DOCSLIB.ORG

P.3 Polynomials and Factoring

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
P.3 Polynomials and Factoring 333371_0P03.qxp 12/27/06 9:31 AM Page 24 24 Chapter P Prerequisites P.3 Polynomials and Factoring Polynomials What you should learn ᭿ Write polynomials in standard form. An algebraic expression is a collection of variables and real numbers. The most ᭿ Add,subtract,and multiply polynomials. polynomial. common type of algebraic expression is the Some examples are ᭿ Use special products to multiply polyno- 2x ϩ 5, 3x 4 Ϫ 7x 2 ϩ 2x ϩ 4, and 5x 2y 2 Ϫ xy ϩ 3. mials. ᭿ Remove common factors from polynomi- The first two are polynomials in x and the third is a polynomial in x and y. The als. terms of a polynomial in x have the form ax k, where a is the coefficient and k is ᭿ Factor special polynomial forms. the degree of the term. For instance, the polynomial ᭿ Factor trinomials as the product of two binomials. 3 Ϫ 2 ϩ ϭ 3 ϩ ͑Ϫ ͒ 2 ϩ ͑ ͒ ϩ 2x 5x 1 2x 5 x 0 x 1 ᭿ Factor by grouping. has coefficients 2,Ϫ5, 0, and 1. Why you should learn it Polynomials can be used to model and solve Definition of a Polynomial in x real-life problems.For instance,in Exercise 157 on page 34,a polynomial is used to Let a0, a1, a2, . , an be real numbers and let n be a nonnegative integer. model the total distance an automobile A polynomial in x isP.3 an expression of the form travels when stopping. n ϩ nϪ1 ϩ . ϩ ϩ an x anϪ1x a1x a 0 where an 0. The polynomial is of degree n, an is the leading coeffi- cient, and a0 is the constant term. In standard form, a polynomial in x is written with descending powers of x. Polynomials with one, two, and three terms are called monomials, binomials, and trinomials, respectively. A polynomial that has all zero coefficients is called the zero polynomial, denoted by 0. No degree is assigned to this particular polynomial. For polyno- mials in more than one variable, the degree of a term is the sum of the exponents of the variables in the term. The degree of the polynomial is the highest degree of its terms. For instance, the degree of the polynomial Ϫ2x3y6 ϩ 4xy Ϫ x7y4 is 11 because the sum of the exponents in the last term is the greatest. Expressions © Robert W. Ginn/age fotostock such as the following are not polynomials. 3 3 1͞2 x Ϫ Ί3x ϭ x Ϫ ͑3x͒ The exponent 1͞2 is not an integer. 5 Ϫ x2 ϩ ϭ x2 ϩ 5x 1 The exponent Ϫ1 is not a nonnegative integer. STUDY TIP x Expressions are not polynomials Example 1 Writing Polynomials in Standard Form if: Polynomial Standard Form Degree 1. A variable is underneath a radical. a. 4x 2 Ϫ 5x 7 Ϫ 2 ϩ 3x Ϫ5x 7 ϩ 4x 2 ϩ 3x Ϫ 2 7 2. A polynomial expression b. 4 Ϫ 9x 2 Ϫ9x 2 ϩ 4 2 (with degree greater than 0) c. 88͑8 ϭ 8x 0͒ 0 is in the denominator of a Now try Exercise 15. term. 333371_0P03.qxp 12/27/06 9:31 AM Page 25 Section P.3 Polynomials and Factoring 25 Operations with Polynomials You can add and subtract polynomials in much the same way you add and sub- tract real numbers. Simply add or subtract the like terms (terms having exactly the same variables to exactly the same powers) by adding their coefficients. For instance,Ϫ3xy 2 and 5xy2 are like terms and their sum is Ϫ3xy2 ϩ 5xy2 ϭ ͑Ϫ3 ϩ 5͒xy2 ϭ 2xy2. Example 2 Sums and Differences of Polynomials STUDY TIP Perform the indicated operation. When a negative sign precedes a. ͑5x 3 Ϫ 7x 2 Ϫ 3͒ ϩ ͑x 3 ϩ 2x 2 Ϫ x ϩ 8͒ an expression within parentheses, ͑ 4 Ϫ 2 Ϫ ϩ ͒ Ϫ ͑ 4 Ϫ 2 ϩ ͒ b. 7x x 4x 2 3x 4x 3x treat it like the coefficient ͑Ϫ1͒ and distribute the negative sign Solution to each term inside the a. ͑5x 3 Ϫ 7x 2 Ϫ 3͒ ϩ ͑x 3 ϩ 2x 2 Ϫ x ϩ 8͒ parentheses. ϭ ͑5x 3 ϩ x 3͒ ϩ ͑Ϫ7x 2 ϩ 2x 2͒ Ϫ x ϩ ͑Ϫ3 ϩ 8͒ Group like terms. Ϫ͑x2 Ϫ x ϩ 3͒ ϭϪx2 ϩ x Ϫ 3 ϭ 6x 3 Ϫ 5x 2 Ϫ x ϩ 5 Combine like terms. b. ͑7x 4 Ϫ x2 Ϫ 4x ϩ 2͒ Ϫ ͑3x 4 Ϫ 4x2 ϩ 3x͒ ϭ 7x 4 Ϫ x2 Ϫ 4x ϩ 2 Ϫ 3x 4 ϩ 4x2 Ϫ 3x Distributive Property ϭ ͑7x 4 Ϫ 3x 4͒ ϩ ͑Ϫx2 ϩ 4x2͒ ϩ ͑Ϫ4x Ϫ 3x͒ ϩ 2 Group like terms. ϭ 4x 4 ϩ 3x2 Ϫ 7x ϩ 2 Combine like terms. Now try Exercise 23. To find the product of two polynomials, use the left and right Distributive Properties. Example 3 Multiplying Polynomials: The FOIL Method When using the FOIL method, the following scheme may be helpful. ͑3x Ϫ 2͒͑5x ϩ 7͒ ϭ 3x͑5x ϩ 7͒ Ϫ 2͑5x ϩ 7͒ F ϭ ͑3x͒͑5x͒ ϩ ͑3x͒͑7͒ Ϫ ͑2͒͑5x͒ Ϫ ͑2͒͑7͒ L 2 ϭ 15x ϩ 21x Ϫ 10x Ϫ 14 ͑3x Ϫ 2͒͑5x ϩ 7͒ I Product of Product of Product of Product of O First terms Outer terms Inner terms Last terms ϭ 15x 2 ϩ 11x Ϫ 14 Note that when using the FOIL Method (which can be used only to multiply two binomials), the outer (O) and inner (I) terms may be like terms that can be combined into one term. Now try Exercise 39. 333371_0P03.qxp 12/27/06 9:31 AM Page 26 26 Chapter P Prerequisites Example 4 The Product of Two Trinomials Find the product of 4x2 ϩ x Ϫ 2 and Ϫx2 ϩ 3x ϩ 5. Solution When multiplying two polynomials, be sure to multiply each term of one polynomial by each term of the other. A vertical format is helpful. 4 x2 ϩ x Ϫ 2 Write in standard form. ϫ Ϫx2 ϩ 3x ϩ 5 Write in standard form. 2 0 x2 ϩ 5x Ϫ 10 5͑4x2 ϩ x Ϫ 2͒ 1 2 x3 ϩ 3x2 Ϫ 6x 3x͑4x2 ϩ x Ϫ 2͒ Ϫ4x4 Ϫ x3 ϩ 2x2 Ϫx2͑4x2 ϩ x Ϫ 2͒ Ϫ4x4 ϩ 11x3 ϩ 25x2 Ϫ x Ϫ 10 Combine like terms. Now try Exercise 59. Special Products Special Products Let u and v be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions. Special Product Example Sum and Difference of Same Terms ͑u ϩ v͒͑u Ϫ v͒ ϭ u 2 Ϫ v 2 ͑x ϩ 4͒͑x Ϫ 4͒ ϭ x 2 Ϫ 42 ϭ x2 Ϫ 16 Square of a Binomial ͑u ϩ v͒2 ϭ u 2 ϩ 2uv ϩ v 2 ͑x ϩ 3͒2 ϭ x 2 ϩ 2͑x͒͑3͒ ϩ 32 ϭ x2 ϩ 6x ϩ 9 ͑u Ϫ v͒2 ϭ u 2 Ϫ 2uv ϩ v 2 ͑3x Ϫ 2͒2 ϭ ͑3x͒2 Ϫ 2͑3x͒͑2͒ ϩ 22 ϭ 9x2 Ϫ 12x ϩ 4 Cube of a Binomial ͑u ϩ v͒3 ϭ u 3 ϩ 3u 2v ϩ 3uv 2 ϩ v 3 ͑x ϩ 2͒3 ϭ x 3 ϩ 3x 2͑2͒ ϩ 3x͑22͒ ϩ 23 ϭ x3 ϩ 6x2 ϩ 12x ϩ 8 ͑u Ϫ v͒3 ϭ u 3 Ϫ 3u 2v ϩ 3uv 2 Ϫ v 3 ͑x Ϫ 1͒3 ϭ x 3 Ϫ 3x 2͑1͒ ϩ 3x͑12͒ Ϫ 13 ϭ x3 Ϫ 3x2 ϩ 3x Ϫ 1 Example 5 The Product of Two Trinomials To understand the individual patterns of special products, have students “derive” Find the product of x ϩ y Ϫ 2 and x ϩ y ϩ 2. each product. Then explain how special products save time and how the pattern of Solution the product must be recognized to factor By grouping x ϩ y in parentheses, you can write the product of the trinomials an expression. as a special product. ͑x ϩ y Ϫ 2͒͑x ϩ y ϩ 2͒ ϭ ͓͑x ϩ y͒ Ϫ 2͔͓͑x ϩ y͒ ϩ 2͔ ϭ ͑x ϩ y͒ 2 Ϫ 22 ϭ x 2 ϩ 2xy ϩ y 2 Ϫ 4 Now try Exercise 61. 333371_0P03.qxp 12/27/06 9:31 AM Page 27 Section P.3 Polynomials and Factoring 27 Factoring The process of writing a polynomial as a product is called factoring. It is an important tool for solving equations and for simplifying rational expressions. Unless noted otherwise, when you are asked to factor a polynomial, you can assume that you are looking for factors with integer coefficients. If a polynomial cannot be factored using integer coefficients, it is prime or irreducible over the integers. For instance, the polynomial x 2 Ϫ 3 is irreducible over the integers. Over the real numbers, this polynomial can be factored as x 2 Ϫ 3 ϭ ͑x ϩ Ί3͒͑x Ϫ Ί3͒. A polynomial is completely factored when each of its factors is prime. So, x 3 Ϫ x 2 ϩ 4x Ϫ 4 ϭ ͑x Ϫ 1͒͑x 2 ϩ 4͒ Completely factored Activities is completely factored, but 1. Explain what happens when the paren- theses are removed from the expression: 3 Ϫ 2 Ϫ ϩ ϭ ͑ Ϫ ͒͑ 2 Ϫ ͒ Not completely factored x x 4x 4 x 1 x 4 Ϫ͑3x2 Ϫ 4x ϩ 2͒. is not completely factored. Its complete factorization is Answer: The sign of each term changes. Ϫ3x2 ϩ 4x Ϫ 2 x 3 Ϫ x 2 Ϫ 4x ϩ 4 ϭ ͑x Ϫ 1͒͑x ϩ 2͒͑x Ϫ 2͒.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Lesson 2: the Multiplication of Polynomials
    NYS COMMON CORE MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM Lesson 2 M1 ALGEBRA II Lesson 2: The Multiplication of Polynomials Student Outcomes . Students develop the distributive property for application to polynomial multiplication. Students connect multiplication of polynomials with multiplication of multi-digit integers. Lesson Notes This lesson begins to address standards A-SSE.A.2 and A-APR.C.4 directly and provides opportunities for students to practice MP.7 and MP.8. The work is scaffolded to allow students to discern patterns in repeated calculations, leading to some general polynomial identities that are explored further in the remaining lessons of this module. As in the last lesson, if students struggle with this lesson, they may need to review concepts covered in previous grades, such as: The connection between area properties and the distributive property: Grade 7, Module 6, Lesson 21. Introduction to the table method of multiplying polynomials: Algebra I, Module 1, Lesson 9. Multiplying polynomials (in the context of quadratics): Algebra I, Module 4, Lessons 1 and 2. Since division is the inverse operation of multiplication, it is important to make sure that your students understand how to multiply polynomials before moving on to division of polynomials in Lesson 3 of this module. In Lesson 3, division is explored using the reverse tabular method, so it is important for students to work through the table diagrams in this lesson to prepare them for the upcoming work. There continues to be a sharp distinction in this curriculum between justification and proof, such as justifying the identity (푎 + 푏)2 = 푎2 + 2푎푏 + 푏 using area properties and proving the identity using the distributive property.
    [Show full text]
  • James Clerk Maxwell
    James Clerk Maxwell JAMES CLERK MAXWELL Perspectives on his Life and Work Edited by raymond flood mark mccartney and andrew whitaker 3 3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries c Oxford University Press 2014 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted First Edition published in 2014 Impression: 1 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2013942195 ISBN 978–0–19–966437–5 Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only.
    [Show full text]
  • Act Mathematics
    ACT MATHEMATICS Improving College Admission Test Scores Contributing Writers Marie Haisan L. Ramadeen Matthew Miktus David Hoffman ACT is a registered trademark of ACT Inc. Copyright 2004 by Instructivision, Inc., revised 2006, 2009, 2011, 2014 ISBN 973-156749-774-8 Printed in Canada. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced in any form or by any means, for commercial or educational use, without permission in writing from the copyright owner. Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to Copyright Permissions, Instructivision, Inc., P.O. Box 2004, Pine Brook, NJ 07058. Instructivision, Inc., P.O. Box 2004, Pine Brook, NJ 07058 Telephone 973-575-9992 or 888-551-5144; fax 973-575-9134, website: www.instructivision.com ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction iv Glossary of Terms vi Summary of Formulas, Properties, and Laws xvi Practice Test A 1 Practice Test B 16 Practice Test C 33 Pre Algebra Skill Builder One 51 Skill Builder Two 57 Skill Builder Three 65 Elementary Algebra Skill Builder Four 71 Skill Builder Five 77 Skill Builder Six 84 Intermediate Algebra Skill Builder Seven 88 Skill Builder Eight 97 Coordinate Geometry Skill Builder Nine 105 Skill Builder Ten 112 Plane Geometry Skill Builder Eleven 123 Skill Builder Twelve 133 Skill Builder Thirteen 145 Trigonometry Skill Builder Fourteen 158 Answer Forms 165 iii INTRODUCTION The American College Testing Program Glossary: The glossary defines commonly used (ACT) is a comprehensive system of data mathematical expressions and many special and collection, processing, and reporting designed to technical words.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 8: Exponents and Polynomials
    Chapter 8 CHAPTER 8: EXPONENTS AND POLYNOMIALS Chapter Objectives By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: Simplify exponential expressions with positive and/or negative exponents Multiply or divide expressions in scientific notation Evaluate polynomials for specific values Apply arithmetic operations to polynomials Apply special-product formulas to multiply polynomials Divide a polynomial by a monomial or by applying long division CHAPTER 8: EXPONENTS AND POLYNOMIALS ........................................................................................ 211 SECTION 8.1: EXPONENTS RULES AND PROPERTIES ........................................................................... 212 A. PRODUCT RULE OF EXPONENTS .............................................................................................. 212 B. QUOTIENT RULE OF EXPONENTS ............................................................................................. 212 C. POWER RULE OF EXPONENTS .................................................................................................. 213 D. ZERO AS AN EXPONENT............................................................................................................ 214 E. NEGATIVE EXPONENTS ............................................................................................................. 214 F. PROPERTIES OF EXPONENTS .................................................................................................... 215 EXERCISE ..........................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • A Guide for Postgraduates and Teaching Assistants
    Teaching Mathematics – a guide for postgraduates and teaching assistants Bill Cox and Michael Grove Teaching Mathematics – a guide for postgraduates and teaching assistants BILL COX Aston University and MICHAEL GROVE University of Birmingham Published by The Maths, Stats & OR Network September 2012 © 2012 The Maths, Stats & OR Network All rights reserved www.mathstore.ac.uk ISBN 978-0-9569171-4-0 Production Editing: Dagmar Waller. Design & Layout: Chantal Jackson Printed by lulu.com. ii iii Contents About the authors vii Preface ix Acknowledgements xi 1 Getting started as a postgraduate teaching mathematics 1 1.1 Teaching is not easy – an analogy 1 1.2 A teaching mathematics checklist 1 1.3 General points in working with students 3 1.4 Motivating and enthusing students and encouraging participation 8 1.5 Preparing for teaching 12 2 Running exercise classes 19 2.1 Exercise and problem classes 19 2.2 Preparation for exercise classes 20 2.3 Starting the session off 23 2.4 Keeping things going 24 2.5 Explaining to students 26 2.6 Working through problems on the board 28 2.7 Maintaining a productive working atmosphere 29 3 Supervising small discussion groups 33 3. 1 Discussion groups in mathematics 33 3.2 Benefits of small discussion groups 33 3.3 The mathematics of small group teaching 34 3.4 Preparation for small group discussion 36 3.5 Keeping things moving and engaging students 37 4 An introduction to lecturing: presenting and communicating mathematics 39 4.1 Introduction 39 4.2 The mathematics of presentations 39 4.3 Planning and preparing
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 1 More About Factorization of Polynomials 1A P.2 1B P.9 1C P.17
    Chapter 1 More about Factorization of Polynomials 1A p.2 1B p.9 1C p.17 1D p.25 1E p.32 Chapter 2 Laws of Indices 2A p.39 2B p.49 2C p.57 2D p.68 Chapter 3 Percentages (II) 3A p.74 3B p.83 3C p.92 3D p.99 3E p.107 3F p.119 For any updates of this book, please refer to the subject homepage: http://teacher.lkl.edu.hk/subject%20homepage/MAT/index.html For mathematics problems consultation, please email to the following address: [email protected] For Maths Corner Exercise, please obtain from the cabinet outside Room 309 1 F3A: Chapter 1A Date Task Progress ○ Complete and Checked Lesson Worksheet ○ Problems encountered ○ Skipped (Full Solution) ○ Complete Book Example 1 ○ Problems encountered ○ Skipped (Video Teaching) ○ Complete Book Example 2 ○ Problems encountered ○ Skipped (Video Teaching) ○ Complete Book Example 3 ○ Problems encountered ○ Skipped (Video Teaching) ○ Complete Book Example 4 ○ Problems encountered ○ Skipped (Video Teaching) ○ Complete Book Example 5 ○ Problems encountered ○ Skipped (Video Teaching) ○ Complete Book Example 6 ○ Problems encountered ○ Skipped (Video Teaching) ○ Complete and Checked Consolidation Exercise ○ Problems encountered ○ Skipped (Full Solution) ○ Complete and Checked Maths Corner Exercise Teacher’s ○ Problems encountered ___________ 1A Level 1 Signature ○ Skipped ( ) ○ Complete and Checked Maths Corner Exercise Teacher’s ○ Problems encountered ___________ 1A Level 2 Signature ○ Skipped ( ) 2 ○ Complete and Checked Maths Corner Exercise Teacher’s ○ Problems encountered ___________ 1A Level 3
    [Show full text]
  • A Collection of Problems in Differential Calculus
    A Collection of Problems in Differential Calculus Problems Given At the Math 151 - Calculus I and Math 150 - Calculus I With Review Final Examinations Department of Mathematics, Simon Fraser University 2000 - 2010 Veselin Jungic · Petra Menz · Randall Pyke Department Of Mathematics Simon Fraser University c Draft date December 6, 2011 To my sons, my best teachers. - Veselin Jungic Contents Contents i Preface 1 Recommendations for Success in Mathematics 3 1 Limits and Continuity 11 1.1 Introduction . 11 1.2 Limits . 13 1.3 Continuity . 17 1.4 Miscellaneous . 18 2 Differentiation Rules 19 2.1 Introduction . 19 2.2 Derivatives . 20 2.3 Related Rates . 25 2.4 Tangent Lines and Implicit Differentiation . 28 3 Applications of Differentiation 31 3.1 Introduction . 31 3.2 Curve Sketching . 34 3.3 Optimization . 45 3.4 Mean Value Theorem . 50 3.5 Differential, Linear Approximation, Newton's Method . 51 i 3.6 Antiderivatives and Differential Equations . 55 3.7 Exponential Growth and Decay . 58 3.8 Miscellaneous . 61 4 Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates 65 4.1 Introduction . 65 4.2 Parametric Curves . 67 4.3 Polar Coordinates . 73 4.4 Conic Sections . 77 5 True Or False and Multiple Choice Problems 81 6 Answers, Hints, Solutions 93 6.1 Limits . 93 6.2 Continuity . 96 6.3 Miscellaneous . 98 6.4 Derivatives . 98 6.5 Related Rates . 102 6.6 Tangent Lines and Implicit Differentiation . 105 6.7 Curve Sketching . 107 6.8 Optimization . 117 6.9 Mean Value Theorem . 125 6.10 Differential, Linear Approximation, Newton's Method . 126 6.11 Antiderivatives and Differential Equations .
    [Show full text]
  • Geometry 2014: Notes and Exercises
    Geometry 2014: Notes and Exercises Sophie M. Fosson [email protected] June 5, 2014 ii These notes follow my exercise classes in chronological order; • are a support to student practice; • do not cover the whole course; • include some theory reminders; • include the exercises proposed during my exercise classes; • include further material and exercises; • are sure to contain several mistakes; • shall be updated every two-three weeks; • are expected to be enhanced by student feedback (that is, if you find any • mistakes please tell me! by email). Thank you, s.m.f. Contents 1 Week 1 1 1.1 Introduction to matrices . .1 1.2 Homogeneous linear systems . .2 1.3 Determinant . .4 1.4 Cramer's rule . .4 2 Week 2 7 2.1 Matrix reduction and rank . .7 2.2 Linear systems . .8 2.3 Matrix inversion . .9 3 Week 3 11 3.1 Rn as vector space . 11 3.2 Bases and dimension . 12 3.3 Products between vectors . 13 4 Week 4 15 4.1 Vector spaces . 15 4.2 Back to RN : straight lines and planes . 17 4.3 Lines and planes in R3: Cartesian Equations . 17 4.4 When a plane is a subspace? . 18 4.5 Geometric description of linear systems' solutions . 18 4.6 Geometric description of linear systems' solutions . 19 5 Week 5 21 5.1 Linear mappings . 21 5.2 Matrix associated with a linear mapping . 23 6 Week 6 25 6.1 Endomorphisms . 25 6.2 Eigenvectors, eigenvalues . 25 6.3 Multiple choice quizzes . 26 7 Week 7 29 7.1 Extra material .
    [Show full text]
  • The Importance of Equity in Mathematics Education 1
    The Importance of Equity in Mathematics Education 1 The Importance of Equity in Mathematics Education Brooke McDonald Georgia College & State University EQUITY IN MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 2 Abstract The extent to which equitable practices can be attained in education depends heavily on educators, teaching methods, and support for individual students’ needs. Equity is a concept that is defined by the NCTM as supplying “high expectations and strong support for all students.” (NCTM, 2000) Students that can learn and expand on their knowledge of mathematics in equitable environments are more likely to embrace and accomplish a sense of the importance of mathematics in relation to their own education. In this study, we will analyze the characteristics of an equitable learning environment in mathematics classrooms, and it is our goal to see to what extent teachers are implementing equitable practices in their classrooms daily. We also hope to see how equity can positively impact how individuals’ study and learn mathematical concepts. Keywords: equity, high expectations, support EQUITY IN MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 3 The Importance of Equity in Mathematics Education Creating equitable learning environments for many educators involves different approaches. In other words, what one educator may deem important for equitable learning environments may not be as important to another educator. Furthermore, there is no precise recipe for equity in mathematics. However, many researchers have made advances to define how we as mathematics educators can create equitable learning environments. For our research study, we chose to focus on five themes that represent equity in mathematics education. The idea is that if these themes are implemented, the classroom environment will attain equity.
    [Show full text]
  • Exercises for 8.3 8.4 QR-Factorization
    8.4. QR-Factorization 437 Exercises for 8.3 Exercise 8.3.1 Find the Cholesky decomposition of Exercise 8.3.8 Let A0 be formed from A by deleting each of the following matrices. rows 2 and 4 and deleting columns 2 and 4. If A is posi- tive definite, show that A0 is positive definite. 4 3 2 1 a. b. − Exercise 8.3.9 If A is positive definite, show that 3 5 1 1 T − A = CC where C has orthogonal columns. 12 4 3 20 4 5 Exercise 8.3.10 If A is positive definite, show that c. 4 2 1 d. 4 2 3 − A = C2 where C is positive definite. 3 1 7 5 3 5 − Exercise 8.3.11 Let A be a positive definite matrix. If a Exercise 8.3.2 is a real number, show that aA is positive definite if and only if a > 0. k a. If A is positive definite, show that A is positive Exercise 8.3.12 definite for all k 1. ≥ a. Suppose an invertible matrix A can be factored in b. Prove the converse to (a) when k is odd. Mnn as A = LDU where L is lower triangular with c. Find a symmetric matrix A such that A2 is positive 1s on the diagonal, U is upper triangular with 1s definite but A is not. on the diagonal, and D is diagonal with positive diagonal entries. Show that the factorization is 1 a unique: If A = L1D1U1 is another such factoriza- Exercise 8.3.3 Let A = .
    [Show full text]
  • Exercising Mathematical Authority: Three Cases of Preservice Teachers’ Algebraic Justifications Priya V
    The Mathematics Educator 2019 Vol. 28, No. 2, 3–32 Exercising Mathematical Authority: Three Cases of Preservice Teachers’ Algebraic Justifications Priya V. Prasad and Victoria Barron Students’ ability to reason for themselves is a crucial step in developing conceptual understandings of mathematics, especially if those students are preservice teachers. Even if classroom environments are structured to promote students’ reasoning and sense-making, students may rely on prior procedural knowledge to justify their mathematical arguments. In this study, we employed a multiple-case-study research design to investigate how groups of elementary preservice teachers exercised their mathematical authority on a growing visual patterns task. The results of this study emphasize that even when mathematics teacher educators create classroom environments that delegate mathematical authority to learners, they still need to attend to the strength of preservice teachers’ reliance on their prior knowledge. Self-efficacy in mathematics depends on having a sense of mathematical authority (Keazer & Menon, 2016; Lloyd & Wilson, 2000; Webel, 2010); that is, learners of mathematics need to rely on their own sense-making in mathematics in order to develop conceptual understandings of mathematics. It is of particular importance that mathematics teacher educators provide preservice teachers (PSTs) opportunities for developing mathematical authority for two reasons: (a) As future teachers, PSTs need to be able to trust their own mathematical self- efficacy (Ball, 1990); and (b) experiencing a mathematics class in which mathematical authority is shared can encourage PSTs to share authority with their students in their own future classrooms. However, elementary PSTs may have limited experience with sense-making in their own schooling, causing Priya V.
    [Show full text]
  • Effects of Vigorous Intensity Physical Activity on Mathematics Test Performance
    Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 2015, 34, 346 -362 http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.2014-0030 © 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc. ARTICLE Effects of Vigorous Intensity Physical Activity on Mathematics Test Performance David Phillips Southern Utah University James C. Hannon West Virginia University Darla M. Castelli University of Texas at Austin The effect of an acute bout of physical activity on academic performance in school-based settings is under researched. The purpose of this study was to examine associations between a single, vigorous (70–85%) bout of physical activity completed during physical education on standardized mathematics test performance among 72, eighth grade students at a school in the Southwestern United States. Students received both a physical activity and nonactive condition, in a repeated measures design. Academic performance measures were collected at 30 and 45-minutes post condition. It was hypothesized that students would have greater gains in mathematics test scores post physical activity condition compared with post nonactive condition. Results reported students achieved 11–22% higher math scores at 30 minutes post physical activity condition compared with other time points (45 minutes post PA, 30 and 45 minutes post sedentary) (F(1, 68) = 14.42, p < .001, d = .90). Findings suggest that physical activity may facilitate academic performance in math. Keywords: physical education, academic achievement Current literature supports the notion that physically active and physically fit students academically outperform inactive and unfit classmates (Castelli et al., 2011; Coe, Pivarnik & Malina, 2006; Donnelly et al., 2009; Grissom, 2005; Howie & Pate, 2012, Welk et al., 2010). Even though the effect of physical activity (PA) (bodily movement that increases energy expenditure, Darst, & Pangrazi, 2009) on academic performance (AP) is a well-documented line of inquiry, findings have historically Phillips is with the Physical Education and Human Performance Dept.
    [Show full text]