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Propulsion Systems for Aircraft. Aerospace Education

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Propulsion Systems for Aircraft. Aerospace Education DOCUMENT RESUME ED 068 292 SE 014 556 AUTHOR Mackin, T. E. TITLE Propulsion Systems forAircraft. Aerospace Education II. INSTITUTION Air Univ., Maxwell AFB,Ala. Junior Reserve Office Training Corps. SPONS AGENCY Department of Defense,Washington, D.C. PUB DATE 69 NOTE 128p. EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$6.58 DESCRIPTORS *Aerospace Education; *Aerospace Technology; *Engines; Instruction; *Physical Sciences; *Resource Materials; Supplementary Textbooks; Textbooks ABSTRACT The main part of the book centers on the discussion of the engines in an airplane. After describing the terms and concepts of power, jets, and rockets, the author describes the reciprocating engines. The description of diesel engines hejos to explain why these are not used in airplanes. The discussion of the carburetor is followed by a discussion of the lubrication system. Lubrication is an important feature in the smooth functioning of aircraft, not only because of lubrication properties butbecause of its complementary role in cooling down the heat released in engines. The chapter on reaction engines describes the operation of the jet in theory and gives examples of how the different types of jet engines operate. Rocket engines are also explained briefly. The book is to be used for the Air Force ROTC program only.. (PS) U.S. OEPARTMENT OFHEALTH. EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HASBEEN REPRO- OUCEO EXACTLY ASRECEIVED FROM THE PERSON ORORGANIZATION ORIG- INATING IT POINTS OFVIEW OR OPIN- IONS STATED 00 NOTNECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICEOF EOU- CATION POSITION OR POLICY. Air Force Junior ROTC Air University/Maxwell 4ir Force Base, Alabama cl N0- CO AEROSPACE EDUCATION II LLI Propulsion Systemsfor Aircraft T. E. MACKIN Academic Publications Division 3825th Support Group (Academic) AIR FORCE JUNIOR ROTC AIR UNIVERSITY MAXWELL AIR FORCE BASE, ALABAMA 2 1969 This publication has beenreviewed and approved by competent personnel of the preparingcommand in accordance with current propriety, and quality. directives on doctrine, policy,essentiality, Air This book will not be offered forsale. It is for use only in the Force ROTC program. Preface ONE OF MAN'S most persistentdreams is to be able to fly through the air unencumbered,like a bird. This was true hundreds of years ago, probablyeven back beyond the dawn of history. Evidence ofthe dream can be found in the fact that the gods of ancient civilizations were endowed with thepower of flight. Men in these early civilizationsgave to their man-like gods abilities that simple, ordinarymen could not haveincluding the ability to fly. The dream held true in later days also,as we can see from the many preserved drawings of human beings before, during, and after the days of Leonardoda Vinci. Even this Italian genius, whose abilitiesin many fields amaze sophisticated modern men, thought about,ex- perimented with, and designed machinesto allow man to leave the ground. Da Vinci and most other early theorists thought in terms of bird-like wings,operated by the muscle power of theman wearing them. The dream exists even today,as we can see by the popularity of skydiving. This is thesport of para- chutists who delight in jumping fromplanes, then soaring through the skies alone foras long as possible without opening their parachutes. But accompanying this ancient dream has always been a rude awakening to the fact thatman is just not built for flying. His body is too heavyto be held aloft by his arms. His arms arearms, not wings. And even with wing-like devices to hold himup, man is just not strong enough to build up the force it takesto keep 4 himself in the air.Still, man does not concede that he is never to fly by himself, without mechanicalas- sistance.(The skydiver is an example of this fact.) Even today, grown men fly kites andenvy the paper birds they put aloft. In his secret mind, man probably believes that he will one day overcome his ground-bound design and soar off by himself. After all, he reasons, the bumblebee defies all the rules of aeronautical design, and still flies.So why not man? In the meantime, howfiver, man has accepted a compromise: if he has not yer found a way to fly under his own power, he will do the next best thinghe will use his machines forpower. Only through the use of machines hasman so far been able to even partially fulfill his dream ofcon- trolled, continuing flight. After countless centuries of gazing at the sky and envying the birds, it is only within this century that man has madeany real success of his ancient dream. It is the purpose of this volume to trace the develop- ment of the power machines that man uses to propel his flying machines through the air;to study these propulsion machines as they exist today; and to look at probable future developments that will take man far, far beyond the range of the birds he envies. 1 iv 5 Contents PREFACE iii Chapter/POWER IN FLIGHT 1 Air Theory 3 Internal Combustion Engines 4 Powered Flight 5 Gliders 5 More Power 6 Success 6 Jets 7 Rockets 8 Power Terms 8 Thrust 9 Thrust Horsepower 10 Chapter 2 RECIPROCATINGENGINES 13 The Reciprocating Engine 13 The Mechanical System 15 Diesel Engines 18 Types of Reciprocating Engines 19 Performance of Reciprocating Engines 22 Heat and Cooling 22 Construction Materials 25 Chapter 3OTHERENGINE SYSTEMS 29 Fuels 30 Volatility 31 Octane Rating 33 The Fuel System 33 Fuel Feeding 34 The Carburetor 35 Float Carburetors 37 Carburetor Accessories 40 Other Carburetor Types 43 Fuel Injection Systems 47 Ignition System 47 Starting Systems 52 The Lubrication System 53 Oil Properties 54 Propellers 56 Chapter 4REACTION ENGINES 65 Jet Engines 65 Principles of Operation 67 Ramjet 68 Pulse jet 70 The Turbojet 72 The Turboprop Engine 82 Turbofan Engine 83 Noise Suppressors 85 Thrust Reversers 85 Accessory Section 87 Water Injection 88 Metals 88 Comparisons 88 Rockets 89 Rocket Classification 90 Propellants and Thrust 93 Advances 95 Chapter 5PROJECTIONS 99 Jet Development 99 The X-15 102 Rockets 104 Electrical Propulsion 104 Ionization 105 Ion Rockets 107 Plasma Rockets 107 Solar Propulsion 108 Photon Rockets 109 SUMMARY 111 GLOSSARY 113 INDEX 115 vt 7 Chapter Power in Flight THIS CHAPTER traces the historical developmentof engines used to, power aircraft.', It gives a brief review ofdevelopments in, air theory, lighter-tlicin-air craft, and 'glider- flight, 'always;'considering that "successful pnwered flight incorporatedadvaniet in all of these areOl. Upon ;completion ,of this chapter,. you -shOUld 'beable. to: (1) explain`' the main differences between ::internaland 'external coMbUstiOn the 'reasons external prOvid impractical for powering aircraft; (2) tellwhy the internal com- bustion engine was so long in developing,and why it was the key to powered flight; (3) eicplain the terms "horsepower"and "thrust" and how they are related; and (4) performthe function necessary to compare a piston engine's power tothat of a jet engine. THE SUCCESSFUL FLIGHT ofpowered aircraft had to await developments in several fields. The theoryof flight, for instance, underwent many changes as man continued toexperiment with kites and gliders, to study bird flight andthe movement of sailing ships, and to think about the nature of airitself. As an adjunct to the accumulationof knowledge came physical developments. One of the mostsignificant developments was the invention of the steam engine in thelate eighteenth century.This new device representedman's first successful harnessingof mechani- cal power for useful work. Itfreed man from dependence on power from animals, wind, and falling water,and turned his thinking in new directions. 1 8 PROPULSION SYSTEMS FOR AIRCRAFT The steam engine wasa revolutionary invention, and is still in use today. As important as the steam enginewas, it had a number of basic characteristics which made itunsuitable for aircraft power. For one thing, the steam enginewas too bulky. For another, it was not responsive enough to the pilot's control. Itwas too heavy. More- over, it required external combustion. External combustion meant that the fire that heatedthe water and turned it into steam was located outsidethe engine itself.This feature was more than justan inconvenience for someone who in- tended to fly through the air underpower of a steam engine. (Some steam engines were used in the early days of ballooning,but they were soon abandoned.) Improvements in the steam engine led eventuallyto the develop- ment of the internal combustion engine, whichwas a very significant development in the evolution of mechanicalpower. One of the most important characteristics of thenew engine was provision for the burning process to take place insidethe engine. The internal com- bustion engine eventually was to provide thepower for man's first successful controlled, powered flight ofa heavier-than-air craft. The development of the internal combustionengine spurred the development of new metals thatwere strong enough and light enough to withstand the stresses of heat andpressure in the engine, while providing sufficient power to flyan airplane. Along with the develop- ment of this new kind of engine camenew thought on how power can best be produced and used. As you have seen in previous study in theAerospace Education course, the road to successful flight was paved withmany ideas from many men over a period ofmany years. The Wright brothers collected the recordedprogress in all of the fields of aviation thought, then addedknowledge of their own to the pool of information.The collective knowledge produced by centuries of work by a number of peopleall over the world was responsible for the first controlled, powered,heavier-than-air flight on 17 December 1903. That historic flight lasted 12 seconds.The Wright brothers' "Flyer," with Orvilleat the controls, attained a forward speed of seven milesan hour, and covered a distance of about 120 feet.
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