© Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education ISSN: 2166-2681 Volume 2, Issue 2, 2014 ittc-web.astate.edu/ojs

Conceptualizing the NET: The Neuroeducation Translational (NET) Research Model – A Framework for Neuroscience Research to Special Education Practice

Sagarika Kosaraju, Mary Ann Gorman, Katherine Berry

George Washington University

ABSTRACT

Advances in neuroscience related to developmental disorders could substantially impact individuals with disabilities and the field of special education. However, several challenges impede the current translation of neuroscience research for special education practice, such as misinterpretations of neuroscience findings. An investigation of translational research in medicine and social sciences revealed a common conceptual framework founded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Using this model as a guide, the authors introduce a new framework, the Neuroeducation Translational (NET) Research Model, to scaffold neuroscience research from the laboratory to special education practice in four phases. Potential benefits to developing a framework for neuroeducation include improved outcomes for individuals with disabilities and knowledge sharing across disciplines.

Keywords: neuroeducation, neuroscience research, special education, transdisciplinary, translational research

al., 2011). Findings suggest that emotions Researchers in neuroscience are now may affect all aspects of learning, including exploring how cognition, motivation, behavior memory, attention, decision-making, and and other brain processes are connected to social functioning (Bechara, 2005; Damasio, learning (Basset et al., 2011; Howard-Jones, 2005; Gazzaniga, Ivry, & Mangum, 2009; 2010). Advances in brain imaging have Goswami, 2008; Immordino-Yang, 2008; confirmed that the brain is plastic into Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007). adulthood, and neural pathways can change Research in neuroscience may have based on environmental experiences (Chiao & profound implications for individuals with Immordino-Yang, 2013; Giedd, 2009; Gogtay disabilities. Scientists currently are et al., 2007; Lenroot & Giedd, 2008; Lerner et

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investigating a biological basis for intervention research. For example, education neurodevelopmental disabilities, such as researchers have examined neural activity in autism, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder children and adolescents with ASD when (ADHD), and dyslexia (Barrett, Coyle, & interpreting a speaker’s ironic communicative Williams, 2012; Katzir & Pare-Blagoev, intent. When the youth were taught specific 2006). Magnetoencephalographic (MEG) strategies to process a speaker’s facial studies measuring brain activity in real time expressions, tone, and voice, they exhibited have revealed atypical brain activity with increased activity in the brain regions involved auditory processing and stimulus responses in in understanding a speaker’s intentions (i.e., children with autism spectrum disorders medial prefrontal cortex; Wang, Lee, Sigman, (ASD; Barrett et al., 2012; Oram Cardy, Flagg, & Dapretto, 2007). Roberts, Brian, & Roberts, 2005; Roberts et Researchers also have utilized brain al., 2010). Brain imaging studies have imaging techniques to better understand the detected differences in size and activity in the neurological underpinnings of dyslexia (Lyon prefrontal cortex (PFC) for individuals with & Moats, 1997; Shaywitz et al., 2003; Temple ADHD that relate to challenges with et al., 2003). Brain imaging has suggested that organization, concentration, and hyperactivity individuals with dyslexia who receive targeted (Barrett et al., 2012; Makris et al., 2007; interventions begin to demonstrate brain Seidman et al., 2006). Findings from activation patterns similar to children without neuroimaging studies focused on literacy have reading disorders, as well as activation in other shown decreased activity in the posterior brain brain areas to compensate for challenges with regions and increased activity in the anterior language processing (Katzir & Pare-Blagoev, brain regions of adults with dyslexia while 2006). For example, one study (Shaywitz et completing phonological activities (Katzir & al., 2004) investigated the effect of a targeted Pare-Blagoev, 2006). phonologically mediated reading intervention These findings offer new insights into on fluency and the development of neural the various brain processes for individuals systems associated with skilled reading. The with disabilities. However, education intervention provided second and third grade researchers and practitioners have achieved poor readers with 50 minutes of daily limited success in directly applying individual tutoring focused on helping them neuroscience research to special education understand how letters and combinations of practice. A new conceptual framework, letters represent phonemes. Children’s brain inspired by the National Institutes of Health activity was measured using fMRI before and (NIH) Roadmap that is utilized by biological after the intervention. Findings of the study and social science researchers is needed to showed that the phonologically-based reading carefully scaffold and integrate these findings intervention led to development of neural effectively to the field of special education. systems in the inferior frontal gyrus and the The Neuroeducation Translational (NET) middle temporal gyrus. This research suggests Research Model is proposed to advance that providing a phonologically-based reading translational research in special education. intervention at an early age could improve reading fluency and promote development of Current Status of Application of neural systems that are necessary for skilled Neuroscience to Educational Practice reading (Shaywitz & Shaywitz, 2005). These studies highlight the initial attempts and To a limited extent, researchers already exciting potential for future intervention are applying neuroscience findings to research in which neuroscientists and

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education researchers collaborate to improve activities, indicating that both the left and right cognitive and social skills for individuals with sides of the brain are involved in all tasks. disabilities. An additional neuromyth relates to the Despite advances in brain imaging and promotion of learning styles. Howard-Jones intervention research, practitioners are (2010) suggests that the belief that individuals struggling to translate findings from can be categorized by their preferred learning neuroscience to improve strategies for style stems from misinterpretations of teaching and learning. Attempts to translate neuroimaging studies that produced “static neuroscience findings to education often fail pictures of well-defined islands of activity” (p. because teachers’ understanding of 25). In actuality, performance of learning neuroscience is misguided by the prevalence tasks requires complex interactions and of neuromyths, (i.e., common misconceptions activation of multiple areas of the brain during about the application of brain research to learning. relevant uses in education, which reflect The prevalence of neuromyths overgeneralizations and misinterpretations of demonstrates a need for translational research neuroscience findings; Goswami, 2006). Over to assist educators to effectively apply findings the past two decades, a proliferation of books from neuroscience research to program and identifying applications of brain research to strategy development for improving student educational practice has spurred great impetus learning. Successful translation of among educators to apply information about neuroscience may deepen teachers’ brain-based learning to their curricula and understanding of the diverse ways in which teaching methods (Freed & Parsons, 1998; students acquire knowledge and influence Lucas, 2006; Luhmkuhl, 1993; Tokuhama- environmental factors related to learning in the Espinosa, 2011). Neuromyths and over- classroom. Critical to the translational process interpretations of neuroscientific studies are is that educators share their knowledge, skills, embedded in many of these applications, and and experiences about teaching and learning educators typically are not trained to identify with neuroscientists. Educators can serve as valid and effective brain-based research, an important resource for neuroscientists in synthesize research findings, or transfer these developing relevant research questions and ideas into everyday classroom practice. effective interventions for individuals with Common neuroscientific neurodevelopmental disorders. misconceptions held by teachers include: (1) Given the challenges in translating the need to time educational interventions with neuroscience research to special education and periods of synaptogenesis; (2) the belief in the potential benefits of successful translation, critical periods for learning; and (3) the idea of education researchers can learn from hemisphere-specific differences within the translational research models currently being brain (Goswami, 2004). Goswami (2004) used in other disciplines, such as medicine and refutes each of these myths, noting that: (1) the social sciences. educational interventions and remediation programs do not need to coincide with periods Translation of Neuroscience Research in of synaptogenesis as brain plasticity continues Medicine throughout a lifespan; (2) although sensitive periods of learning exist, learning occurs By the 21st century, scientific discovery outside of these sensitive periods; and (3) in medicine, including the fields of biology, findings from brain imaging reveal cross- chemistry, genetics, and health science, was hemispheric connections during all learning rapidly accelerating (Zerhouni, 2003).

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Research in clinical practice in the United translational science. In 2007, the NIH States, however, was not expanding as announced the launch of a national quickly. As a result, knowledge from the consortium, to be funded through Clinical and medical community about common biological Translational Science Awards (CTSAs), to pathways was not applied effectively to ensure that advances in medical research developing therapeutic approaches to treating benefitted patients and their families. The health conditions. On average, it took 17 years CTSA program supports two critical areas of for scientific discoveries to be applied in daily translational research: (1) applying discoveries clinical practice, and only 14% of these from laboratory research and preclinical trials discoveries were translated into work with to the development of studies for humans; and patients (Balas & Boren, 2000). Doubling of (2) enhancing the implementation of best the NIH budget between 1998-2003 (NIH, practices in the community (Zerhouni, 2007). 2013) raised public expectations to improve Emphasis is placed on “creating graduate clinical practice. In an effort to accelerate the degree-granting and postgraduate programs in translation of basic research into tests and clinical and translational science” (Zerhouni, treatments to enhance clinical practice and to 2007, p. 127) and training “investigators from benefit patients, the NIH consulted with the diverse disciplines for effective translational scientific community and public constituencies research” (Zerhouni, 2007, p. 127). Currently, to develop a roadmap or model to translate approximately 61 medical research centers in basic scientific research for medicine 30 states and the District of Columbia are (Zerhouni, 2003). active members of the CTSA consortium. Three major themes emerged from the NIH Roadmap for Medical Research: New Translational Research in Social Sciences Pathways to Discovery, Research Teams of the Future, and Re-engineering the Clinical The social sciences, including the Research Enterprise (Zerhouni, 2003). The fields of communications, economics, family New Pathways to Discovery theme violence, mental health, nursing, psychology, emphasized the need for quantitative sociology, and social work, utilize the NIH knowledge about networks of molecules, and Roadmap as a guide for developing how they regulate and interact with each other. translational research efforts (Palinkas & Research Teams of the Future encouraged Soydan, 2012). Professionals in the social scientists to reach beyond the boundaries of sciences seek to support the translation of their own disciplines by exploring models for medical research by utilizing basic scientific team science, which examines ways to investigations to promote the well-being and combine skills and expertise across the health of patients, practitioners, and the physical and biological sciences. Re- community (Wethington & Dunifon, 2012). In engineering the Clinical Research Enterprise child psychology, for example, researchers promoted the creation of integrated networks aim to advance basic findings towards the to develop new partnerships among clinicians, creation of new treatments and the prevention community stakeholders, and academic of physical, behavioral, and emotional researchers (Zerhouni, 2003). problems for children (Cicchetti & Gunnar, The NIH Roadmap informed a new 2009). In the field of nursing, researchers initiative for conducting research; however, evaluate the effects of scientific discoveries efforts to advance translational research using and interventions to develop evidence-based the Roadmap were hindered by a shortage of practices and to improve clinical decisions in research scientists trained in clinical and health care (Mulnard, 2011).

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Community-Based Participatory language disabilities and their families. KTTP Research (CPBR), which involves members of focuses on addressing the special needs of the public as partners in the research process, students by partnering with parents, teachers, provides another way to translate research in speech language pathologists, and other related the social sciences (Callard, Rose, & Wykes, service providers. Other research initiatives at 2011). The National Institute for Health education and brain science laboratories Research (NIHR) maintains a database, investigate the neural correlates of children’s INVOLVE, that lists current and recent CBPR learning through partnerships with projects. Representative research projects professionals in the fields of education, include: (1) developing user-focused psychology, and neuroscience. Exemplary evaluations to support people with mental projects at education and brain science health problems by promoting dialogue laboratories focus on children’s struggles to between service users and project workers; and read and to develop comprehension skills, as (2) evaluating a crisis house and telephone well as strategies to design interventions to helpline by training mental health service users support these skills (Vanderbilt Kennedy as researchers who interview and send out Center, 2013). For individuals with autism, questionnaires (NIHR, 2013). The NIH’s translational research studies include: (1) using Office of Behavioral and Social Science functional near spectroscopy (fNIRS) during Research (OBSSR) also funds CBPR grant therapy sessions to improve treatment and (2) projects, including one that assesses the impact examining brain responses to social/nonsocial of a CBPR school program on obesity-related rewards through electroencephalography outcomes in underserved youth and another (EEG) and event-related potential methods that uses Photovoice to engage community (ERP; Autism Speaks, 2013). members in promoting cancer awareness (U.S. Despite efforts to establish Department of Health and Human Services, relationships and infrastructures to conduct 2013). research and advance knowledge across disciplines, the field of education lacks a clear Translational Research in Education framework for translating knowledge from neuroscience laboratories to classrooms. The field of education currently does not utilize the NIH Roadmap in attempting to Obstacles to Translational Research in translate brain research to educational Education interventions. Although CBPR commonly is used in education, professionals have yet to Obstacles that have hindered apply this approach to translational research. translational research efforts in education To date, translational research in education include the infrastructure and organization of focuses on developing partnerships to support research programs and environments, the dissemination of findings and the differences in intended outcomes among implementation of evidence-based practices disciplines, and prioritization of resources and and programs (Beeghley, 2006; Boden, inadequate funding streams. First, the Borrego, & Newswander, 2011; McFadden, infrastructure and organization of research Chen, Munroe, Naftzger & Sellinger, 2010; programs has generated research silos in which Obendorf, 2010). The KIDTALK TACTICS researchers from neuroscience, the social Project (KTTP), for example, is a community- sciences, and education rarely interact or based, early communication intervention collaborate (Szilagyi, 2009). Because research model for young children with significant studies are specific and narrowly focused

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within a single discipline, researchers rarely budget of $372 million (Carroll, 2012) well “connect the dots along the translational exceeded the DOE’s budget of $200 million pathway” (Szilagyi, 2009, p. 72). Moreover, that was appropriated for research, the research environment includes a limited development, and dissemination. The number of qualified investigators and difference in these budgets highlights the insufficient training opportunities for funding obstacle in translating neuroscience translational researchers in education and the findings to education. social sciences (Szilagyi, 2009). Second, research goals differ across Future Directions: Developing a disciplines, which may hinder bidirectional Neuroeducation Model communication and knowledge sharing. Due to the different goals for practice, neuroscience Although a range of models could researchers may employ methods and potentially contribute to progressing scientific procedures distinct from those utilized by research to improve teaching and learning, the education researchers. The goals of medical NIH Roadmap serves as a foundational model research include a focus on the examination, and practical starting point for developing a diagnosis, and treatment of patients. conceptual framework for translational Education researchers, rather than being driven research in special education. to find a cure, are concerned with supporting the development and optimization of an Adapting the NIH Roadmap individual’s quality of life. A final obstacle reflects insufficient The NIH Roadmap remains the most funding for translational research targeting widely used model in translational research for educational needs. The majority of funding is medicine and social sciences. The Roadmap reserved for medical science research at the provides a flexible paradigm for translational molecular and cellular level; few funds are research that educators might adapt to align allocated for studies involving students, with the needs of students in special education. clinical practice, or public health (Szilagyi, The NIH Roadmap describes four major 2009). Two organizations within the phases or progressions to translational Department of Health and Human Services research: (1) relating findings from animal (HHS) fund much of the translational research laboratory research to humans; (2) explicating for medical and health-related fields: the human laboratory results to patients; (3) National Center for Advancing Translational advancing work with patients to develop Sciences (NCATS) and the Agency for treatments for clinical practice; and (4) Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ). utilizing knowledge from clinical practice to NCATS focuses on translating research to benefit the community and inform policy. develop more effective and efficient Modifying the NIH Roadmap may treatments and cures for disease (NCATSa, allow researchers from varied disciplines to 2013). Last year, NCATS received $574 recognize how the process for education is million in funding from the NIH (NCATSb, both similar to and different from the 2013), three times the entire U.S. Department translational research process in medicine. of Education (DOE) budget for research, Because professionals working in translational development, and dissemination (DOE, 2013). research across disciplines are familiar with AHRQ funds research to improve the quality the NIH Roadmap, adapting the framework to of health care and effectiveness of health care education may be advantageous to establishing delivery (AHRQ, 2013). In 2010, the AHRQ partnerships with organizations in medicine

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and social sciences. Ideally, all professionals translational work by communicating their will share the mission of bringing forth needs, inspiring research questions, and advancements in research from the laboratory developing neuroeducation practices in to the community. professional development, teacher preparation Most importantly, basic research in programs, and special education policy. The neuroscience cannot be directly applied to phases are bidirectional, which allows for education practice. Although laboratory researchers in each phase to inform and results from intervention research may prove improve the translational work in the other effective, the same intervention may not prove phases. For neuroscientists to inform effective in a classroom because of significant areas of need in the practice of methodological differences. Laboratory teaching, they will need to develop a stronger research is conducted in a controlled appreciation for the contribution of education environment, whereas research conducted in research to the development of neuroscience the community is mainly context-driven studies (Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2011). (Kerner, 2006; Mulnard, 2011; Slavin, 2002). Neuroscientists who use proven interventions Similar to medicine, translational research from education may find stronger results in must be based on sound methodology and brain-imaging studies (Bishop, 2013). scaffolded in phases before Similarly, educators need to understand how to neuroscientifically-based interventions are interpret specific neuroscience research for embedded into special education practice. education before they attempt to apply A reconceptualized model of findings to effective educational interventions translational research for special education, and practice. specifically for neurodevelopmental disorders, Translational research within the NET the Neuroeducation Translational (NET) Model is transdisciplinary in nature, meaning Research Model, includes four phases to “researchers work jointly using [a] shared communicate neuroscience research findings conceptual framework drawing together to educators for informing special education disciplinary-specific theories, concepts, and practice: (1) connecting knowledge gained approaches to address [a] common problem” from neuroscientific studies to intervention (Rosenfield, 1992; p. 1351). The NET Model research; (2) developing pilot studies for involves multiple disciplines working educational settings based on intervention collaboratively to undertake the common results; (3) expanding pilot studies to conduct problem of translating neuroscientific research larger cross-sectional, or longitudinal studies to enhance special education practices. that bring neuroscience findings to teaching practice; and (4) integrating successful NET Phase 1 neuroeducation practices and foundational In the first phase of the NET Model, neuroscience knowledge to improve findings from neuroscientific research with professional development, teacher preparation humans are applied to intervention research, programs, and special education policy. which is defined as testing a specific, At the center of the NET Model are controlled condition to improve a behavior, education stakeholders, including students performance, or skill. Intervention research with disabilities and their families, general and requires the development of research questions special education professionals, related service with educational applications, and is personnel, school administrators, and conducted in a restricted setting with selected policymakers in the community. The participants. Results from intervention stakeholders inform all four phases of research are useful for investigating how the

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brain adapts to an external educational NET Phase 4 condition, such as a teaching or learning In the last phase of the NET Model, strategy. neuroeducation practices that are effective in large-scale studies are integrated into NET Phase 2 professional development programs and In the second phase of the NET Model, special education policies. Similar to other pilot studies are created from intervention disciplines, research is scaffolded along the research findings and implemented in progression from laboratory research to educational settings to improve student education practice resulting in improved outcomes. Because education research is outcomes for teaching and learning. By largely context-driven, translating intervention carefully vetting neuroscience findings research to educational settings is an essential through the first three phases of step in neuroeducation translational work. neuroeducation translational research (NET Educational settings vary across development Phases 1-3), professionals and policymakers from home-based early intervention for can embed practices shown to significantly children birth through three years of age to improve educational outcomes. postsecondary or vocational rehabilitation training for adults. Research must be adapted NET Research Model Example for each type of setting. In developing pilot studies, scientists collaborate with educators to A hypothetical case study demonstrates effectively transform intervention research to how to apply the NET Model to benefit an education practice that aligns with specific individuals with disabilities in special needs of individuals in an educational setting. education. In NET Phase 1, researchers connect knowledge gained from NET Phase 3 neuroscientific studies to intervention In the third phase of the NET Model, research. In this hypothetical example, results from educational environments are neuroscience findings about the amygdala may applied to large-scale studies to impact assist in creating an effective transdisciplinary learning. A large-scale study may take the special education intervention for young form of a random sampling of classrooms at children with autism. Recent findings from the district, state or national level, or a studies in brain-imaging with human subjects longitudinal study to determine the have suggested that decreased connectivity effectiveness of brain-based educational among brain regions may result in barriers to practices in teaching. For instance, because responses to complex social situations. research outcomes conducted in an urban K-12 Specifically, the activity patterns in the classroom often differ from those of a rural amygdala, an area of the brain that assesses classroom, studies are needed to examine danger in a situation and assists in the whether practices grounded in neuroscience decision-making for an appropriate response prove valuable across a broad spectrum of (along with other regions of the brain) may be educational environments. Other potential related to social and emotional deficits in studies might target specific teacher individuals with autism. Brain-imaging characteristics (i.e., veteran vs. novice) or studies have indicated that amygdala disability categories. hypoactivity and sometimes hyperactivity were related to several social tasks, like eye gaze and facial processing (Buxbaum & Hof, 2012). Video modeling, for instance, is a

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well-known and effective strategy and various geographic settings. In a large- implemented by educators for individuals with scale study, video modeling may prove autism to practice “the natural interactions of beneficial for students with autism in inclusive children in social situations” (Luiselli, Russo, classrooms or when implemented by teachers Christian, & Wilczynski, 2008, p. 290). This who have over five years of experience. intervention involves recording a short video Ultimately, cross-sectional studies could clip of an individual with autism interacting provide an opportunity for deeper analysis of with a peer or an adult to teach a specific interventions to determine which learners and social skill. Through translational research, contexts showed greater improvements than education researchers, teachers, and others. neuroscientists could collaborate to provide Provided the intervention proves added validity to this frequently used teaching effective in multiple education environments, strategy. Creating a study in which activity in the research would advance to NET Phase 4, the amygdala and other brain regions is in which professionals integrate successful measured before and after the implementation neuroeducation practices and foundational of the education intervention (i.e., the use of neuroscience knowledge to improve video modeling) could allow researchers to professional development, teacher preparation better understand the relation between the programs, and special education policy. In intervention and students’ comprehension of this case, video modeling would be integrated social situations and anxiety levels. in teacher education to enhance Results of this and other studies understandings of social situations and reduce concerning brain-imaging and social situations anxiety for individuals with autism. The might inform development of a pilot study in strategy also could be tested with children with NET Phase 2 to teach the visual strategy in a other disabilities to determine its effectiveness. classroom setting. An initial study might Once validated, the use of video modeling entail evaluating the effects of teacher- could be recommended in future special implemented video modeling with individual education policy. Although this tool is not students in a special education classroom. new to the education community, a Over time, other pilot studies could be created transdisciplinary approach to supporting their in which teachers use video modeling with use and the scaffolding of research in refining small groups of children in a special education the teaching of the strategy provides an resource classroom or in an inclusive setting. example of how neuroeducation may be able NET Phase 3 involves scaling up pilot to influence educational outcomes for students studies to larger cross-sectional or longitudinal with disabilities. studies that bring neuroscience findings to teaching practice. At this point, outcomes Implications of Developing a Framework from the pilot studies in NET Phase 2 could be transformed and adapted to meet the needs of Many benefits exist for establishing a several classrooms in a school district, and framework for translating findings from the eventually, a random sample of classrooms at NIH Roadmap to support individuals with the state or national level. Results from cross- neurodevelopmental disorders. Educators will sectional studies would determine if the be better equipped to circumvent the extant intervention is successful across varied obstacles related to the translation of research environments and contexts such as type of findings to the community. Once education disability, level of classroom inclusiveness, researchers have an informed, conceptual classroom diversity, teacher characteristics, method of applying neuroscience findings to

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http://kc.vanderbilt.edu/educationandbrainl About the Authors ab/ Wang, A. T., Lee, S. S., Sigman, M., & Sagarika R. Kosaraju recently completed her Dapretto, M. (2007). Reading affect in the Ed. D. from The George Washington face and voice: Neural correlates of University and was a research assistant at The interpreting communicative intent in Center for Applied Developmental Science children and adolescents with Autism and Neuroeducation. Spectrum Disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 698-708. Mary Ann Gorman is a doctoral candidate at Wethington, E. & Dunifon, R. E. (2012). The George Washington University and Research for the public good: Applying research assistant at The Center for Applied methods of translational research to Developmental Science and Neuroeducation. improve human health and well being. Washington, DC: American Psychological Katherine A. Berry is a doctoral candidate at Association. The George Washington University and Zerhouni, E. (2003). The NIH roadmap. research assistant at The Center for Applied Science 302(5642), 63-72. Developmental Science and Neuroeducation. Zerhouni, E. A. (2007). Translational research: Moving discovery to practice. Nature 81(1), 126-128.

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