3 on the following page represents the household income of the survey respondents in Nelson Mandela Bay. Figure 4.9 shows that the highest number of respondents are in the R20,000-R39,000 (n=331) income group and R40,000+ (n=331). Each income groups constitutes 35% of the responses from surveyed residents. The next largest groups were the R10,000-R19,999 which constituted 15% of the surveyed responses. Seven percent of the responses where in the income group between R5,000-R9,999. Eight percent of the responses had a household income less than R5,000 per month. According to Statistics South Africa the sample is not representative of the Nelson Mandela Bay population.
This data suggests that the respondents of the survey are in the more middle to upper-class income bracket in Nelson Mandela Bay. It can be assumed that the respondents of the survey are more likely to support sports events since they have a larger disposable income. However, ticket prices should not be exorbitant as to price lower income residents out of attending events either as this would lower the attendance and support of sports events in Nelson Mandela Bay.
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Figure 4.9: Household Income Distribution of Survey Respondents.
Frequency Distribution: Household Income R40,000+ R20,000 - R40,000 R10,000 - R19,999 (15%) R10,000 - R19,999 R5,000 - R9,999 R20,000 - R40,000 (35%) Table 4.3: Income Frequency Distribution of Survey Respondents. Income Frequency The literature review showed that sports events benefit lower income households. Table 2.1 on page 34, found that the rugby sevens event generated income for low income households to the value of: R32 million in 2011, R17.3 million in 2012 and R24.3 million in 2013. Table 2.2 showed the results of hosting international rugby matches. In 2011, the income derived by lower income households was found to be R33 million when the Springboks played against New Zealand, R35 million when the Springboks played against England in 2012 and R17 million when the Springboks played against Scotland in 2013 (Du Pisani, 2014). The literature shows that there is a benefit to the lower income household. However, it can be assumed that the better the rugby nations are who compete against the South African Rugby team, the 69 | P a g e Springboks, in Nelson Mandela Bay the greater the income is to the lower income households. Figure 4.10 represents the various forms of dwellings the respondents of the survey occupy. Seventy-six percent (n=720) of the respondents indicated that they own the homes they occupy. Twenty-two percent (n=208) of the respondents live in rented homes while 2% (N=24) of the survey respondents reside in other forms of homes. According to Statistics South Africa 61.4% of the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay live in homes they are either paying off or own. As a result, the collected sample is not representative of the Nelson Mandela Bay population in this regard. Figure 4.10: Dwelling Distributions of Survey Respondents. Frequency Distribution: Dwellings Other (2%) Rented (22%) Owned Rented Other Owned (76%) Table 4.4 on the following page represents the frequency distribution for the various forms of property dwellings that the questionnaire respondents occupy in Nelson Mandela Bay. The data shows a large percentage of respondents own their own homes. It is expected that these respondents have a vested interest in the city of Nelson Mandela Bay since they have capital invested in their homes. The enables the assumption to be made that these residents have a vested interest in the future of Nelson Mandela Bay as their capital appreciation is linked into the projects the city undertakes. As a result, the residents who own homes’ opinions are important to the 70 | P a g e city and to their own wellbeing. Naturally their opinions should be taken seriously and carefully considered. Table 4.4: Frequency Distribution of the Dwellings Survey Respondents Occupy. Dwelling Frequency Owned 720 (76%) Rented 208 (22%) Other 24 (2%) Total 952 (100%) Figure 4.4 described that 64% of the respondents are married. Figure 4.5 showed that most of the households are composed of between two to four members. The assumption can be made that most families in the Nelson Mandela Bay are composed of two parents and two children. Since many residents in Nelson Mandela Bay are raising families, there is a likelihood that the respondents probably going to remain in Nelson Mandela Bay for the foreseeable future. Therefore, they are more likely to be interested in the wellbeing of Nelson Mandela Bay and will support a portfolio of sports events for the city. According to Kavaratzis (2009), a city must have the support of all the stakeholders when planning or hosting sports events since these are the people who buy the tickets and attend events. To ensure the support of all stakeholders Nelson Mandela Bay must offer events for the entire family to participate in. Therefore, not only must there be a portfolio of events but there must be activities made available to entertain the entire family. Figure 4.11 on the following page shows the percentage of respondents who were born in Nelson Mandela Bay. Fifty-seven percent (n=543) of the respondents were not born in Nelson Mandela Bay while 43% (n=409) of the respondents were born in Nelson Mandela Bay. 71 | P a g e Figure 4.11: Distribution of Survey Respondents Born in Nelson Mandela Bay. Frequency Distribution: Native to Nelson Mandela Bay Yes (43%) No Yes No (57%) Figure 4.12 represents the percentage of respondents who are proud of Nelson Mandela Bay. Ninety-one percent (n=863) of the respondents were proud of Nelson Mandela Bay while 9% (n=89) were not proud of Nelson Mandela Bay. Figure 4.12: Distribution of Survey Respondents Who are Proud of Nelson Mandela Bay. Frequency Distribution: Proud of Nelson Mandela Bay No (9%) Yes No Yes (91%) 72 | P a g e According to Gibson, et al. (2003), pride is fostered through the hosting of events where the residents of the city get involved in volunteerism, organisation and planning of the event. This builds comradery which develops into a community culture which is one of the eight factors which must be present in a successful branding process according to Kavaratzis (2009). Trueman and Cornelius (2006) added that the pride which residents feel creates a unified purpose amongst the residents which aids to overcome the societal differences and backgrounds that residents of a city come from. The overarching pride which residents feel toward Nelson Mandela Bay should be used as a tool to unite different races and religions. Sport, especially in South Africa, has this ability to move away from our past and look toward the future. The Rugby World Cup 1995 comes to mind when Nelson Mandela handed over the Web Ellis trophy to Francois Pienaar, the Springbok captain at the time. Therefore, the country and the world has seen what sports can do for South Africa, therefore, it should be a catalyst in the branding of Nelson Mandela Bay. Figure 4.13 represents the frequency distribution of respondents who act as ambassadors for Nelson Mandela Bay by encouraging people to visit the city. Figure 4.13: Ambassador Distribution of Survey Respondents for Nelson Mandela Bay. Frequency Distribution: Ambassadors for Nelson Mandela Bay No (13%) Yes No Yes (87%) 73 | P a g e Eighty-seven percent (n=828) of the people would encourage others to visit Nelson Mandela Bay while 13% (n=124) would not. The data shows that the majority of respondents believe that Nelson Mandela Bay has something to offer, otherwise they would not encourage other people to visit the city. This further strengthens the opinion that the residents are proud of Nelson Mandela Bay. This ambassadorial attitude shows that Nelson Mandela Bay residents are proud and willing to share their culture because there must be something unique about the landscape, culture and activities. According to Getz (2008), the location of a sports event combined with its attributes that make that city unique at that point in time can never be replicated anywhere in the world at any point in time. Therefore, the literature and the data gathered from respondents enables us to assume that the culture in Nelson Mandela Bay is unique in comparison to the other cities in South Africa and the World. Figure 4.14 represents the number of respondents who identify with Nelson Mandela Bay. Eighty-seven percent (n=828) of the respondents identify with Nelson Mandela Bay while 13% (n=124) of the respondents do not identify with Nelson Mandela Bay. Figure 4.14: Distribution of Survey Respondents Who Identify with Nelson Mandela Bay. Frequency Distribution: Identification with Nelson Mandela Bay No (13%) Yes No Yes (87%) 74 | P a g e The data represented above shows that many of Nelson Mandela Bay’s inhabitants were not born in the city. However, it shows that the residents are satisfied living in the city. This is represented by the fact that the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay identify with the city and recommend the city as a destination to people who are not from Nelson Mandela Bay. One can suggest that Nelson Mandela Bay should be branded through sports events since the residents of the city are emotionally involved and attached to the city. Therefore, one can assume that if a city branding campaign is undertaken it will be wholeheartedly supported by the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay. The demographic data is representative of the average household consisting of two to four family members according to Statistics South Africa. However, the data are also representative of the affluent population who earn in excess of R20 000 per month because the survey was only made available online. The link to the questionnaire was sent to various bodies including the BWA (Business Woman Association) of Nelson Mandela Bay and the Nelson Mandela Bay Business Chamber. The Nelson Mandela Business Chamber agreed to distribute the link to members in their database which includes concerned businesses and residents of Nelson Mandela Bay for their views and opinions. Although the sample may be skewed, it can be postulated that the voices and opinions in this questionnaire are heard of the residents who have the ability to implement the changes proposed in this research study. 4.3.2 Events The study of literature in Chapter Two showed the benefits that cities embrace when hosting sports events. Furthermore, the literature also proved that a portfolio of sports events improves the image and brand of a city in a larger capacity than just hosting one sports event irrespective of that single events magnitude. Table 4.5 on the following page illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement that Nelson Mandela Bay has a strong portfolio of sports events. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 representing ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 representing ‘Strongly Agree’. 75 | P a g e Six percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked about their relative agreement or disagreement with the statement. Seventeen percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Thirty-four percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Twenty-nine percent agree with the statement while 14% ‘Strongly Agree’ that Nelson Mandela Bay has a strong portfolio of sports events. Table 4.5: Nelson Mandela Bay has a Strong Portfolio of Sports Events. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q3.1 3.28 1.1 57 (6%) 162 (17%) 324 (34%) 276 (29%) 133 (14%) Westerbeek and Linley (2012) propose a city must have a strong portfolio to successfully brand itself. The EventCities model uses Melbourne and Sydney as examples. Melbourne outranks Sydney although it has not hosted mega events like the Olympics Games or constructed world renowned venues like the Sydney Opera House (Westerbeek and Linley, 2012). Therefore, Nelson Mandela Bay should attempt to host numerous events instead of hosting one large event. Table 4.6 represents the frequency when questionnaire respondents were asked which type of events they will support. The options were; business, cultural, educational, music, performing arts, religious, sports and none. Respondents were able to select more than one option. Table 4.6: Frequency Distribution for Various Events Supported by Survey Respondents. Event Yes No Business 638 (67%) 314 (33%) Cultural 442 (46%) 510 (54%) Educational 420 (44%) 532 (56%) Music 765 (80%) 187 (20%) Performing Arts 603 (63%) 349 (37%) Religious 329 (35%) 623 (65%) Sports 657 (69%) 295 (31%) 76 | P a g e The data showed that 765 respondents will support music events, 657 will support sports events, 638 will support business events and 603 respondents will support performing arts events. Table 4.7 illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement that people take the price of entrance fees into consideration when attending events. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 representing “Strongly Disagree’ and 5 representing ‘Strongly Agree’. Table 4.7: I Consider the Price of Entrance Fees Before Attending an Event. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q3.9 3.77 1.25 76 (8%) 76 (8%) 200 (21%) 248 (26%) 352 (37%) Eight percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked about their relative agreement or disagreement with the statement. Eight percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Twenty-one percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Twenty-six percent agree with the statement while 37% percent ‘Strongly Agree’. Table 4.6 found that survey respondents would prefer to attend music events. However, Table 4.7 shows that 84% of survey respondents are price sensitive to varying degrees. History has shown that ticket prices for music events, to see world renowned bands or pop stars, are priced at a premium. Therefore, from the data it can be assumed when ticket prices are too high survey respondents are not likely to support the international acts or music events which the respondents supposedly would attend. This fact coupled with the fact that the respondents were mostly affluent and high income earners does not bode well for music events in Nelson Mandela Bay. If the high income earners who have a larger disposable income than middle to lower income earners are price sensitive. Therefore, it can be inferred that the people with less disposable income are more price sensitive. The survey respondents who will support business events were unusually large too since the literature proposes that business events do not boost the image of a city. 77 | P a g e The reason for this anomaly is found in the sample respondents drawn from the population. The questionnaire was sent to various professional business bodies: the BWA (Business Woman Association) of Nelson Mandela Bay and the Nelson Mandela Bay Business Chamber. The Nelson Mandela Business Chamber agreed to distribute the link to members in their database which includes concerned businesses and residents of Nelson Mandela Bay for their views and opinions. This introduced some bias into the popularity of business events which people will support since the survey respondents were professionals in the business field. Since Nelson Mandela Bay residents are price sensitive. The only solution remains for the city to host more sports events. Biddiscomb (2004) found that the fastest growing segment in tourism is travelling for sports events and activities. In 2011, the World Tourism Organisation (2011) proposed that tourism is the largest industry in the world. In addition, Herstein and Berger (2013b) argue that the most cost effective way to improve a brand of a city is through hosting sports events. The research therefore proposes that Nelson Mandela Bay must use sports events to brand the city since residents will support sports events. The two main reasons are: The response for sports events was high in the questionnaire; and The admission prices for sports events are generally lower than those for music events. Table 4.8 represents the frequency when questionnaire respondents were asked which type of sports events they will support. The options were: business, cultural, educational, music, performing arts, religious, sports and none. Respondents were asked to select more than one option. The sports codes which survey respondents will support are: Rugby (n=667); Cricket (n=603); Iron Man (n=529); Rugby 7’s (n=503); Athletics (n=317); and Ocean Series (n=314). 78 | P a g e Table 4.8: Frequency Distribution of Sports Events Survey Respondents Will support. Event Yes No Athletics 317 (33%) 635 (67%) Cricket 603 (63%) 349 (37%) Cycle 166 (17%) 786 (83%) Iron Man 529 (56%) 423 (44%) Motor racing 223 (23%) 729 (77%) Ocean series 314 (33%) 638 (67%) Rugby 667 (70%) 285 (30%) Rugby 7’s 503 (53%) 449 (47%) Sail 108 (11%) 844 (89%) Soccer 345 (36%) 607 (64%) Tennis 160 (17%) 792 (83%) Triathlon 298 (31%) 654 (69%) Water sports 262 (28%) 690 (72%) Netball 105 (11%) 847 (89%) Other 117 (12%) 835 (88%) Herstein and Berger (2013b) found that sports events attract a broad audience of spectators. Sports events also attract spectators to a variety of sports codes because it is also viewed as an opportunity to socialise with friends or to discuss business deals. In South Africa, sports have been used to not only support our national teams but also to unite the nation to look to the future and not focus on the painful legacy of Apartheid. Table 4.8 shows a variety of sports events attract an array of people. As a result, it is safe to assume that one person will support and be attracted to more than one sports event since one person is attracted to various sports codes. This fact is supported by the EventCities model which proposes that a city should have a wide portfolio of events to successfully brand a city. Rein and Shields (2007) added that sports give a city media coverage which is free which attracts residents, tourists and investment into a city. Table 4.9 illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement that hosting a mega event will improve the image of Nelson Mandela Bay. 79 | P a g e The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 being ‘Strongly Agree’. Table 4.9: Hosting a Mega Event Will Improve the Image of Nelson Mandela Bay. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q3.2 4.5 0.85 10 (1%) 19 (2%) 67 (7%) 228 (24%) 628 (66%) One percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked about their relative agreement or disagreement with the statement. Two percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’ when asked whether hosting a mega event will improve the image of Nelson Mandela Bay. Seven percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Twenty-four percent ‘Agree’ with the statement while sixty-six percent ‘Strongly Agree’ of the respondents believe Nelson Mandela Bay can improve its image by hosting a mega event. The data showed that the respondents believe that hosting a mega event will improve the image of Nelson Mandela Bay as a city and tourist destination (Kavaratzis, 2008). Lee (2013) found that mega events are a catalyst for urban development. Karadakis, et al. (2010) propose that a mega event should be viewed in light of the short term and long term benefits of a city. Therefore, a mega event should not be viewed as a quick fix solution. Instead, it could be used in conjunction with a portfolio of sports events as the EventCities model proposes (Westerbeek and Linley, 2012). Table 4.10 on the following page illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement that respondents are proud of the Nelson Mandela Bay provincial sports teams. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 being ‘Strongly Agree’. 80 | P a g e Table 4.10: I Am Proud of Nelson Mandela Bay's Provincial Teams. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q3.3 3.07 1.1 86 (9%) 190 (20%) 371 (39%) 210 (22%) 95 (10%) Nine percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked about their relative agreement or disagreement with the statement. Twenty percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Thirty-nine percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Twenty-two percent agree with the statement while eleven percent ‘Strongly Agree’ that they are proud of our provincial teams. The data shows that respondents are neutral to their pride in the provincial teams of Nelson Mandela Bay. Herstein and Berger (2013b) point out that hosting sports events create pride in the residents where the event is hosted. As a result, branding Nelson Mandela Bay through sports events will instil pride in the residents. This pride will make the residents ambassadors for Nelson Mandela Bay. Therefore, residents are more likely to promote the city to people they come into contact with in person or on social media. Table 4.11 illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement that Nelson Mandela Bay has adequate infrastructure to host sports events. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 being ‘Strongly Agree’. Table 4.11: Nelson Mandela Bay has Adequate Infrastructure to Host Sports Events. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q3.5 4.15 0.95 19 (2%) 38 (4%) 133 (14%) 343 (36%) 419 (44%) Two percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked whether they believed Nelson Mandela Bay had adequate infrastructure to host sports events. Four percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Fourteen percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’ when asked about their opinion regarding the 81 | P a g e infrastructure in Nelson Mandela Bay. Thirty-six percent ‘Agree’ with the statement while forty-four percent ‘Strongly Agree’ that Nelson Mandela Bay has adequate infrastructure to host sports events. Hankinson (2004) and Kavaratzis (2004, 2008) found infrastructure to be one of the key factors that must be in place when hosting events. The respondents felt that Nelson Mandela Bay has more than adequate infrastructure to host sports events. Therefore, since the infrastructure is erected and in good standing, hosting sports events would cost the city less since no upgrading of stadiums or venues needs to take place. Table 4.12 illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement of the respondents’ views and opinions with the statement that location of the event is important. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 being ‘Strongly Agree’. Table 4.12: The Location of an Event is Important. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q3.8 4.56 0.72 10 (1%) 10 (1%) 48 (5%) 256 (27%) 628 (66%) One percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked whether location was important of an event. One percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Five percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Twenty-seven percent ‘Agree’ with the statement while sixty-six percent ‘Strongly Agree’. The data shows that location of the event is extremely important to respondents. Gelders and van Zuilen (2013) agree and added that the interaction between the location, stakeholders and management make an event unique. Getz (2008) added that each event is unique and cannot be replicated anywhere in the world once that time has elapsed. Table 4.13 was used to illustrate the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement that respondents support international events in Nelson Mandela 82 | P a g e Bay. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 being ‘Strongly Agree’. Table 4.13: I Support International Events in Nelson Mandela Bay. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q3.10 3.96 1.04 38 (4%) 38 (4%) 200 (21%) 323 (34%) 352 (37%) Four percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked whether they support international events in Nelson Mandela Bay. Four percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Twenty-one percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Thirty-four percent agree with the statement while thirty-seven percent ‘Strongly Agree’ that they support international events in Nelson Mandela Bay. The data shows that international events are supported by respondents. Anholt (2006) proposes that many spectators attend events not for a particular team but only to experience the event. This agrees with Kavaratzis (2008) who found that support of the residents and businesses are important for a city to improve its brand. Table 4.14 on the following page illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement food and other facilities are important at events. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 being ‘Strongly Agree’. Table 4.14: Food and Facilities are Important at Events. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q3.11 4.33 0.82 10 (1%) 19 (2%) 95 (10%) 352 (37%) 476 (50%) One percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked about their relative agreement or disagreement with the statement that food and other facilities are important at events. Two percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Ten percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Thirty-seven percent ‘Agree’ with the statement while fifty percent ‘Strongly Agree’ with the statement that food and facilities are important at events. The data shows that a total of eighty-seven percent 83 | P a g e of respondents feel that food and other facilities are important at events to some degree. Therefore, there must be a variety of foodstuffs and other facilities at sports events Nelson Mandela Bay hosts. Table 4.15 illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement that sports events create jobs opportunities. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 being ‘Strongly Agree’. Table 4.15: Sports Events Create Job Opportunities. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q3.14 4.08 0.97 10 (1%) 57 (6%) 152 (16%) 343 (36%) 390 (41%) One percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked about their relative agreement or disagreement with the statement that sports events create job opportunities. Six percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Sixteen percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Thirty-six percent ‘Agree’ with the statement while forty-one percent ‘Strongly Agree’ that sports events create job opportunities. The data shows that the majority of respondents were under the impression that sports events create job opportunities. The literature concurs with the respondents sentiments. Hosting sports events does create job opportunities. After winning the bid to host the 1996 Olympic Games, Atlanta created 580 000 jobs as development projects had to be undertaken to prepare the city for the Games (Malfas, et al., 2004). Bohlmann and van Heerden (2005) added that Australia created 4000 jobs by hosting the 2003 Rugby World Cup. According to Du Pisani (2014), the hosting of the rugby 7’s event in Nelson Mandela Bay created 686 jobs in 2011, 497 in 2012 and 704 in 2013. 84 | P a g e 4.3.3 Branding Table 4.16 illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement that Nelson Mandela Bay has a wide range of leisure activities. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 being ‘Strongly Agree’. Table 4.16: Nelson Mandela Bay has a Wide Variety of Leisure Activities. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q4.6 2.93 1.12 105 (11%) 219 (23%) 333 (35%) 219 (23%) 76 (8%) Eleven percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked about their relative agreement or disagreement with the statement that Nelson Mandela Bay has a wide variety of leisure activities. Twenty-three percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Thirty-five percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Twenty- three percent ‘Agree’ with the statement while eight percent “Strongly Agree’ that Nelson Mandela Bay has a wide variety of leisure activities. The data shows that the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay are not agreement with the statement that Nelson Mandela Bay has a wide variety of leisure activities. The largest industry in the world is the tourism industry (World Tourism Organisation, 2011). Biddiscomb (2004) found that within the growing tourist industry the fastest growing segment is travelling for sports events or activities. The activities mentioned are defined as sports vacations or leisure activities. Leisure activities or sports vacations include: sport camps, sport conferences, sport cruises, sport tours and participation at a recreational level (Kurtzman and Zauhar, 2005). In 2008, Roche, et al. (2013) valued this segment of the industry at $600 million. From the survey and the literature it can be inferred that leisure activities are not only important to residents of Port Elizabeth but also to the world population. As a result, Nelson Mandela Bay should offer sporting events not only for people to spectate but also to participate in on a recreational level. This will make Nelson Mandela Bay more attractive to South African tourists and international tourists since they could 85 | P a g e have a holiday in Nelson Mandela Bay and participate in recreational sports activities. Nelson Mandela Bay should also make use of its geographic location. Nelson Mandela Bay is sandwiched between the Garden Route and the Wild Coast. Cape Town is one of the premier tourist attractions in the world and at the begging of the Garden Route. When tourists wish to drive along the Sunshine Coast, Nelson Mandela Bay is merely driven through as there is nothing attracting them to visit Nelson Mandela Bay. If leisure activities and sports events were offered it would definitely be an incentive to visit the city. This would bring more visitors in to the city and help local businesses like restaurants and hotels with revenues that they would not have earned if no sports events were hosted by Nelson Mandela Bay. Table 4.17 illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement that the most desirable development of the future of Nelson Mandela Bay is it is becoming a place of adventure. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 being ‘Strongly Agree’. Table 4.17: The Most Desirable Development of Nelson Mandela Bay is it Becoming a Place of Adventure. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q4.11 3.96 0.98 19 (2%) 48 (5%) 200 (21%) 352 (37%) 333 (35%) Two percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked about their relative agreement or disagreement with the statement. Five percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Twenty-one percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Thirty-seven percent ‘Agree’ with the statement and thirty-five percent ‘Strongly Agree’ that Nelson Mandela Bay has a wide variety of leisure activities. The data shows that the respondents are excited about the prospects of the city becoming a place of adventure. Since the respondents are excited about the city’s future, they are more likely to buy-into the future projects if they offer adventure-type activities. Figure 4.23 showed that the respondents are interested in leisure 86 | P a g e activities. Therefore, branding Nelson Mandela Bay should incorporate adventure style leisure activities into future city plans. Table 4.18 represents the frequency distribution of responses when respondents were asked with which attributes they associate Nelson Mandela Bay. Respondents were allowed to select more than a single option. Table 4.18: Frequency Distribution of Attributes Associated with Nelson Mandela Bay. Attribute Yes No Affordability 685 (72%) 267 (28%) Conduct Business 171 (18%) 781 (82%) Economic Growth 181 (19%) 771 (81%) Employment Opportunities 124 (13%) 828 (87%) Friendly People 686 (72%) 266 (28%) Good Infrastructure 162 (17%) 790 (83%) History and Heritage 276 (29%) 676 (71%) Home 600 (63%) 352 (37%) Low Crime Levels 276 (29%) 676 (71%) Multi-Cultural 238 (25%) 714 (75%) Natural Beauty 457 (48%) 495 (52%) Place to Settle Down 486 (51%) 466 (49%) Quality of Life 562 (59%) 390 (41%) Retire 248 (26%) 704 (74%) Safe Beaches 667 (70%) 285 (30%) Safety 610 (64%) 342 (36%) Sport 267 (28%) 685 (72%) Variety 105 (11%) 847 (89%) Wind 476 (50%) 476 (50%) Table 4.7 shows the frequency distribution for the attributes which respondents associate with Nelson Mandela Bay. The attributes associated most with Nelson Mandela Bay are: friendly people (n=686), Affordability (n=685), safe beaches (n=667) and home (n=600). Only twenty-eight percent (n=267) of the respondents linked the attribute of sport to Nelson Mandela Bay while seventy-two percent (n=685) did not. 87 | P a g e Respondents do not associate Nelson Mandela Bay with sports because of the under performance of the teams based in the city compared to other major teams based in other cities around South Africa. In addition, headlines normally portray the losses suffered by sports teams since their successes are few and far between although Nelson Mandela Bay has nurtured some of the most talented sportsmen and sportswoman in the country. Therefore, Nelson Mandela Bay becomes a perfect candidate city to be branded through sports events as the facilities and infrastructure are in place. If the city is branded through sports, the Chevrolet Warriors particularly might be able to attract players of the calibre to make them competitive in domestic cricket. The same token can be applied to the Eastern Province Rugby Team. For numerous years the Eastern Province Rugby Team who have not been able to compete with the larger unions or other provinces since their budgets are larger. Instead the Eastern Province Rugby Team had to make do with players who are well past their prime and those who have not been able to prove themselves at the level they are required to compete at. 4.3.4 Communication Table 4.19 on the following page illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement that the Nelson Mandela Bay metro should use local radio stations to communicate upcoming events. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 being ‘Strongly Agree’. One percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked about their relative agreement or disagreement with the statement that the Nelson Mandela Bay should use radio to communicate upcoming events. Two percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Eleven percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Thirty-three percent ‘Agree’ with the statement while fifty-three percent ‘Strongly Agree’ that the Nelson Mandela Bay metro should use radio to communicate upcoming events to the public. 88 | P a g e Table 4.19: Nelson Mandela Bay Should use Radio to Communicate Upcoming Events. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q5.9 4.34 0.85 10 (1%) 19 (2%) 105 (11%) 314 (33%) 504 (53%) Communication is a key tool in marketing strategies (Hospers, 2010). Braun, et al. (2013) define a city brand as a network of associations in the consumers’ mind based on visual, verbal and behavioural expressions of a city. As a result, the manner in which these visual, verbal and behavioural expressions are delivered and received is through communication. Nelson Mandela Bay acts as the giver of the message about sports events and the brand image it portrays and the residents act as the receivers of the message who embrace the sports events and brand image. The literature underlines how important communication is in the city branding process. The data from the respondents has highlighted the importance of Nelson Mandela Bay keeping the residents informed about events since this study has proven how eager the residents are for sports events in Nelson Mandela Bay. The residents of Nelson Mandela Bay want to be informed of upcoming events via radio as their medium of choice. Table 4.20 on the following page illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement that the Nelson Mandela Bay metro should encourage residents to attend city events. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 being ‘Strongly Agree’. One percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked about their relative agreement or disagreement with the statement that the Nelson Mandela Bay metro should encourage residents to attend city events. One percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Twelve percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Thirty-five percent ‘Agree’ with the statement while fifty-one percent ‘Strongly Agree’ that the Nelson Mandela Bay metro should encourage residents to attend city events. 89 | P a g e Table 4.20: Nelson Mandela Bay Should Encourage Residents to Attend City Events. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q5.10 4.34 0.79 10 (1%) 10 (1%) 114 (12%) 333 (35%) 485 (51%) The data shows that eighty-six percent of residents agree to some degree that Nelson Mandela Bay should encourage residents to attend city events. Table 4.19 showed that the most accepted method to deliver this message is communication via the radio. On the other hand encourage could mean that there should be an incentive to visit these events. Table 4.7 showed that the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay are price sensitive. Therefore, Nelson Mandela Bay should look at offering lower prices or incentivise the purchase of early tickets by offering bundle deals where the residents are encouraged to not only attend events but also purchase tickets. These revenues could then be allocated to maintain the already developed sports facilities and infrastructure. Table 4.21 illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement that respondents inform their peers about upcoming events in Nelson Mandela Bay. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 being ‘Strongly Agree’. Table 4.21: I Inform My Peers About Upcoming Events in Nelson Mandela Bay. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q5.11 4.34 0.77 10 (1%) 10 (1%) 105 (11%) 362 (38%) 465 (49%) One percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked about their relative agreement or disagreement with the statement that they tell their peers about an upcoming event of which they are aware. One percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Eleven percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Thirty-eight 90 | P a g e percent agree with the statement while 49% percent ‘Strongly Agree’ that they inform their peers of events of which they are aware. The data shows that word of mouth communication in the Nelson Mandela Bay is an important aspect of communication. The literature, namely: The Kavaratzis Framework (2004), Hankinson (2004) and the Kavartzis Framework (2009) composed of the key factors in branding frameworks substantiate the data all identify the importance of communication in their frameworks. Table 4.22 illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement that respondents share the events they find on Facebook with their friends. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 being ‘Strongly Agree’. Table 4.22: I Share Upcoming Events With My Friends on Facebook. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q5.12 3.23 1.42 162 (17%) 114 (12%) 200 (21%) 219 (23%) 257 (27%) Seventeen percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked about their relative agreement or disagreement with the statement. Twelve percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Twenty-one percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Twenty-three percent ‘Agree’ with the statement while 28% percent ‘Strongly Agree’ that they share events they find on Facebook with their friends. The data shows that 71% of survey respondents share Nelson Mandela Bay events on Facebook to some degree. Table 4.23 on the following page illustrates the relative strength of agreement or disagreement to the statement that respondents attend events they read about on Facebook. The question was based on a five point Likert scale. The Likert scale is based on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘Strongly Disagree’ and 5 being ‘Strongly Agree’. 91 | P a g e Table 4.23: I Attend Events I Read About on Facebook. Mean Standard Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Deviation Disagree Agree Q5.13 3.17 1.29 143 (15%) 124 (13%) 295 (31%) 219 (23%) 171 (18%) Fifteen percent of the respondents selected ‘Strongly Disagree’ when asked about their relative agreement or disagreement with the statement that they attend events they read about on Facebook. Thirteen percent of the respondents selected ‘Disagree’. Thirty-one percent of the respondents were ‘Neutral’. Twenty-three percent ‘Agree’ with the statement while eighteen percent ‘Strongly Agree’ that they share events they find on Facebook with their friends. The data shows that the respondents were undecided on whether they share events they find on Facebook with their friends. Facebook has in recent times been inundated with event invitations and other requests. The reason for this is due to the fact that anyone can create one of these events and send them to their friends. As this tool has been efficient, it has become a tool for spammers and hackers to use as a means to gather user’s information. Therefore, people have become sceptical of these events and thus have become reluctant to share them with their friends or to pay any attention to them. Facebook has a mass user appeal that one cannot deny. To create trust in Facebook events Nelson Mandela Bay must create a verified account that only advertises official sanctioned events on their page 4.4 Summary This chapter presented the collected data in the forms of tables and graphs. The data were interpreted using quantitative analysis techniques. This chapter followed the same headings which were used in the questionnaire which respondents were asked to answer. Research question RQ7: Is there a demand for sports events from residents of Nelson Mandela Bay? and research objective RO7: To conduct a survey to ascertain the types of sports that a portfolio of events must contain for Nelson Mandela Bay were also addressed in this chapter. 92 | P a g e The demographic data were collected to create an idea of who the questionnaire respondents were in relation to the census data from Statistics South Africa. The other segments of the questionnaire were grouped under the headings of Media, Branding, Communication and Feedback. These segments were used to probe the current attributes which Nelson Mandela Bay displays to ascertain if the city is a candidate to be branded through sports events. The litmus test used was the Kavaratzis framework (2009). Using descriptive statistical techniques, the data collected showed that not only should Nelson Mandela Bay be branded but the most viable option is through sports events as a focal point. The data shows that Nelson Mandela Bay has the attributes already available to be branded according to the Kavaratzis framework (2009). The attributes Nelson Mandela Bay displays are: culture, city focus, synergy among stakeholders, infrastructure, natural assets and communication. The data does suggest that Nelson Mandela Bay is not conducive to business. 82% of respondents felt that Nelson Mandela Bay is not conducive to business. This could be a factor that hurts Nelson Mandela Bay in attracting large companies to the city. In addition only 13% of respondents felt there were employment opportunities in Nelson Mandela Bay. Since there is a lacking of larger companies in Nelson Mandela Bay it can be assumed that there will be a lack of employment opportunities in the city. Table 4.6 showed that the most likely tool to brand Nelson Mandela Bay is through sports events, although music events outscored it according to respondents. Music events are not a viable option for Nelson Mandela Bay because the data showed that the residents are extremely price sensitive and consider prices for tickets carefully before attending events. The literature and data showed that sports are a universal drawcard for people in Nelson Mandela Bay and the world. In South Africa especially, sports have been used as a tool to unify people from different races and backgrounds to great success. Therefore, it has been proven before and it still holds this unifying quality. Sports events do not necessarily only refer to drawing spectators to watch international matches. The data shows there is a keen interest among residents of Nelson Mandela Bay to partake in leisure activities and events where the whole 93 | P a g e family can participate. Numerous sports events in the city have already recognised this attribute and have been eager to incorporate it with great success. The literature shows that there are a wide range of sport events for residents in the city. This factor did not arise in the data from the respondents. As a result, there must be some dissonance in the event and the communication to the residents. Therefore, the advertising or communication should be improved in the city. Nelson Mandela Bay has portfolio of events. To make this portfolio stronger the data suggests that Nelson Mandela Bay should host more rugby, cricket and rugby sevens events. Nelson Mandela Bay has recently lost the right to host the IRB Sevens event to Cape Town. The data shows there is a desire for more rugby events. In recent times there has been an increase in beach rugby events or touch rugby tournaments which have been supported in the country. Therefore Nelson Mandela Bay should look at offering these types of rugby events in a portfolio of events. The following chapter will summarise the findings from the literature review and the empirical study. The insights gained from the literature and data will allow conclusions to be drawn. Recommendations will be made to Nelson Mandela Bay about the implementation of sports events as a tool in the destination marketing branding of the city. Key success factors will also be discussed and opportunities for future research will be mentioned. 94 | P a g e CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 5.1 Introduction The review of the literature in Chapter 2 revealed the importance of city branding to remain competitive in an increasingly globalised world since city marketing has become irrelevant (Zenker, 2011). The literature offered events as essential tools in the branding process (Getz, 2008). The literature indicated that sports events create the greatest benefit of all other event variations a city can host (Herstein and Berger, 2013b). The literature also proposed a framework of essential attributes a city must contain to be branded successfully. Chapter 3 described the research methodology adopted by this study and Chapter 4 presented and interpreted the results and findings from the empirical study conducted. Chapter 5 will summarise this research study and address the research question, RQ8: Which sports events will the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay support? In addition, the research objective RO8: To identify the sports events which residents of Nelson Mandela Bay will support in the city will also be addressed. The remaining research questions will be discussed and answers for each research question will be provided based on the study of literature, in Chapter 2, and findings of this research study which was addressed in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 will also answer the main research objective ROM: To develop a portfolio of sports events which residents of Nelson Mandela Bay will support as part of a destination marketing campaign. The main research question, RQM: What portfolio of sports events must be developed for Nelson Mandela Bay as part of a destination marketing campaign? Finally, this chapter will discuss the limitations of this study and the opportunities for future research that have been identified in the course of this research. Figure 5.1 on the following page describes the layout of the chapter. 95 | P a g e Figure 5.1: Overview of Chapter 5. Chapter 1: Introduction and Problem Statement Chapter 2: Market Needs (Literature Study) Chapter 3: Research Design and Methodology Chapter 4: Results and Analysis of teh Empirical Study Chapter 5: Findings, Recommendations and Conclusions • 5.1 Introduction • 5.2 Summary of Research • 5.3 Recomendations • 5.4 Limitation of Study • 5.5 Future Research • 5.6 Summary 5.2 Summary of Research The main research question (RQM) of this study is RQM: What portfolio of sports events must be developed for Nelson Mandela Bay as part of a destination marketing campaign? In order to provide solution to the main research question, the main research objective ROM: To develop a portfolio of sports events which residents of Nelson Mandela Bay will support as part of a destination marketing campaign, was set. The main research objective was then broken into secondary objectives. The following sub-sections describe the secondary questions that were investigated along with their resolutions. The sub-sections also describe the secondary objectives and how the objectives have been addressed by the study. 96 | P a g e 5.2.1 Research Question RQ1 and Research Objective RO1 The first research question asked was RQ1: What role does marketing play in promoting the image of a city? The research objective RO1: To define and understand the role of marketing in promoting the image of a city, provides answers to the research question RQ1. It was addressed by the literature review in Chapter 2. The review of literature revealed that the marketing was used to promote cities, however, the benefits were only short lived. Therefore, cities required a strategy which would promote longer term benefits. The marketing of cities was only concerned with inward investment that was generated from tourism by showcasing a city’s features. Globalisation has made this strategy redundant (Deffner and Metaxas, 2010). Globalisation has increased the competition between cities which are not only in close proximity but also with cities across the globe. The increased competition has become important as cities vie for raw materials, investment and talent. The result is that marketing tools are no longer enough to attract these scarce resources in an increasingly globalised world since goods and people can travel with relative ease. The answer was deemed to be the entrepreneurial city with roots based in the running of income generating businesses (Edizel, 2013). 5.2.2 Research Question RQ2 and Research Objective RO2 The second research question was RQ2: How has city branding transcended city marketing? The research objective RO2: To determine the benefits of branding a city instead of merely marketing a city provide answers to the research question RQ2 which was addressed by the literature review in Chapter 2. The review of literature revealed that a competitive advantage must be sculptured for cities to be successful in an increasingly globalised world. The competitive advantage is created when a city displays its attractiveness and uniqueness in such a manner that other cities in the world cannot compete with those specific characteristics (Anholt, 2008; Kavaratzis, 2008). A city brand is created when associations are created in consumer’s mind based on verbal, visual and behavioural characteristics of a city which is packaged together in its aims, communication, values and the general culture of the residents (Braun, et al., 2013). 97 | P a g e 5.2.3 Research Question RQ3 and Research Objective RO3 The third research question was RQ3: What are the key attributes of cities to be successfully branded? To answer this question, the research objective RO3: To identify the key attributes which a city must have to be successfully branded, was also set at the beginning of this study. The literature review in Chapter 2 established that the branding of a city is important to create an identity for all the stakeholders who interact with the city although the amount of interaction may vary (Ashworth and Kavaratzis, 2007). When any branding operation is undertaken it is important that the correct brand image is decided upon. Planners must look and decide realistically where the city could be in the future considering the landscape, stakeholders and opportunities which will offer a sustainable advantage in comparison to other cities (Herstein, et al., 2013). The Kavaratzis framework (2009) considered other branding frameworks in literature and subsequently found factors which were common to the available frameworks. Kavaratzis (2008) found that the key to any branding strategy is: strategic vision and goals; culture; support from all stakeholders; synergy amongst stakeholders; infrastructure; image portrayal in line with geographic attributes; vibrant and attractive opportunities; and communication. Herstein, et al. (2013) discovered reasons why city branding attempts often fail. Firstly, failure is likely to occur when all stakeholders are not considered in the branding process. Secondly, any plan is destined to fail when the ideal future state is not pictured the same by all stakeholders. Thirdly, when not enough funds are allocated for the entire process, attempts are made to cut corners which ultimately damage the whole branding process. Fourthly, when planners attempt to force a brand image on a city which is not congruent to the city’s characteristics, attributes and stakeholders, the branding will fail and even negatively affect the city. Finally, 98 | P a g e incorrect channel use to display the brand will not create the desired benefits of the brand image since the intended message never reaches the target audience. 5.2.4 Research Question RQ4 and Research Objective RO4 The fourth research question was RQ4: What are the benefits of events? To answer this question, the research objective RO4: To identify the benefits of branding a city through events was also set at the beginning of this study. The literature review in Chapter 2 established that the hosting of events is an essential tool in the branding process (Kavaratzis, 2008). In addition, any event hosted by a city is unique. The event is unique as it cannot be replicated anywhere else in the world (Getz, 2008). The experience created by the event due to the location, stakeholders and management is unreplicable anywhere else in the world (Gelders and van Zuilen, 2013). Events become synonymous with the cities where they are hosted (Gelders and van Zuilen, 2013). For example, the Eiffel Tower is immediately associated with France, the Sydney Opera House and Olympic Games are associated with Sydney, while New York is associated with the New York City Marathon and Milan is associated with fashion shows (Anholt, 2006). The hosting of events is used by cities as catalysts to leverage and resurrect economies, improve infrastructure and uplift their image resulting in the repositioning or improvement of the brand value for a city (Dawkins, 2009). Events are categorised as: cultural celebrations, political and state, arts and entertainment, business and trade, educational and scientific, private events and sports events (Getz, 2005). 5.2.5 Research Question RQ5 and Research Objective RO5 The fifth research question was RQ5: What are the benefits of sports events? To answer this question, the research objective RO5: To identify the benefits of branding a city through sports events was also established at the beginning of this study. The literature review in Chapter 2 established the greatest benefit gained from any event is achieved by hosting sports events. The audience who attend or support sports events is exponentially larger than any other type of event. Therefore, sports events are easier to market and promote. Sports events captivate and capture the 99 | P a g e imagination of spectators on a higher level than other events as sports events stimulate emotional responses which other events cannot achieve. Sports events have also been proven to showcase a city’s attributes and brand to audiences via primary or secondary mediums. Sports events have already been used to successfully leverage a city brand image off the sport event. The successful hosting of sports events enables the host city to become synonymous with the event hosted. For example, Rome is synonymous with Olympia, Sydney with the 2000 Olympic Games (Westerbeek and Linley, 2012), the All Blacks with New Zealand (Rein and Shields, 2007), Manchester with Manchester United (Lucarelli and Berg, 2011) and the 2002 Commonwealth Games (Gratton, et al., 2005). 5.2.6 Research Question RQ6 and Research Objective RO6 The sixth research question was RQ6: How can a detailed research methodology be provided to understand and reproduce this study in future? In order to marry the literature with the branding of Nelson Mandela Bay as part of a destination marketing campaign, an empirical study was conducted using questionnaire responses. An email containing a Universal Resource Link (URL) to the questionnaire was sent to listed email addresses from various databases acquired by the City Chamber of Commerce, concerned businesses and residents for their opinions of Nelson Mandela Bay to ascertain which sports events they will support as a stimulus to brand Nelson Mandela Bay as part of a destination marketing campaign. Chapter 3 describes the data collection process and how the collected data were analysed. The underlying paradigm of this research and the approach is discussed. This research can be reproduced by following the methodology of this research described in Chapter 3. This addresses the research objective RO6: To explain the research methodology used for this research study with sufficient detail to allow it to be reproduced in future that was set out at the beginning of this study. 5.2.7 Research Question RQ7 and Research Objective RO7 The seventh research question was RQ7: Is there a demand for sports events from residents of Nelson Mandela Bay? To answer this question, the research objective 100 | P a g e RO7: To conduct a survey to ascertain the types of sports that a portfolio of events must contain for Nelson Mandela Bay. The data gathered in Chapter 4 from the respondents revealed that the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay were undecided as to whether the portfolio of sports events was satisfactory. 5.2.8 Research Question RQ8 and Research Objective RO8 The eighth research question was RQ8: Which sports events will the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay support? This is directly linked to the research objective RO8: To identify the sports events which residents of Nelson Mandela Bay will support in the city. The data showed that the residents preferred cricket, rugby and Iron Man sports events. Therefore, it can be deduced that Nelson Mandela Bay should add more cricket, rugby and Iron Man type of events into the branding plan of Nelson Mandela Bay. The respondents did not rate the importance of soccer events for the Nelson Mandela Bay. With this in mind, the soccer stadium which was built for the FIFA 2010 Soccer World Cup would be better served to be used for more rugby matches since rugby is better supported than soccer in Nelson Mandela Bay. In addition, the Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium could also be incorporated into the Iron Man event which will enable the use of the stadium for the benefit of the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay. Section 5.3 of this chapter analyses the data composed of the views and opinions from the residents of Nelson Mandela Bay and proposes which sports events should be part of a portfolio of sports events for Nelson Mandela Bay. 5.3 Recommendations The literature review and the results of this study highlight the candidacy of Nelson Mandela Bay to be branded through sports events. However, a carefully considered plan must be generated that captures the imagination of all the stakeholders in the city. This will create a sense of belonging for stakeholders as a unified vision for Nelson Mandela Bay will be produced. Therefore, a suggestion will be offered based on the opinions and views collected from the respondents of this study which will answer the main research question RQM: What portfolio of sports events must be developed for Nelson Mandela Bay as 101 | P a g e part of a destination marketing campaign? Based on the findings of this study, the following are recommendations and the critical success factors on how to implement social media effectively for political campaigning based on the findings of this study: Sports events should be incorporated to brand Nelson Mandela Bay: Table 4.6 showed that the survey respondents ranked that sports events would be supported more than any other type of event besides music events. However, Table 4.7 showed that 84% of survey respondents considered the price of an event to some degree before deciding to attend an event. This factor disqualifies music events since their entrance fees to see international popstars tend to make use of premium pricing compared to sports events where pricing not too expensive or sometimes free, for example, Iron Man encourages supporters to attend the event and no entrance fee is charged. Herstein and Berger (2013b) suggest that sports events are the most cost effective platform to use in branding a city. The benefits are: sports appeal to a mass audience, sports events engross and capture the spectator’s imagination which creates a bond to the event and subsequently the city which cannot be created at a museum or cultural event. Sports teams must be incorporated into the city image: Table 4.10 showed that the majority of respondents were indifferent when asked about their pride towards our provincial teams, on the other hand, Figure 4.12 showed that respondents are proud of Nelson Mandela Bay as a city. Rein and Shields (2007) suggest that an event should not only be used to brand a city but also the sports teams who are based in the city should become synonymous with a city. Mizik and Jacobson (2008) and Richelieu and Desbordes (2013) found benefits of increased brand image for both parties when a team and city leverage off each other quick creates a stronger brand. Rein and Shields (2007) offer examples of New York Yankees for New York, United States of America and Manchester United for Manchester, England where teams become attractions for tourism, investment and business attraction for the city. Nelson Mandela Bay already has sports teams 102 | P a g e like the Eastern Province Kings rugby team, the Warriors cricket team and Chippa United, the Premier League soccer team, who are based in the city. Nelson Mandela Bay should host more cricket, rugby and Iron Man-type events: Table 4.8 showed that the majority of respondents prefer to support cricket, rugby and Iron Man events. Getz (2008) proposes the portfolio approach to hosting events. The portfolio approach postulates that a variety of sports events has a more positive effect on the brand of a city instead of hosting only one event. According to Getz (2008), the portfolio approach creates value and enables goals to be reached. The portfolio approach divides events into mega events, hallmark events, regional events and local events. Nelson Mandela Bay already has a portfolio of sports events headlined by Iron Man as a mega event. Herstein and Berger (2013b) leveraged their quadrant off the Getz (2008) portfolio approach. Herstein and Berger (2013b) divided sports events into a quadrant consisting of: mega events, international events, medium events and minor events. Iron Man is a mega event and Nelson Mandela Bay already hosts numerous international cricket and rugby events, however, other cities around South Africa host more of these events because they are larger in stature. Therefore, Nelson Mandela Bay should host more cricket, rugby and Iron Man-type events that would fit into the medium and minor event category, for example, cricket teams should be encouraged to have pre-season or post- season training camps in Nelson Mandela Bay. The Sharks rugby team, the Stormers rugby team and Bulls rugby team have played matches as part of their preseason training in England against Saracens Rugby Club. By the same token, English county cricket teams could be encouraged to play matches against the Warriors cricket franchise or against a host of cricket clubs in the city. This will enable Nelson Mandela Bay to have their brand promoted across the world because the results of these matches will be displayed on various forms of news platforms (Herstein and Berger, 2013b). Rein and Shields (2007) added Rein and Shields (2007) found that the media coverage of sports events is free but the benefits can generate a visibility that 103 | P a g e attracts residents, tourism and investment into the city. Iron Man as an event has its own following that does not need to promote its image or image of Nelson Mandela Bay since Iron Man in South Africa is synonymous with Nelson Mandela Bay. Iron Man has been a resounding success in Nelson Mandela Bay. Therefore, triathlon events have sprung to prominence in the city. The city should therefore host more triathlon events which would fall under the banner of medium and minor events. These events do not have to attract international competitors but mainly South African triathletes which will enable the city to improve its image and instil pride in the residents. The success of medium and minor events has proven to be successful since it requires no additional investment in infrastructure. These events are often run by universities, local clubs and organisations. Figure 4.18 supports this claim as 94% of the survey respondents agree to some degree that Nelson Mandela Bay has adequate facilities to host sports events. 5.4 Limitation of Study The following limitations were identified during this study: The dispersion of the survey respondents is not representative of the Nelson Mandela Bay residents; and The questionnaire was only available on-line. 5.5 Future Research Branding cities through sports events is continually evolving and represents an opportunity for further academic research since many cities have successfully used sports events to uplift or improve their brand image. Branding Nelson Mandela Bay through sports events represents an enormous opportunity since no plan, of this nature, has been embarked upon in the past. This treatise was designed as an exploratory study which formed part of an extensive destination marketing project. However, opportunities were identified for future research 104 | P a g e where specific sports were deemed to foster desired positive brand improvement effects. These areas include: Future research could be used to test existing branding models or to create further models customised as per the attributes and characteristics of the city; Future research can also be carried out to evaluate the Kavaratzis framework on the existing attributes and characteristics displayed by Nelson Mandela Bay; Segmentation of resident demographics could also be researched to enrich the value of the sample drawn from the population; Future studies could research the value added from the various sports stadiums and venues to ascertain the return on investment or value added to a city in monetary terms; and Future research may also enlist the use of a larger sample to enable a more representative sample to be drawn. 5.6 Summary The main research objective of this research was to develop a portfolio of sports events for the branding of Nelson Mandela Bay as part of a destination marketing campaign. The literature suggested that the concept of branding a city accrued from the disciplines of city marketing and corporate branding. The theories of these disciplines were used as the basis for city branding frameworks and models. In order to achieve the objectives of this study, a literature study was conducted to establish the founding theory of city marketing and corporate branding which has influenced the phenomena of city branding. Literature and case studies were also consulted to determine how events are extensively used to brand and uplift the image of cities around the world. Furthermore, the literature showed the greater benefits that are to be had when cities use sports events when branding a city. The findings of this literature study found that branding has been undertaken by numerous cities around the world. The literature study further identified successful branding efforts undertaken. In addition, cities were identified who have suffered because of selecting the incorrect image as a poor branding strategy tends to tarnish an existing lagging brand. 105 | P a g e The literature study also found the importance of events as they are able to relay a message that distinguishes it from other forms of communication. Events are able to deliver an experience, stir up excitement and create memories that linger long after the event has occurred. Events are also used as tools to meet strategic goals as they can be manipulated to attract certain audiences and create a sustainable competitive advantage. Events are divided into various categories, namely: cultural, political and state, arts and entertainment, business and trade, educational and scientific, private and sports events. Sports events benefit a city the most when used in a branding effort. Sports events appeal to the largest audience compared to any other event. Promoting or marketing a sport event costs less than other events because the sports event itself attracts spectators and tourists. The experience that spectators receive while watching sports events cannot be replicated by any other event. Spectators cannot help but to be engrossed in the match and caught up by the outcome. This enables the city to leverage off this emotional bond because significant sports events are always remembered in which city they occur. Based on the findings from the literature review by this study, it was determined that Nelson Mandela Bay is a perfect candidate to be branded through sports events as part of a destination marketing campaign. The Kavaratzis Framework (2009) was used to measure the strength of the attributes and characteristics that Nelson Mandela Bay holds. The Kavaratzis Framework (2009) is composed of key elements from various branding frameworks. 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Zoetmulder, M., 2014c. Sell-out Expected for Train Race. PE Express. 2 July, p. 21. Zoetmulder, M., 2014d. JBay's Winter Festival a Must See. PE Express. 9 July, p. 16. 118 | P a g e APPENDICES Appendix A: Survey Distribution Email 119 | P a g e Appendix B: Questionnaire 120 | P a g e 121 | P a g e 122 | P a g e 123 | P a g e 124 | P a g e 125 | P a g e Appendix C: Ethical Clearance 126 | P a g e Appendix D: TurnItIn Report 127 | P a g e