Does the ‘Room Effect’ Generalise to Designed Products?

Home , Keiretsu

An Investigation of the ‘Product Effect’

Azhari bin Md Hashim

Submitted in the fulfilment of requirements of the

Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Faculty of Design, Swinburne University of Technology

2012

Abstract

Successive Malaysian governments have pursued a vision of achieving ‘industrialized country’ status by 2020. Within this, the Malaysian transport industry comprises motorcycle manufacturers, and Modenas has played a major role, receiving considerable internal investment and acting as a flagship for national ambition. As international competition increases, Modenas risks a reduction in its share of the home market and curtailment of its export ambitions due to free trade tariff reductions; the latter being due to China entering this market. As with the entire automotive industry, market research methods play an important role in product development. Automotive market research consistently focus on how people perceive the product itself, but not on the effect the product has upon how people perceive its owner. In other words, does the product confer its own qualities onto its owner. The present research explores the value products bestow upon the owner by applying a method called the Room Effect, developed in a study by Canter, West and Wools (1974). The research employs both qualitative and quantitative techniques using the Motorcycle Positioning Task and the Room Effect method for pilot surveys, in order to investigate how association with the product, in this case different motorcycles, bestows characteristics upon the person associated with it, which was carried out in Malaysia and Australia. Actual surveys of the Room Effect method finally was carried out by international participants on the Internet. The latter focused upon possible differences due to nationality and gender. The results indicated that the Room Effect method can be applied to products with indications of strong gender and Product Effect. The research indicated that the presence of a motorcycle effected how people were perceived, and that a Product Effect exists in a similar way to the Room Effect. This research provides a new market research method for application in the motorcycle industry, and in the consumer product domain generally.

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge the following people for their contribution to preparing the thesis:

Professor Allan Whitfield – supervisor extraordinaire, for his guidance, encouragement, patience, and unfailing optimism.

Dr Simon Jackson – my second supervisor for his support, timely comments and attention to detail.

To all friends and colleagues – especially Azmeer, Zaffwan, and Arnis, thank you for their empathy and encouragement in Swinburne University of Technology and Universiti Teknologi MARA.

Thank you mom, Saleha Hj Hussin and dad, Md Hashim Hj Bakar and families for their endless reassurance support and continuously inspire me.

Signed Declaration

I, Azhari Hashim, declare that this thesis:

 contains no material which has been accepted for the award to the candidate of any other degree or diploma, except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis;

 to the best of the candidate’s knowledge contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis; and

 where the work is based on joint research or publications, discloses the relative contributions of the respective workers or authors.

______/ /

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List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Market share in Malaysian motorcycle industry 15 Figure 2.2 Examples of motorcycle models by Chinese manufacturers 18 Figure 2.3 Modenas share holders 20 Figure 2.4 Modenas company website 21 Figure 2.5 Modenas production model of motorcycles 1 22 Figure 2.6 Modenas production model of motorcycles 2 23 Figure 2.7 Motorcycle production year 1999-2000 24 Figure 2.8 Motorcycle sales year 1999-2000 25 Figure 2.9 Share market by main competitors in Malaysia 27 Figure 2.10 Share market and production unit of motorcycles in Malaysia. 29 Figure 2.11 Harley-Davidson motorcycle owners’ convoy 31 Figure 2.12 Vespa model of 98, production year 1946-1947 33 Figure 2.13 Honda C100 Super Cub motorcycle model 34 Figure 2.14 Honda DN-01 motorcycle model 35 Figure 2.15 Semantic Differential scales 46 Figure 2.16 Semantic Differential questionnaire 47 Figure 2.17 Two dimensional plot of the Semantic Differential 49 Figure 2.18 Multidimensional Scaling 50 Figure 2.19 Automobile perceptual map based from Multidimensional Scaling 51 Figure 2.20 Room Effect method 53 Figure 3.1 Summary of the research process 56 Figure 3.2 Parallel method of approach 59 Figure 3.3 Sample of stimulus material for the Motorcycle Positioning Task 64 Figure 3.4 Sample of stimulus material for paper based questionnaire 67 Figure 3.5 Sample of stimulus material for online questionnaires 70 Figure 4.1 Motorcycle Positioning Task process 72 Figure 4.2 Process of motorcycle stimuli selection 75 Figure 4.3 Picture of selected motorcycles 77 Figure 4.4 Stimulus material for task 1 78 Figure 4.5 Stimulus material for task 2 78 Figure 4.6 Motorcycle Positioning Task procedure 80 Figure 4.7 Plot 1 - Evaluation and Social factors for the Malaysian participants 82 Figure 4.8 Plot 2 - Evaluation and Social factors for the Australian participants 83

Figure 4.9 Plot 3 – Potency and Activity factors for the Malaysian participants 85 Figure 4.10 Plot 4 – Potency and Activity factors for the Australian participants 86 Figure 5.1 The Room Effect method survey process 89 Figure 5.2 Process of motorcycle-scooter stimuli selection 92 Figure 5.3 Process of people’s stimuli selection 93 Figure 5.4 Stimuli pictures of eight different combinations of independent variables 95 Figure 5.5 Factor Analysis output, Scree Plot 102 Figure 5.6 Repeated Measures output for Personality (Reliable, Trustworthy, 106 Generous, New Ideas, Positive Attitude, Kind, Friendly, Creative, and Efficient) Figure 5.7 Repeated Measures output for Appearance (Attractive, Sporty, Stylish, 107 and Masculine/feminine) Figure 5.8 Repeated Measures output for Neuroticism (Unstable, Anxious, and 108 Vulnerable) Figure 5.9 Repeated Measures output for Neuroticism (Unstable, Anxious, and 109 Vulnerable) Figure 5.10 Repeated Measures output for Physical Attributes (Height and Weight) 110 Figure 5.11 Repeated Measures output for Social Attributes (Education level, Age, 111 and Parents’ Annual Income) Figure 5.12 Repeated Measures output for Social attributes (Education level, Age, 112 and Parents’ Annual Income) Figure 5.13 Repeated Measures output for Elegant 113 Figure 5.14 Repeated Measures output for Organised 114 Figure 6.1 Actual survey method process 117 Figure 6.2 Process of motorcycle-scooter stimuli selection 121 Figure 6.3 Process of people’s stimuli selection 122 Figure 6.4 Stimuli pictures for questionnaire 124 Figure 6.5 Factor Analysis output, Scree Plot 129 Figure 6.6 Repeated Measures output for Personality (Motorcycle x Model 133 nationality) Figure 6.7 Repeated Measures output for Personality (Model gender) 134 Figure 6.8 Repeated Measures output for Physical Attributes (Model gender) 135 Figure 6.9 Repeated Measures output for Physical Attributes (Model nationality) 136 Figure 6.10 Repeated Measures output for Age (Motorcycle) 137 Figure 6.11 Repeated Measures output for Age (Model gender) 138 Figure 6.12 Repeated Measures output for Age (Model nationality) 139 Figure 6.13 Repeated Measures output for Education (Motorcycle x Model gender) 140 Figure 6.14 Repeated Measures output for Parents’ Annual Income (Motorcycle x 141 Model gender) Figure 6.15 Repeated Measures output for Parents’ Annual Income (Model gender x 142 Model nationality) Figure 6.16 Repeated Measures output for Personality (Motorcycle x Caucasian 144 female)

Figure 6.17 Repeated Measures output for Physical Attributes (Motorcycle x Asian 145 female) Figure 6.18 Repeated Measures output for Parents’ Annual Income (Motorcycle x 146 Caucasian male)

List of Tables

Table 4.1 Background characteristics of survey participants 76 Table 4.2 Type of selected stimuli motorcycles 79 Table 5.1 Background characteristics of participants 90 Table 5.2 Combinations of eight different stimuli 94 Table 5.3 Questionnaire formation 97 Table 5.4 Types of personality adjectives used based on the Five-Factor Model of 98 Human Personality traits Table 5.5 Factor Analysis output, Communalities 100 Table 5.6 Factor Analysis output, Variance Explained 101 Table 5.7 Factor Analysis output, Pattern Matrix 103 Table 5.8 Factor Analysis output, Descriptive Statistics 104 Table 5.9 Mixed ANOVA results, Significant Effects 105 Table 6.1 Background characteristics of participants 119 Table 6.2 Combinations of eight different stimuli 123 Table 6.3 Types of personality adjectives used based on the Five-Factor Model of 125 Human Personality traits Table 6.4 Questionnaire formation 126 Table 6.5 Factor Analysis output, Communalities 127 Table 6.6 Factor Analysis output, Variance Explained 128 Table 6.7 Factor Analysis output, Pattern Matrix 130 Table 6.8 Factor analysis output, Descriptive Statistics 131 Table 6.9 Univariate ANOVA results, Significant Effects 132 Table 6.10 Univariate ANOVA results, Significant Effects 143

List of Abbreviations

OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation ASEAN The Association of Southeast Asian Nations AFTA ASEAN Free Trade Area CEO Chief Executive Officer TIV Total Industry Volume MBTI Myers-Briggs Type Indicator R&D Research and Development AIO studies Activities, Interests, and Opinion studies QFD Quality Function Deployment SUV Sport Utility Vehicle FFMP Five-Factors Model of Personality MDS Multidimensional Scaling EPU Economic Planning Unit SUHREC Swinburne’s Human Research Ethics Committee SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Science ANOVA Analysis of Variance PAF Principal Axis Factoring EM Expectation-Maximisation KMO Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin IP address Internet Protocol address

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Table of contents

Abstract i Acknowledgements ii Declaration iii List of Figures iv List of Tables vi List of Abbreviations vii

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Objectives of the Research 1 1.3 Structure of Thesis 3

Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 Background to the research 5 2.2.1 Issues Arising from the Global Automotive Industry 10 2.2.2 Automotive Sector Development in Malaysia 11 2.2.3 Malaysian Motorcycle Market 14 2.2.4 Modenas Case Study 20 2.3 Design Research Methods in Global Industry: Motorcycle 30 2.4 Design Research Methods in Global Industry: Automotive 36 2.5 Cross Cultural Studies 41 2.6 Semantic Differential and Multidimensional Scaling Method Overview 44 2.7 Room Effect and Human Personality Traits Overview 52 2.8 Summary 55

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Chapter 3 Research Approach and Method

3.1 Introduction 56 3.2 Overview of Research Approach 57 3.3 Justification of the Research Approach 58 3.4 Justification for the Method 60 3.5 Methods Overview 63 3.5.1 Pilot Survey 1: Motorcycle Positioning Task 63 3.5.2 Motorcycle Positioning Task Justification 65 3.5.3 Pilot Survey 2: Room Effect Method 66 3.5.4 Room Effect Method Justification 68 3.5.5 Actual Survey: Room Effect Method 70 3.6 Summary 71

Chapter 4 Pilot Survey 1: Motorcycle Positioning Task

4.1 Introduction 72 4.2 Stimulus material 74 4.3 Participants and Procedures 79 4.4 Analysis 81 4.5 Evaluation and Social Factors Result 81 4.6 Potency and Activity Factors Result 84 4.7 Discussion 87 4.8 Summary 88

Chapter 5 Pilot Survey 2: Room Effect Method

5.1 Introduction 89 5.2 Participants and Procedures 90 5.2.1 Stimulus Material 91 5.2.2 Questionnaire 96 5.3 Analysis: Factor Analysis 99 5.4 Analysis: Mixed Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 105

5.5 Mixed ANOVA result 106 5.5.1 Factor 1: Personality 106 5.5.2 Factor 2: Appearance 107 5.5.3 Factor 3: Neuroticism 108 5.5.4 Factor 4: Physical Attributes 110 5.5.5 Factor 5: Social Attributes 111 5.5.6 Elegant 113 5.5.7 Organised 114 5.6 Discussion 115 5.7 Summary 116

Chapter 6 Actual Survey: Room Effect Method

6.1 Introduction 117 6.2 Participants and Procedures 119 6.2.1 Stimulus Material 120 6.2.2 Questionnaire 125 6.3 Analysis: Factor Analysis 127 6.4 Analysis: Univariate (ANOVA) 132 6.5 Univariate ANOVA result 133 6.5.1 Factor 1: Personality 133 6.5.2 Factor 2: Physical Attributes 135 6.5.3 Age 137 6.5.4 Education 140 6.5.5 Parents’ Annual Income 141 6.6 An Analysis of Model Gender Separately 143 6.6.1 Factor 1: Personality 144 6.6.2 Factor 2: Physical Attributes 145 6.6.3 Parents’ Annual Income 146 6.7 Discussion 147 6.8 Summary 148

Chapter 7 Conclusions and Implications

7.1 Introduction 149 7.2 Summary of Findings 151 7.3 Limitations and Further Research 153

Bibliography 155 Appendices 169 Change of Thesis Title 169 Ethics Clearances Final Report 170 Ethics Clearances 172 Pilot Survey Questionnaires (Australian) 180 Pilot Survey Questionnaires (Malaysian) 201 Ethics Clearance for Online Questionnaires 223 Online Questionnaires 225 Publications Arising From This Thesis 241

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Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Overview

This research is an exploration of two new market research methods used for improving motorcycle marketing research. These two methods were adapted from existing methods in other disciplines. The research was conducted at the Faculty of Design, Swinburne University of Technology, during the years 2007 to 2011. All data were gathered from Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia and Universiti Teknologi MARA, Kedah, Malaysia.

1.2 Objectives of the Research

The purpose of the research was to explore new market research methods, adapted from other disciplines, to empower research in industrial design. The need for an effective market research method is important in order for companies to improve their product in the market. This exploration has been undertaken by using an adaptation of the Semantic Differential technique (Osgood & Suci 1955) and Multidimensional Scaling (Abelson 1955), in parallel with an adaptation of the Room Effect method (Canter, West & Wools 1974) and the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits (McCrae & John 1992). The techniques are explored via qualitative and quantitative approaches to discover the meaning of the motorcycle to the user and the effect motorcycle design and motorcycle personality have upon perceptions of the motorcycle owner.

A case study was carried out on the Malaysian motorcycle company ‘Modenas’, which is striving to compete in a global market and sell their product locally and internationally. Information from collaboration with the company demonstrates that the previous market research strategy for their product is limited and inappropriate for their global ambitions. As

international competition increases, Modenas risks a reduction in its share of the home market and curtailment of its export ambitions. The former is due to free trade tariff reductions, and the latter is due to China entering this market segment. As a member of ASEAN, Malaysia committed to reducing tariffs on automotive imports in 2003 under the ASEAN Free-Trade (AFTA) Agreement, which had a considerable impact on the local motorcycle industry. With the implementation of AFTA, the Modenas company found itself in a competitive situation with other motorcycle companies in marketing their products. Currently, all motorcycle companies compete in Malaysia equally with each other within the same market without restriction, which offers more choices and opportunities for the consumer when considering a purchase of their products. Thus Modenas needs to rethink its marketing research strategy in order to retain and grow its customer base in this new market.

The problem for Modenas is not one of technical performance, rather, it appears to be one of styling. As a response, Modenas needs better marketing research data collection techniques for their motorcycle models. An effective data collection technique covering the design appearance of their product should contribute useful information for the company. This research seeks to fill that gap by exploring new market research methods.

Automotive marketing research data collection techniques consistently focus on how people perceive the product itself, but not on the effect the product has upon how people perceive its owner. There is also a lack of academic publications specifically exploring the value products bestow upon the user. A method called the ‘Room Effect’, developed in a study by Canter, West and Wools (1974), has been applied in formulating a technique to address this gap. This adapted method derives from environmental psychology, but has not been applied within industrial design, specifically automotive design.

The fundamental research question was ‘is there a product effect?’ In other words, does the product confer its own qualities to its owner. If answered in the affirmative, secondary questions were ‘is there a gender effect?’ and ‘is there a nationality effect?’ In other words, does the effect work equally for men and women, and for different nationalities? If successful, the research provides new method for use in motorcycle design, and probably other product categories also.

1.3 Structure of the Thesis

Chapter 1, the introduction to the thesis, provides an overview of the research, objectives, and the structure of the thesis.

Chapter 2 provides a literature review of automotive marketing and design research methods. The problems arising in the global automotive and motorcycle industry in Malaysia are discussed first, along with the current problems in these sectors. In this thesis, the problem is explored via a case study of ‘Modenas’, a Malaysian motorcycle company. This chapter identifies the area in which further research will concentrate.

Chapter 3 describes the method employed in this research. The justification of the research, research design, and instrument design are detailed in this chapter, including the advantages and disadvantages of these approaches. The uses of parallel approaches via qualitative and quantitative methods are described, citing previous research in other disciplines. This chapter also discusses ethical considerations, including justification and validity of the survey.

Chapters 4, 5 and 6 describe the empirical research conducted. Chapter 4 provides the Motorcycle Positioning Task survey, including a summary of its findings. This Motorcycle Positioning Task represents the qualitative approach. It is derived from an adaptation of the Semantic Differential technique (Osgood & Suci 1955) and Multidimensional Scaling (Abelson 1955). The survey was conducted at Swinburne University of Technology, Australia and Universiti Teknologi MARA, Kedah, Malaysia. The survey design and the results are included in this chapter.

Chapter 5 describes the pilot test survey, including a summary of its findings. The pilot test survey represents the quantitative approach. It is derived from an adaptation of the Room Effect method (Canter, West & Wools 1974) and employs the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits (McCrae & John 1992). The survey was conducted with 1st year Faculty of Design, Film and Television students at Swinburne University of Technology, and Diploma in Banking students, Faculty of Business Management at the Universiti Teknologi MARA, Kedah, Malaysia. The findings led to the development of a major survey reported in Chapter 6.

Chapter 6 describes the major survey of the Room Effect method, including a summary of findings. This survey was conducted via an online website.

Finally, the conclusion and implications of the results are discussed in Chapter 7. Contained here are outlines of recommendations derived from the research. The thesis identifies factors that need to be considered in creating successful products. The exploration of this research demonstrates that the Room Effect method has potential to become a new market research data collection technique.

Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Chapter 2 provides a literature review of motorcycle marketing research methods. The issues arising in the global automotive and motorcycle industry in Malaysia are discussed first as well as the current situation and problems. Background to the research is included as part of the chapter followed by a discussion of Malaysian aspiration towards Vision 2020, as part of national industrial achievement.

Problems within the global automotive and motorcycle industry are explored further in this chapter through a case study of ‘Modenas’, a Malaysian motorcycle company. Current challenges in the global motorcycle market due to tariff reductions stemming from free trade agreements, and from the entry of competitors such as China entering this particular market are identified as threats to the Modenas company. The conclusion identifies areas in which further research is need to address these challenges.

2.2 Background to the Research

Successive Malaysian governments have pursued a vision of achieving an ‘industrialized country’ status by the year 2020. Malaysia has introduced these aspirations through Vision 2020, which is part of the Malaysian future achievement plan. Wawasan 2020 or Vision 2020 is a Malaysian ideal introduced by the former Prime Minister of Malaysia, Mahathir Mohamad during the tabling of the sixth Malaysian plan in 1991. The vision calls for a self-sufficient industrial, Malay-centric developed nation, complete with an economy that will be almost ten times stronger in year 2020 than the economy of the early 1990s (Todd & Peetz 2001).

Mahathir outlined nine challenges that Malaysia must overcome to achieve Vision 2020: to form a nation that stands as one; to produce a Malaysian community that has freedom, strength, and is full of self confidence; to develop a mature democratic community; to form a community that has high morale, ethics and religious strength; to cultivate a community that is mature and tolerant; to form a progressive science community; to cultivate a community rich in values and loving culture; to ensure the formation of a community with a fair economy; and to cultivate a prosperous community (Vicziany & Puteh 2004 ; Warhoe 1997).

His speech also defined economic objectives and stressed the establishment of a competitive economy. The economy must be able to securely sustain itself over the longer term, must be dynamic, robust, and resilient. It must diversify and be balanced with a mature and widely based industrial sector, a modern and mature agriculture sector, and an efficient productive services sector. The economy must be able to quickly adapt to changing patterns of supply, demand, and competition. It must be technologically proficient, innovate, increasing technology intensive, and moving in the direction of the higher levels of technology.

Mahathir added that the economy must be driven by brainpower, skills and diligence. There must be possession of a wealth of information, with the knowledge of what to do and how to do it. It must be high and escalate productivity within every area of production. The economy must be sustained by an exemplary work ethic, quality consciousness, and the quest for excellence characterised by low inflation and a low cost of living (Sundaram, Teik & Tan 1995). This vision has become a Malaysian future achievement of all companies in every sector and has become an aspiration specifically for Malaysian companies towards the future.

The Malaysian transport industry has played a major role in achieving Vision 2020, receiving considerable internal investment and acting as a flagship for national ambition. In Malaysia, the history of the automotive sector began with the importation of vehicles, and then progressed to assembly operations and the establishment of a wide network of automotive components and part manufacturers (National automotive policy framework a wake-up call to national carmakers 2005). The automotive industry in Malaysia began with the establishment of the automotive manufacturer known as Perusahaan Otomobil Nasional or ‘Proton’ in 1983, a joint venture with Mitsubishi Motors of Japan. It continued in 1992 with the introduction of a second national car project, Perusahaan Otomobil Kedua or ‘Perodua’ with help from Daihatsu Motors of Japan (Asia and Australasia 2005).

A significant part of the automotive industry in Malaysia is motorcycle manufacture. This began with the establishment of a motorcycle project called Motosikal Dan Enjin Nasional Sdn Bhd - MODENAS - in 1996 (Modenas homepage 2005). Currently Malaysia has nine motor vehicle assemblers and nine motorcycle assemblers. To support these manufacturers and assemblers, there are 343 local motor vehicle components and parts manufacturers and 100 local motorcycle components and parts manufacturers (National economic recovery plan: agenda for action 1998). Malaysia has five joint venture motorcycles companies involved in production, and the market leaders are Honda, Suzuki, Yamaha, Kawasaki and Modenas (Malaysia motorcycle market 2001). The other motorcycles production companies in Malaysia are Comel (Comel storms into town 2002), Demak Motor (Demak motor 2003) and MZ Motorrad Sdn Bhd (MZ Malaysia 2001).

The Malaysian government has reasserted its goal for the automotive sector to be a strategic industry, and has focused measures on supporting the national car and motorcycle firms as well as local dealers. But the automotive industry, as well as components manufacturers, must strive to export in order to meet the competition which has arisen from significant changes in ASEAN economic policies. Malaysia is one of the members of ASEAN, which was established on 8 August 1967. The five original member countries are Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. These were followed by Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia. As of year 2006, the ASEAN region had a population of about 560 million, a total area of 4.5 million square kilometres, a combined gross domestic product of almost US$ 1,100 billion, and a total trade of about US$ 1,400 billion. The objectives of ASEAN are to accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region. It also aims to promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries in the region and adherence to the principles of the United Nations charter (Association of Southeast Asian Nation 2003).

As a result of one of the pillars of ASEAN, namely an ASEAN economic community, ASEAN countries introduced that ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), which is a trade bloc agreement to support local manufacturing in all ASEAN countries. The AFTA agreement was signed on 28 January 1992 in Singapore. The primary goals of AFTA are to increase ASEAN's competitive edge as a production base in the world market through the elimination, within ASEAN, of tariffs and non-tariff barriers, and to attract more foreign direct investment to ASEAN countries. Specifically, AFTA aims to promote the region’s competitive advantage as a single 7

production unit. The elimination of tariff and non-tariff barriers among member countries is expected to promote greater economic efficiency, productivity, and competitiveness (Severino 2007).

As a member of ASEAN, Malaysia was committed to reducing tariffs in 2003 on automotive imports under AFTA. There was considerable vacillation on this, with Malaysia seeking and getting a two-year deferral of tariff reductions for the car industry. But at the end of 2003, the Malaysian government announced that it would reduce the import tariffs on passenger vehicles brought in from elsewhere in ASEAN, from a band of 140-300%, for completely built- up CBU units, to a band of 70-190%. At the same time, it compensated for falling revenue by imposing excise taxes of 60-100% on all imported vehicles. Imports from outside ASEAN countries continue to face much higher tariffs and the import duties cut to 5% by year 2008. Malaysian automotive exports are small compared with those from other ASEAN countries with around 95% of car production sold domestically, and only a few successful niche markets abroad, for example the UK. Moreover, Malaysian automotive exports have been declining over the past few years. Only around 5% of Proton’s production has been exported to the international market since 2004.

With the implementation of AFTA, Malaysian automotive companies need to find ways to address these current challenges of globalization and competition in the market as international competition increases. As a part of this industry, the Malaysian motorcycle industry risks a reduction in its share of the home market and curtailment of its export ambitions. The former is due to AFTA free trade tariff reductions, and the latter to China entering the market. Modenas find itself in a competitive situation with other motorcycle companies in Malaysia in introducing their products in the market. Motorcycle companies compete equally with each other in the same market without restriction, which offers more choices and opportunities for the consumer in choosing products.

According to a Malaysian Motorcycle Market report (Malaysia motorcycle market 2001), the efficiency and competitiveness of the industry in Malaysia will have to be improved to further tap market opportunities in both regional and global markets. To support this aim, the key strategies will be to develop capabilities and production technologies, improve R&D and design work, as well as strengthen the distribution network and marketing expertise (Malaysia motorcycle market 2001). With regard to this, the Malaysian motorcycle market has "reached

a peak" as rising affluence leads more people to buy cars in place of motorcycle. At the same time, Modenas is facing pressure from the Honda Company and other close competitors, which have developed new and cheaper motorcycle models, with components and parts made in China. As a result the domestic market in Malaysia is small and stagnant. The alternative is to go to other markets which are quite strong such as Indonesia, as well as Vietnam and Cambodia, where income is still low and sales are growing (Malaysia's motorcycle maker eyes expansion in SE Asia 2003).

The motorcycle users market in Malaysia largely consists of 18 to 25 year-olds, a notoriously style sensitive demographic. The main incentives for the use of the motorcycle are that it reduces travel time during traffic congestion, it offers cost savings, and it is affordable (Ibrahim et al. 2006). Motorcycles will be sustained in the Malaysian market owing to the factors of traffic congestion, undeveloped rural roads, parking rates, and as preferred choice for the lower income group. It is estimated that Malaysia has more than 5 million motorcycles on the road, compared to over 4 million motorcars. Traditionally, Malaysian motorcycle buyers have liked smaller motorcycles with engine sizes ranging from 70cc to 115cc. It is estimated that approximately 85 per cent of all motorcycles in Malaysia are under 115cc. Large motorcycles are available but are not very practical due to road conditions, with deep potholes, and lack of courtesy among motorcar drivers towards motorcycle users (Malaysia motorcycle market 2001).

Modenas may not be able to compete against cheaper motorcycle imports from China based on price, but has an edge in terms of quality and after-sales service (Malaysia’s first 130cc motorbike launched 2006). The need for transport that has lower fuel consumption, such as motorcycles, is high in Malaysia and other countries. Although Modenas has managed to maintain monthly sales targets of its motorcycles through special offers, sales have declined since February 1998. Weak consumer sentiment and the withdrawal of credit lines have also been adversely affecting Malaysian motorcycle dealers (National economic recovery plan: agenda for action 1998).

For Modenas the problem is not one of technical performance; rather, it appears to be one of styling. Modenas needs a better marketing research data collection method for their motorcycle models, in order to compete with other companies in the current market. An efficient data collection technique which can provide useful data on consumer perceptions of

the design appearance of their products will contribute reliable information for the company. Faced with strong competition from other motorcycle companies, Modenas needs to position its brand and identify consumer needs in order to survive in the home market and increase international exports. This research aims to develop a better marketing research data collection technique for Modenas. However, before moving on to a discussion of this method and its application through a case study of Modenas, it is first important to provide an overview of the automotive and motorcycle industry.

2.2.1 Issues Arising from the Global Automotive Industry

The automotive industry is considered the largest manufacturing sector in the world. Currently, it is estimated that more than 10 per cent of Japanese and American employment come from this sector. The output value and total number employed in the industry within the European Union’s 12 member countries was about 80 million workers at the start of the 1990s. Among the top five producing countries in the European Union’s 12 members were Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom. The automotive industry itself contributed a large amount of income for these countries compared to other sectors.

The world demand for automotive industry exports has increased over the years due to industrial productivity. More importantly, this sector also links directly and indirectly with other economic sectors in individual countries. The linkage with other sectors includes a wide range of production, from material producers to intermediate and major manufacturers and final assemblers. In addition, the industry has a significant impact on resource-based industries, such as iron and steel, chemical, metal, rubber, and plastics, as well as petroleum- based industries including electrical and electronics related part industries. In the service sector, it provides service-related activities, such as stamping, repairing, servicing, designing and engineering, banking, shipping, storing, insurance, distributing, and marketing channels. The automotive industry requires a set of production systems linked to a wide range of industrial organisations and technologies with great variations in size and sophistication.

The impact of the automotive industry on the socio-economic structure of nation is significant. It affects economic development, industrial organisations, technologies, and improves the standard of living in a country. The ability of a country to develop and improve their 10

automotive industry ensures great opportunities for the development of small to medium industries. It justifies the argument that industry is a back bone of the economy and effort needs to be made to develop and improve this industry as crucial for the further growth of related sectors.

After revolutionizing the auto industry with radical vehicle production methods, the Japanese – with growing participation from the rest of Asia – are now assaulting the west’s lead in technology, styling, and marketing. Where Asia was once renowned for embracing ideas rather than developing them, its auto manufacturers are now demonstrating leadership in both product and process technologies (Teresko 2004, p. 2).

World automotive producing countries compete locally and internationally in marketing their product. The top three markets for the exports of passenger cars at the close of the 20th century were the United Kingdom, Germany and France. For commercial vehicles, the top three markets for export markets were the U.S.A., Taiwan and Singapore. Malaysia currently finds itself in a challenging situation in the automotive production and market segment. It has close competitors in Thailand, Indonesia, and Philippines, which concentrate on the production of commercial vehicles. In 2003 for instance, Thailand was the world’s second largest auto producer and market for pick-up trucks after the United States. In the long term, the Malaysian automotive industry will face stiffer competition in automotive market. The following sections discuss the issues of automotive sector development in Malaysia.

2.2.2 Automotive Sector Development in Malaysia

The development of the automotive industry in Malaysia has been achieved over time. In the 1950s and 1960s, emphasis concentrated on the assembling activities of both passenger and commercial vehicles in order to provide employment and to reduce import bills. Since the implementation of the National Economic Policy (NEP) in 1971, the government has played a protectionist role in shaping the contour of the Malaysian automotive industry (Arshad 2002). All policy measures have been directed towards protecting the overall industry and more importantly to preserving the interest of the ‘Bumiputera’. Bumiputera is a Malay term, widely used in Malaysia, embracing indigenous people of the Malay race. 11

Significantly, the automotive sector is a key industry in the Malaysian economy. The economic contribution of this sector is immense, with significant linkages to the manufacturing and service sectors. A new emphasis came into effect in the 1980s when the government policy was geared towards building an advanced nation by emphasizing heavy industrialisation. The crucial strategy of the Malaysian automotive industry has been to develop its own automotive industry by upgrading local capability in making parts and components, particularly through the small and medium industry sector. It began with the established of Perusahaan Otomobil Nasional known as ‘Proton’ in 1983, with help from the Mitsubishi Motors of Japan. It continued in 1992 in the second national car project, Perusahaan Otomobil Kedua or ‘Perodua’ with help from the Daihatsu Motors of Japan (Asia and Australasia 2005).

During 1998 to 2002, after the Malaysian automotive sector implementation, sustained economic growth has pushed up the demand for vehicles in Malaysia. After falling to a trough of 138,000 in 1998 because of the 1997-98 regional economic crises, new passenger car registrations grew strongly in 1999-2002. In 1999-2002, the Malaysian automotive market performed better than the markets in other countries of the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN), but since then this advantage appears to have been lost. In terms of number of units produced, Malaysia has the second-largest car industry in South-East Asia after Thailand. However, the development of the Malaysia’s automotive industry over the past three decades has been dependent on strong protection provided by the government. This is now likely to be progressively scaled back, threatening the position of domestic producers (Asia and Australasia 2005).

In 2002, the Malaysian government introduced some protective measures in order to protect not only automotive producers, but also local parts suppliers. This plan was enacted in order to enable producers and suppliers to prepare themselves for the future removal of tariff protection as well as to reorganise their position and eventually to compete internationally. The protective measure undertaken was included tariff and non-tariff barriers and improving the local content of cars through policy development.

The market for passenger cars in Malaysia is essentially a duopoly controlled by the two dominant national manufactures, Proton and Perodua. These two firms, along with two other national manufacturers, Hicom MTB and Industry Otomotif Komersial (Inokom), account for over 80% of car sales. Proton is the leading automotive company in Malaysia, with about 44%

of passenger car sales by volume in 2004. It was set up in 1983 as collaboration between the government and the Mitsubishi Company in Japan. The government holds a majority stake in the company through the state investment arm, Khazanah Nasional, which has now bought out Mitsubishi’s 15% stake. In 2003, in a bid to attract more foreign tie-ups, the company was split into four separate business units, namely manufacturing, sales, marketing and engineering services. The Perodua follows Proton, with around 32% of passenger car sales in volume terms in 2002. The company sold a 41% stake to the Daihatsu of Japan in January 2002, in a bid to use the production and management skills of the Japanese company. Daihatsu is majority owned by Toyota of Japan (Asia and Australasia 2005). In 2002, a third national car manufacturer, which is known as ‘Inokom’, was established by the joint venture of local Berjaya Group and Hyundai of South Korea. The Inokom specially manufactures subcompact cars. The fourth national manufacturer, which is known as Hicom MTB, is owned by a joint venture of Isuzu of Japan and DRB Hicom of Malaysia. In order to continuously support the development and viability of the automotive sector, the Malaysian government underlines the policy framework by its major objectives:

 To promote a competitive and viable automotive sector, in particular national car manufacturers.  To become a regional hub for manufacturing, assembly and distribution for automotive vehicles.  To enhance value added and local capabilities in the automotive sector.  To promote export-oriented Malaysian manufacturers as well as component and parts vendors.  To promote competitive and broad-based indigenous participation in vehicle manufacturing, distribution and importation as well as in component and parts manufacturing.

The National Automotive Policy Framework sets out the broad objectives and measures for the automotive sector in Malaysia. It is intended to provide guidance and direction to all industry participants on the path of future development (National automotive policy framework a wake-up call to national carmakers 2005). The following section discusses the current scenario of the Malaysian motorcycle market.

2.2.3 Malaysian Motorcycle Market

The motorcycles industry in Malaysia is comprised of mopeds, street bikes, cruisers and scooters of which the moped category comprises 91% of the overall sales of motorcycles in 2000, followed by cruisers 4%, street bikes 3%, and scooter 2% (Malaysia motorcycle market 2001). Motorcycle can be classified into two categories: 1) engine size; small (50cc-250cc), 2) medium (251cc-750 cc), 3) large (751 cc-1199cc) and 4) very large (1200cc or more) and by categories of application: 1) standard motorcycle (small, simple, economical, and easy to use), 2) performance motorcycle (normally equipped with engine of more than 251cc and mostly for racing), 3) styling/touring/luxury motorcycle (normally with medium 4 or large engine), and 4) individual owner customized motorcycle (normally with large engine) (Intarakumnerd & Fujita 2004).

The majority of motorcycle buyers/users do not own a car and belong to the lower and middle- income group. A significantly larger percentage of motorcycle users in Malaysia are male. Most motorcycle companies in Malaysia are joint ventures between Japanese motorcycle manufacturers and local companies. Malaysia has five joint venture motorcycles companies involved in production. The market leaders are Honda, Suzuki, Yamaha, Kawasaki, and Modenas (Malaysia motorcycle market 2001). The other motorcycle manufacturing companies in Malaysia are Comel, Demak Motor, and MZ Motorrad Sdn Bhd. The Comel brand was officially launched in December 2002. Comel is a joint ventures project with Taiwan in scooter technologies manufacturing with an offer in competitive prices and design to the Malaysian market (Comel storms into town 2002). The Demak Motor under DNC Asiatic Holdings Sdn. Bhd. also produces and markets more than 20 models of motorcycle under the Demak brand which launched in early 2003 (Demak motor 2003). The MZ Motorrad Sdn. Bhd. is a company owned by Hong Leong Industries Bhd., which was established in May 2001 manufacturing motorcycles, scooters, ATVs, and electric scooters. MZM has also integrated with MZG Mororrad-und Zweiradwerk Gmbh in Germany (MZ Malaysia 2001).

As noted above, the main incentives for using motorcycles are reduced travel time and cheaper travel costs. Added to these are factors of traffic congestion, rural undeveloped roads, parking rates, and the fact that motorcycles are the preferred choice for lower income group in the Malaysian market (Malaysia motorcycle market 2001).

There are nine motor vehicle assemblers and nine motorcycle assemblers in Malaysia. To support these manufacturers and assemblers, there are 343 motor vehicle components and parts manufacturers and 100 motorcycle components and parts manufacturers across Malaysia (National automotive policy framework a wake-up call to national carmakers 2005). The Malaysian government has reaffirmed its belief in the automotive industry as a strategic industry and has focused measures to support this industry on national car and motorcycle firms as well as on local dealers. However, the automotive industry as well as components manufacturers must strive to export in order to meet competition under AFTA. Figure 2.1 illustrates the market share by motorcycle producers in Malaysia and shows the major competitors in the Malaysian market for Modenas are Honda, Yamaha, and Chinese producers, as well as the economic threat posed by AFTA.

Figure 2.1: Market share in Malaysian motorcycle industry

Source: Adapted from (National automotive policy framework a wake-up call to national carmakers 2005)

China is a fierce competitor for ASEAN countries in their key automotive, electronics, textile, and garments industries (Hong 2007). The sudden successful entrance of Chinese motorcycle imports into Malaysia and other ASEAN countries is a phenomenon that has created competitiveness among the motorcycle companies and specific competition for the Modenas Company in Malaysia. Competition among the Motorcycle companies is good because it

provides more choices and alternative in buying decisions for the users. Competition from these import products will also force locally produced motorcycles to be more competitive in producing and marketing their products (Tongzon 2005). However, Chinese motorcycles are particularly attractive to the market segment that previously bought Modenas motorcycles. Despite the image of Chinese products as lower quality, Chinese motorcycles are in demand in this market primarily because of their cheaper price (LeSanto 1999).

Chinese motorcycle manufacturers copied the popular models of Japanese brands such as Honda, Yamaha and Suzuki for their production models, for example, motorcycles in the category Cub model such as Honda EX5, Astrea Supra, Grand, and Impressa as well as Honda Vietnam’s model "Futura". These kinds of motorcycle models have imitated the trademark and design of popular motorcycle brands, which has confused consumers (Foreign rivals in race to corner motorbike sector 2001). According to a report from The Ministry of Industry and Trade, the total import for Completely Build Unit CBU motorcycles for the year 2000 was 173,834 units, consisting mostly of Chinese made motorcycles.

China has motorcycle manufacturing capacity of more than 20 million units a year and the total production in 2000 reached around 11.5 million units. In 2004 the country produced over 17 million motorcycles, of which 3.9 million were exported overseas (Intarakumnerd & Fujita 2004). Chinese motorcycle manufacturers have aggressively pursued an export strategy, supported by government incentives, to try to sell excess capacity to other countries, particularly large developing countries such as Indonesia, Vietnam, Brazil, and Argentina (The short analysis of motorcycle's market and industries 2007). These high export productions are very significant for the local market and have become an issue, particularly because of the low quality control, method of importation, and the infringement of patent by some Chinese manufacturers.

There are several factors which have increased the penetration of Chinese motorcycle products into the ASEAN market. For example, China has become a very competitive light industry exporter supported by a stable workforce, which is very competitive. Their costs of other fixed assets such as land and buildings as well as standard machinery are also much lower than in most ASEAN countries, which can reduce the cost of their overhead production. These motorcycle manufacturers also produce and use locally made materials and components

for their production. Although some of the components such as carburettors, piston rings, bearings, valves, timing chains, and electric components are not up to international quality standards, they are still an acceptable product domestically due to their low price, and because there is no import duty (The short analysis of motorcycle's market and industries 2007).

The motorcycles most copied by the Chinese motorcycle manufacturers are the Honda Cub types designed for ASEAN countries, particularly for sale in Indonesia, Vietnam, and Malaysia (Mishima 2004). Since most of the Chinese imported models are illegal copies of the Japanese Cub type, they are not paying royalty for these patents, and have invested very little in their Research and Development (R&D). This copying production is widely practiced in China partly due to the fact that it is not illegal. According to the regulations in China, patent protection for their product in their country is around 15 years compared to the general practice of 20 years elsewhere. Consequently patents mature 5 years earlier than in other countries. In the past there was also no Industrial Design Law in China to protect the design of other companies (The short analysis of motorcycle's market and industries 2007).

Chinese motorcycle manufacturers became very competitive players in the international market as they offer an alternative choice in terms of cheaper prices (Praiwan 2001). With 57 Chinese motorcycle brands that have been imported, these companies will survive in competition in years to come. They could lessen their product weaknesses, such as not having their own designs by investing in R&D facilities supported by well-trained engineers. Some of these companies are taking steps to form joint venture agreements with other successful companies across the ASEAN region, rather than directly import their products. These few companies will survive and will invest in production facilities within the ASEAN region if they are going to overcome the tariff barrier created by AFTA. Once these Chinese motorcycles are produced in the ASEAN region, they will be accepted as ASEAN sourced, provided that the minimum percentage of 40% ASEAN sourced component value is reached (Cheng 2004). This will create a threat for other motorcycle companies in the Malaysia market, specifically Modenas.

Globalization and trade liberalization (AFTA) will also became a threat from other free trade agreements: ASEAN-Korea realized in 2009, ASEAN-China 2010, ASEAN-India 2011 and ASEAN-

Japan 2012, while negotiations between New Zealand and Australia have started. In 2012, West Asia is expected to create a vast free trade zone (Hsu, Sadullah & Dao 2003). It will also be a threat to the Malaysian motorcycle industry if the manufacturers are unable to reduce costs to remain competitive with products from the neighbouring countries such as Thailand and Indonesia (Malaysia motorcycle market 2001). Figure 2.2 shows some of the examples of motorcycle models produced by Chinese manufacturers.

Figure 2.2: Examples of motorcycle models by Chinese manufacturers

Source: Adapted from website (China e-vehicle 2007 ; Chongqing Union Company Ltd. 2010)

Malaysia has an economic and financial stability compared to other ASEAN countries. However, due to a relatively small population of 23 million, Malaysia will soon reach a market saturation ownership ratio of 5 people per motorcycle. At the current level of per capita income above US$ 8,000 per customer, the choice of mode of transportation need will shift to

automobiles. At the current labour rate, Malaysia will not be competitive in the near future as a base for cheap motorcycle production compared to other neighbouring countries such as Thailand and Indonesia.

Malaysia has challenged the common understanding that smaller developing countries should not develop automotive products by protecting national car and motorcycle projects for a certain period of time. Despite criticism of this policy, Malaysia developed the National Car ‘Proton’ and ‘Perodua’ as well as the National Motorcycle Project ‘Modenas’. These national automotive project developments attracted automotive investors to start manufacturing vehicles in Malaysia. Good manufacturing facilities, engineering support facilities and the available human resources offered the projects to be considered into AFTA and world automotive globalisation under Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC).

Malaysian automotive brands may lose market share after the opening of the domestic market, but they can also benefit from extending export capabilities into regional and global markets. Malaysia could offer automotive engineering development for other automotive companies within the region since that speciality is not readily developed in other ASEAN countries. Malaysia also has a competitive position in offering stable social and economic development compared to other ASEAN countries. These positive scenarios and benefits offer a chance for the Malaysian national motorcycle project ‘Modenas’ to survive in the market. The following section introduces the background of the Modenas Company and discusses the challenges in the motorcycle market.

2.2.4 Modenas Case Study

Prior to discussing this research, it is important to introduce the background of the Modenas Company. Historically, after the birth of the Malaysian National Car project, Proton, which was incorporated on 7th May 1983, the Malaysian Government under former Prime Minister Tun Dr Mahathir Mohammad invested in another automotive project called the Motosikal Dan Enjin Nasional Sdn Bhd – MODENAS in June 1996. Modenas was established in tandem with Malaysia’s effort to achieve industrialized nation status, now known as Vision 2020.

Modenas has spearheaded the technology transfer and development of motorcycle manufacturing in Malaysia. Modenas is the only motorcycle manufacturer participant under the national automotive policy framework which has received support and incentives from government to enhance their competitiveness in the automotive industry (National automotive policy framework a wake-up call to national carmakers 2005). With the vision to be a competitive world-class motorcycle and engine manufacturer in the ASEAN region, Modenas’s future target is to become one of the formidable manufacturers of motorcycles in worldwide distribution.

Starting with an investment of RM100 million, the Modenas project was one of the fastest completed projects in the DRB-Hicom stable of companies. Equity is shared by four parties – DRB-Hicom Berhad (55%), Kawasaki Heavy Industries (19%), Khazanah Nasional Berhad (15%) and Sojitz Corporation (formerly known as Nissho Iwai Corporation Japan)(11%) (Modenas is number 1 in Malaysia 2002) but changed to three parties in 1995 – DRB-Hicom Berhad (70%), Kawasaki Heavy Industries (19%) and Sojitz Corporation (11%). Figure 2.3 shows the current percentage of equity shares of the Modenas Company.

Figure 2.3: Modenas share holders

Source: (Modenas homepage 2005) 20

When Modenas was launched, it was so important for the country that the first 100 units of Modenas motorcycles were paraded in the 1996 Merdeka Day celebrations. The sales of Modenas Kriss, the 4 stroke 110 cc moped began in November 1996. One year after sales commenced in the local market, Modenas launched its product in the international market on October 17, 1997. Modenas currently export their models to 10 Asian countries including Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Iran, Singapore and Vietnam. Exports to the European region are Greece, Malta and Turkey and lastly in the South American region to Argentina (Modenas is number 1 in Malaysia 2002). Figure 2.4 shows the Modenas website while the following Figure 2.5 and Figure 2.6 show the Modenas motorcycle production models.

Figure 2.4: Modenas company website

Source: (Modenas homepage 2005)

Figure 2.5: Modenas production model of motorcycles 1

Source: Adapted from Modenas website (Modenas homepage 2005)

Figure 2.6: Modenas production model of motorcycles 2

Source: Adapted from Modenas website (Modenas homepage 2005)

With the current challenges from its close competitors Honda, Yamaha, Suzuki, Kawasaki and Chinese made motorcycles, Modenas has maintained its position as the major producer in Malaysia, with 100,842 units, contributing 39.4% of the total production in 2000. The overall production of motorcycles declined by 5% from 269,586 units in 1999 to 255,731 units in 2000. This was due to several factors such as the improvement of wider roads as new connecting to major highways, which do not have provision for motorcycle users and increasing in car ownership based on vehicle registrations (Malaysia: forecast 2005). These factors affecting the demand for motorcycles in Malaysia (Malaysia motorcycle market 2001). Figure 2.7 shows the motorcycle production in the years 1999 to 2000 and the following Figure 2.8 shows the motorcycle sales in the year 1999 to 2000.

Figure 2.7: Motorcycle production year 1999-2000.

Figure 2.8: Motorcycle sales year 1999-2000

Source: Adapted from (Malaysia motorcycle market 2001)

The demand for motorcycles as one of the alternative modes of transportation is still increasing. According to the Chief Executive Officer of Modenas, Harith Abdullah, the high fuel price and more restricted car financing requirements directly benefit the motorcycle industry, as some Malaysians prefer motorcycles for short distance transportation. The increasing price of oil and petroleum products is another factor, which has affected this situation. The petroleum prices are determined by the international market based on supply and demand, and although Malaysia produces and exports oil, it is not a member of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). This makes the petroleum price unpredictable by following the world oil prices and means it will increase in the near future. With regard to this, modes of transport with less fuel consumption such as motorcycles are will be in high demand. In order to cater for this future market, the Modenas has plans to introduce more models, but the production still depends on the motorcycle market trends (Omar 2007). According to a report from the President of the Malaysian Automotive Association, Datuk Aishah Ahmad, Total Industry Volume (TIV) in Malaysia for cars in 2007 dropped 6% due to difficulties with hire purchase loan regulations and shorter loan repayment periods. This will increase the

demand of motorcycles as an alternative form of transport (TIV for 2007 experts a 6% drop: MAA forecasts TIV to reach 460 000 units 2007).

He also added that the Malaysia’s small population and growing per-capita income means motorcycle demand may soon peak and demand subsequently fall as the population moves to the automobile era earlier than the rest of the ASEAN countries. The ratio of motorcycles to people in Malaysia is 1:4, and is considered the highest ration in the ASEAN region (Omar 2007).

Modenas market share has been declining from a commanding control of 40%. The penetration of Chinese motorcycle players into the Malaysian market, targeting the low entry level with cheap pricing, has caused Japanese manufacturers and their distributors to drop their prices by as much as RM 1, 200 per motorcycle… Modenas ranks third in the country, thus we need to drastically improve the perception of our brand image (Hwei 2006).

According to the Malaysian motorcycle market report in 2000, Modenas was strong in the moped segment due to its low price advantage. However, by mainly serving the Malaysian market, Modenas lost its market share to competitors and its share of the ASEAN market decreased to 4.2% from 5.5%. The decrease in sales was partly due to competition, as a result of consumer preference shifting to motor vehicles following easier credit facilities and lower interest rates for hire purchase for passenger cars (National economic recovery plan: agenda for action 1998). Two stroke models make up approximately 70% of the domestic motorcycle market, with others four stroke bikes. Despite the limited market for four-stroke bikes, the former CEO of Modenas, Rashid said Modenas’s move into four-stroke bikes is in order to support the government’s aspiration to reduce environmental pollution (Poh 1996). The following Figure 2.9 shows that, starting at second place in 1997, Modenas consistently lost its market share to competitors to stand in third place in 2006.

Figure 2.9: Share market by main competitors in Malaysia

Source: Adapted from (The short analysis of motorcycle's market and industries 2007)

According to Datuk Ahmad Husni Hanadzlah, International Trade and Industry Deputy Minister of Malaysia, in order for Modenas to be more competitive in the market, local motorcycle manufacturers and distributors should look for overseas partners who are willing to transfer their technology so that such strategic partnerships can steer the local motorcycle industry. He also said that investment in research and development should be expanded, so that each product manufactured would be in accordance with international quality and standards (Malaysia sees positive development in motorcycle industry 2005).

The government hopes that Malaysian companies can develop the motorcycle and scooter component manufacturing industry, especially through designing and making their own engines (Malaysia sees positive development in motorcycle industry 2005).

The efficiency and competitiveness of the industry would have to be improved to further increase market opportunities in the local and global markets. To support this, the key

strategies will be to develop capabilities and production technologies, improve R&D and design work as well as to strengthen the distribution network and marketing expertise. Motorcycle sales outlets, motorcycle repair shops, after-sales performance parts shops and motorcycle tuning shops are fewer compared to similar outlets for cars. The used motorcycle market is almost insignificant compared to the abundance of used car dealers (Malaysia motorcycle market 2001). As the motorization rate for the motorcycle industry is the highest in the ASEAN region, the industry’s growth will largely depend on its ability to export. In regard to this, efforts need to be intensified to diversity its current market. Given the significant challenges facing the automotive industry, in particular globalisation, liberalisation, and increasing competition, there is a need to review the strategic direction and policy framework for the domestic automotive sector. As this challenge is crucial and it is important to maintain the competitiveness of participants in the automotive sector, in order for the company to survive in the long term market (National automotive policy framework a wake-up call to national carmakers 2005). According to the former Chief Executive Officer of Modenas, Datuk Rashid Din, Modenas may not be able to compete against cheaper motorcycle imports from China based on price, but has an edge in terms of quality and after-sales service. He hoped that the government would be able to set a quality standard for motorcycle imports so that local consumers would be able to get quality vehicles (Malaysia’s first 130cc motorbike launched 2006).

Based on preliminary research, new information and problems have been identified. Basically, the current situation for Modenas is that there is falling market demand for Modenas products. A number of issues threaten the Modenas Company currently and will continue to do so in the future. Although Modenas has managed to maintain monthly sales of its motorcycles through special offers, sales have declined since February 1998. Weak consumer sentiment and the withdrawal of credit lines are adversely affecting the motorcycle dealers (National economic recovery plan: agenda for action 1998). Figure 2.10 shows the market share and production units of motorcycles in Malaysia from 1997 to 2006. It indicates that Modenas was in second place to its close competitors of Honda 31% and Suzuki 19% in 1997 with 28% of market share. The total production in 1997 also indicates Modenas was in second place with 99,000 units compared to Honda with 111,000 units. However, Modenas lost its share in 2006 moving to third place with only 11% of market share. The total production unit also indicates Modenas lost its production to 46,000 units in 2006.

Figure 2.10: Share market and production unit of motorcycles in Malaysia

Source: Adapted from (The short analysis of motorcycle's market and industries 2007)

Deputy General Manager of Modenas, Chang Leong, said the Malaysian motorcycle market has "reached a peak" as rising affluence leads more people to buy cars. In regard to this, Modenas is facing pressure from Honda, which has developed new and cheaper models with components and parts made in China. As a result, the domestic market in Malaysia is small and stagnant. The alternative is to go to other markets which are quiet strong, such as Indonesia, as well as Vietnam and Cambodia, where income is still low and sales are growing (Malaysia's motorcycle maker eyes expansion in SE Asia 2003). This scenario indicates that Modenas needs to look ahead for other convincing prospects and future plan to market their products.

In relation to this, motorcycles manufacturers need to concentrate on market research methods in order to improve their brand and compete in the market. These methods will focus more on market research in order to provide a technique which could identify the current and 29

future users in the market. The following section elaborates more on the design research methods which are practised in other motorcycle and automotive companies.

2.3 Design Research Methods in Global Industry: Motorcycle

Automotive companies generally conduct their marketing strategies through marketing research methods, which are gathering, recording, and analysis of data about issues in systematic relation to marketing products and services. Marketing research identifies and assesses the changing elements in marketing, which impact customer behaviour. Marketing research is the function that links the consumer to the marketer through information. The information is used to identify and define marketing problems; generate, refine, and evaluate marketing actions; monitor marketing performance; and improve understanding of marketing as a process (Churchill & Brown 2007, p. 15). It may also be described as the systematic and objective identification, collection, analysis, and dissemination of information for the purpose of in decision-making and opportunities for automotive companies. This process involves the following type of research design through qualitative and quantitative marketing research based on questioning approaches.

Qualitative research techniques demonstrate an exploratory purpose using a small number of participants who do not represent the whole population. Some examples of this type of investigation include focus groups, in-depth interviews, and projective techniques. Quantitative techniques on the other hand are used to test for a specific hypothesis using random sampling techniques from the sample population, which involves a large number of participants. Some examples of this type of investigation include surveys and questionnaires. The research process based on observations includes ethnographic studies, in which the social phenomena will be observed in their natural setting, such as product use analysis and ethnography.

Motorcycle companies conduct their marketing research in order to sustain their sales and brand to users. For example, ethnography used by Harley-Davidson motorcycles recognized that consumption activities, product categories, or even brands may serve as the basis for interaction and social cohesion (Schouten & McAlexander 1995). The concept of the subculture of consumption solves many problems inherent in the use of ascribed social categories as devices for understanding consumer behaviour. Through market research, 30

Harley-Davidson discovered the “Harley experience”, which included bonding with fellow motorcycle enthusiasts, and they created a special relationship between the customer, the company, and other customers. Harley-Davidson has used these elements to build a deep, meaningful, and long term relationship with their customers (Bhattacharya & Sen 2003). This method created a close relationship between their brands and customers, which lasts for the long term and provides a continuous prospect of users in the market (Speros 2004).

Harley-Davidson and Buell both achieved their brand ambitions by fulfilling customer needs and by dominating market segments that they targeted. Harley-Davidson produces heavyweight motorcycles under the Harley-Davidson name and sports-touring motorcycles under the Buell name (Johnson 2006). Between 1991 and 2002, the U.S. heavyweight motorcycle market grew at a compound annual rate of about 15%. Within this market, Harley had a market share of 48% by 2002. Harley also introduced its brand through offering a complete line of motorcycle accessories such as clothing, and collectibles. The Buell line of sport and sport-touring motorcycles was introduced to the specific target of younger riders, a relatively new market segment for Harley (Frigo 2004). Figure 2.11 shows the groups of Harley- Davidson owners in convoy with their motorcycles.

Figure 2.11: Harley-Davidson motorcycle owners’ convoy

Source: (Harley 2010)

This kind of research employed an ethnographic method in which researchers became involved with motorcycle users in order to learn more about the users’ attitudes. Ethnography is a tool used in anthropology. Its purpose is to record and described human cultures, using techniques such as observation, listening and (sensitively) joining in with activities taking place in their natural setting (Green & Jordan 2002). Ethnography has been used as a research tool in design, particularly for its potential to assist designers in identifying opportunities for new types of products. The method can be used not only for studying foreign cultures but also for subcultures such as teenagers and shoppers. This type of qualitative research method seeks depth and richness of information by immersion in, but minimal interference with, the culture being studied. Ethnographic studies of foreign cultures typically involve observations over months or even years. In adapting the technique for use in design the time frames are reduced and video is commonly used as a means of communicating observations to the design team. This type of ethnographic method has also been used by the producers of Jeep in the creation of “Camp Jeep”, through which new jeep owners are taught such skills as driving off-road. The company created an activity to understand the interests, values, and lifestyles of their consumers (Companies building "brand communities" 2003). They organised fly-fishing lessons, offered mountain biking experiences, and established a rock-climbing course for their consumers. These activities put people together with others who had similar interests, and showed them the company cared about them.

Harley-Davidson also used a market research method which involved conducting focus groups made up of current owners, prospective owners, and owners of other motorcycle brands to express their feelings about Harley-Davidson using cut and paste collages. The common themes that emerged in their artwork included a sense of feeling and attachment such as enjoyment, the great outdoors, and freedom. Harley-Davidson also used a technique to gather their consumer information needs by sending a survey through the mail. Using this technique, 16,000 surveys containing psychological, sociological, and demographic questions were delivered to the consumers. From the responses, Harley identified seven core customer types; the Adventure-Loving Traditionalist, the Sensitive Pragmatist, the Stylish Status-Seeker, the Laid-back Camper, the Classy Capitalist, the Cool-headed Loner, and the Cocky Misfit. All of them appreciated Harley-Davidson products for the same reasons, and provided new target users for their brand (Murphy 1996). The focus group technique has been widely used as a qualitative research method for market research. The method is usually conducted by making

use of a planned discussion among 5 to 12 participants which is led by a moderator (Langford & McDonagh 2002). A key characteristic of this method is the interaction between group members where participants respond to and build upon contributions of each other.

The Piaggio Motorcycle Company, which is famous for their scooter types ‘Vespa’, also used market research to gain insights from consumers about their products. The Vespa motorcycle evolved from the marketing aspects through an attachment to culture in a form of social history (Vella 2006). In the ‘La Dolce Vita’, the Vespa became a synonym name for scooter and was identified by its presence in hundreds of famous films through the decade. The appearance of international actors and actresses such as Audrey Hepburn and Gregory Peck with the Vespa in their film ‘Roman Holiday’ was only one of the films which introduced their brands to consumers (Schupak 2005). As part of consumers’ social attachment, Vespa continuously existed in the market through their success in achieved market share in the motorcycle market (Shoaf 2004). Figure 2.12 shows the Vespa 98 model, which was introduced from 1946 to 1947 in the market.

Figure 2.12: Vespa model of 98, production year 1946-1947

Source: (Motorcycles 2011)

Honda Company, which is the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world, also continuously develop their marketing research methods in order to identify their customer behaviour and improve their brand in the market. Started in 1958, when Honda first introduced the ‘C100

Super Cub’, Honda motorcycle model have been used in the US market as sports, leisure, easy going, convenient, and reliable modes of transport competing with other dominant companies (Pascale 1996). With its marketing slogan campaign, ‘you meet nice people on Honda’, this model became the best selling bike due to Honda’s success in determining the consumers’ need at that time (Pascale 1984). Figure 2.13 shows the first model of Honda C100 Super Cub, which was introduced in the market in 1958.

Figure 2.13: Honda C100 Super Cub motorcycle model

Source: (Honda 50 run 2011)

The Honda Company determined their marketing methods by researching how the human brain reacts to images. They found that people recognize faces, especially angry faces, more quickly than other images. Honda incorporated this research into its motorcycle designs of the DN-01 model. By designing the front of the bike to evoke the features of the human face, Honda believed that the drivers or road users will recognize the presence of a motorcycle more quickly, which will therefore lead to greater traffic safety in avoiding accidents among motorcyclists (Taylor 2008). The DN-01 was launched at the Tokyo Motor Show in 2005 as a concept model that was developed with the aim of ‘creating new value’ without being restricted into any existing category of motorcycle segment (Honda 2005). Figure 2.14 shows the Honda DN-01 motorcycle model.

Figure 2.14: Honda DN-01 motorcycle model

Source: (Williams 2009)

2.4 Design Research Methods in Global Industry: Automotive

Automotive companies continuously identify their customer needs through research in order to provide choices for consumers in their buying decisions and to compete with other automotive companies in the market. Most automotive platforms are produced in order to meet known combinations of customer needs. However, this information requires a method which can identify new opportunities in the presentation of their brand in the market. As an example, in the late 1980s, using methods combining qualitative focus groups and quantitative perceptual mapping studies, a new segment of the automotive market was identified in order to create a luxury vehicle that provided a choice in fulfilling the customer’s needs. This resulted in the production of the Luxury Sport-Utility-Vehicle (SUV) as one of the example of creating a new automotive segment. The SUV became the most profitable vehicle in the automotive market (Urban & Hauser 2004).

The Ford Company used the ‘leading-edge users’ research method to identify a market need for the ‘pony’ segment car: an affordable, compact, highly styled car with a sporty or performance-oriented image, with its 1964 Mustang. It was designed for the teenage and young adult lifestyle market, and involved customizing inexpensive vintage Fords with V8 engines. Finally, Ford introduced an inexpensive sporty car with large engines for their customers in order for their brand to compete with other automotive companies (Dvorak & Mraz 2005).

The Chrysler minivan model from the Chrysler Company was an example of a new automotive segment introduced in 1983, based on their research defining opportunities for families who needed a vehicle that could carry goods, was easier to park in their garages but drove like a normal passenger car, had a side door for small children, and incorporated a sedan-like comfort. This model sold 210,000 units in the first year and dominated its segment competing, with other companies (Dyer 1996). Another example was the model of Daimler Chrysler AG, which was produced from the exploration of design research methods, which focused on forming emotional bonds with consumers. This method used customer surveys that focused on levels of emotional satisfaction. This resulted in the production of its low price “K” car, which is known as the popular 300M Model, which won Motor Trend magazine’s 1999 ‘Car of the Year’ award (Fellman 1999).

Automotive companies through their marketing strategies invest heavily in identifying new opportunities in design research methods in their product development process. The existing methods used include speaking to specialist users, maintaining and monitoring user groups, sponsoring special racing events (Cornwell, Pruitt & Ness 2001), monitoring chat rooms and user groups, and using various qualitative and ethnographic methods (Barabba, Zaltman & Spitzer 1991 ; Clardy 2006 ; Griffin & Hauser 1993). Automotive firms invest heavily in quantitative methods such as conjoint analyses; activities, interests, and opinion (AIO) studies; and large-scale clinics in which customers view and react to prototypes and concepts (Plummer 1974 ; Urban, Weinberg & Hauser 1996).

According to Plummer, the lifestyles segmentation method is useful in design research because it provides a unique and important view of the market. It begins with focusing on people in relation to their lifestyles and motivations and these will determine how various marketing factors fit into their lives. This provides fresh insights into the market and gives a more multidimensional view of the target consumers (Plummer 1974).

Another method used in automotive market research is ‘listening in’. The method is to listen in on customer dialogues with virtual advisers to identify combinations of customer needs. This method involves an ongoing dialogue created when customers use the Internet to search for information and advice about automotive purchases (Urban & Hauser 2004). Using these methods, the virtual advisers generating the data are frequently updated to include new products and new customer benefits (needs), providing evolving data with which to identify new combinations of needs as soon as customers express them. This method benefits from continuous improvement. The researchers using this method focused on the truck market to illustrate it, but it can be used for other complex product categories, such as travel, medical, and office equipment (Urban & Hauser 2004).

According to Urban and Hauser (2004), qualitative and ethnographic interviews are effective methods to conduct once the research is focused, but they are an expensive means to search for combinations of needs that might be desired in the market. Conjoint analyses of Activities, Interests, and Opinion (AIO) studies provide accurate estimates of the importance of customer needs, but they are most effective when they target approximately 10 to 20 needs. AIO studies are designed to examine the entire market for new combinations of needs, but they are expensive, performed infrequently, and tend not to collect data on gaps in customer needs.

The large-scale clinics method provides direct interactions with customers but it designed to forecast sales before launch and its primary use is confirmatory rather than exploratory (Urban & Hauser 2004).

Quality Function Deployment or QFD is a well established method in the management of technology that suggests cooperation and communication among marketing, manufacturing, engineering, and R&D, which will lead to greater new-product success and more profitable products. QFD improves communication among these functions by linking the voice of the customer to engineering, manufacturing, and R&D decisions (Griffin & Hauser 1993). QFD was developed at Mitsubishi’s Kobe shipyards in 1972 and adopted by Toyota in the late 1970s. With claims of 60% reductions in design costs and 40% reductions in design time, this method was brought to the U.S. in 1986 for initial application at Ford and Xerox. By 1989, approximately two dozen U.S. firms had adopted QFD for some or all of their product and service development (Griffin & Hauser 1993).

Empathic design is a method of observation by watching consumers use products or services in their own environment. This method consists of techniques for gathering, analysing, and applying information gleaned from observation in the field. The Nissan Company used this method to observe how consumers were actually using their trucks and other competitors’ trucks. Using this method, they commissioned a photographer to travel to several cities and take pictures of people in trucks to understand how their products were being used as commuter and family cars. They were surprised to see how different people behaved, such as eating in trucks, which they termed “not just drinks, but whole spaghetti dinners!” (Leonard & Rayport 1997).

The Toyota Motor Corporation, through its Lexus division, addressed several elements in design research methods in order to sell their models, including brand perceptions, performance issues and marketing campaigns. Lexus division deployed a ‘super affluent team’, a group that travelled around the United States asking rich people what they wanted in order to gain information about their target users. This group also organised lavish parties around these places and were involved in joint venture activities with famous brands like Vogue Magazine and Neiman Marcus stores in order to gain insight into their users’ needs. The group identified the criteria of the rich and ended up with four new ‘brand experience managers’ for

that segment in the market. Lexus also held focus group sessions at the Avalon Hotel in Beverly Hills to gather information about their customers (Chon 2007).

The Honda Company use their three corporate principles: genba, genbutsu, and genjitsu, meaning “real place, real thing, and real activity”, to describe their design and market research methods. These principles are continuously applied at all levels within Honda. Genba demands that a person be ‘on the scene’ or in the place where events are actually happening, instead of relying on second-hand information. An example of this method was practiced by the U.S. Honda design team in searching to identify what is important in the design of a future model. Instead of putting on a ‘staged’ clinic, this team spent a full day at Disneyland, watching how people used their cars, what they put into their trunks, and noting the design features which made each user activity easier or more difficult (Ealey & Soderberg 1990).

Honda extended their design research methods by continuously looking into various aspects of different areas. For example, scientists of the R&D team at the Honda Research Institute conducted an experiment in material and computer science that may never find a use. One of the projects is the development of nanocars with the width of a single strand of DNA. The nanocar features a chassis, a pivoting suspension, and rotating axles that can move in response to the need for innovation in size and mobility in automotive design. Their scientists and engineers have been known to study the movement of cockroaches and bumblebees to better understand mobility (Taylor 2008).

Honda also organised a new junior red riders program as one of their marketing strategies, by organising a training day for children aged 6 to 12 and intended to teach the fundamentals of safe and enjoyable off-road motorcycling. The aim of the program was to introduce future riders to the Honda brand by capturing their interest in motorcycles and creating an experience with recognized mechanized equipment in a safe and fun way (Richardson 2004). This resulted in introducing their brand so that it was familiar to this young generation of potential users.

The American Honda Motor Company launched a project with private industry and government to expand car-sharing research as one of its methods. The purpose of this was to see if consumer satisfaction can be fulfilled with limited access to a shared vehicle using natural-gas technology as a future mode of transportation. The Honda Motor Company has

experimented with car sharing since 1994 when it introduced the Intelligent Community Vehicle System, which combined electric-powered vehicles, intelligent transportation technology and radio communications to help people move through congested urban areas. Honda began their public testing of its community vehicle concept in Tochigi, Japan in 1999. In the California study, Honda provides the vehicles and pays for maintenance and insurance. They use Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in Livermore, California as the test area for the program. Participants may choose one of three types of use for their vehicle. Firstly, driving vehicles to and from a rapid-transit station outside the city to work in the city, and on household trips on evenings and weekends. Secondly, driving from the transit station to their jobs at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Lastly, driving vehicles to work or on personal trips to and from the lab (Jocelyn 1999). This resulted in the exploration of consumers’ satisfaction in real life situations in order to provide important information for the company.

The Mazda Motor Corporation has focused on forming emotional connections with consumers by shaping ‘a psychographic profile’ of them through their design research methods. Mazda worked with Yankelovich Partners, a research firm in New York in order to identify its target market and survey their users’ behaviour. Members of a Mazda marketing team ranging in age from mid-20s to early 30s, the same age as the target consumers for their Protege car, went to food courts throughout the United States to observe the target market in their daily activities. The result showed that the target primarily was a group of woman, average age in their 20s, and other consumers in that group who like to use the Internet. Mazda used the information to position itself as a leading brand and technologically oriented company through this method. Mazda also introduced a Web marketing program that included a contest and the unveiling of the ’99 Protege model. The Web site included an ‘on-line launch party’ beginning with a virtual road trip that had ‘stops’ along the way at which Web surfers could sign up for more information on the ’99 model (Fellman 1999).

Before any company introduces their products to a different market, it must understand and acknowledge the cultural differences for their markets. If the company fails to identify the needs and specifications of the target market, it will limit the product marketability. Thus, it is important to place the products in a proper position in the market depending on the understanding of intercultural differences. A study by De Leur, Drukker, Christiaans, and De Rijk (2006) showed that designers must understand the needs, tasks and environments of the target consumers for products that are to be marketed in cross-cultural environments. This is 40

the key for successful cross-cultural product design. Using a focus group method, their study explored the relationship of product semantics, aesthetics, primary functionality, and cultural context in Dutch and Korean home kitchens (De Leur et al. 2006). This showed cultural diversity in products and product experience in both kitchen environments. It suggests that designers need to be aware of the cultural variations that result in completely different product design criteria. This study is relevant to the present research which concentrates upon cross-cultural studies factors. The following section discusses cross-cultural studies, as an important area in this research.

2.5 Cross Cultural Studies

As this research incorporates a cross-cultural investigation, there is a need to focus on previous cross-cultural studies in other related areas. In cross-cultural study, cultural variation is reflected in consumers’ attitudes throughout the world. Cultural variation appears in product design, communication design, marketing, advertising, and other related areas. These variations reflect the cultural environment where consumers live and influence their choices of lifestyle, habits, values, and concepts. Allwood and Wang’s (1990) research indicates that the cultural environment in which they live influences people’s conceptualising of reality. Their research is supported by an examination of the computer conceptions between Chinese and Swedish students which shows Chinese students have a more optimistic view of the effect of computers on society than Swedish students (Allwood & Wang 1990).

Cross-cultural studies were also conducted in comparisons of gender in the United Kingdom and Hong Kong. This showed large differences in attitudes and anxieties between genders and nationalities. According to this study, male respondents in both countries had more computer- related experience, less anxiety and more positive attitudes than female respondents. The study showed differences in attitudes to computers with strong cultural effects (Brosnan & Lee 1998).

In anthropological research, culture has been defined in many ways. Kluckhohn provided a definition of culture as:

Culture is defined as a way of thinking, feeling, and believing…Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and 41

transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts… the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e., historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as product of action, on the other as conditioning influences upon further action (Kluckhohn 1962, p. 72).

While Fiske defined a culture from a cross-cultural perspectives as:

A culture is a socially transmitted or socially constructed constellation consisting of such things as practice, competencies, ideas, schemas, symbols, values, norms, institutions, goals, constitutive rules, artifacts, and modifications of the physical environment (Fiske 2002, p. 85).

According to Rogers and Steinfatt (1999), cultures are not limited to nationalities and ethnic groups because communities, organizations, and other systems have cultures. Each different population or group environment creates their own culture that best fits to their situation and their life. Culture is defined as the total way of life of a people, and is composed of learning and sharing the same behaviour patterns, values, norms, and material objects.

Many studies indicate that there are differences in cultural behaviour between ethnic groups and countries e.g. (Lin 2007 ; Lin et al. 2007 ; Mastor 2000). A study by Packman, Brown, Englert, Sisarich, and Bauer (2005) indicates that the largest differences in cultural behaviour were found between countries in Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Agreeableness traits. Small, but significant differences, were also detected for Conscientiousness and Neuroticism traits. This study examined human personality differences between three ethnic groups in New Zealand and between people in the three countries of New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa (Packman et al. 2005). According to a study by Triandis and Suh (2002), caution is required in arguing that cultures influence the development of human personality.

Related research on cross-cultural differences between Malaysia and Australia showed a difference in self-congruity and product evaluation. In a study by Quester, Amal, and Li (2000), two types of products, personal computers such as IBM and Dell, and denim jeans such as

Levi’s Strauss and Lee, were evaluated differently by participants in terms of actual self-image and their congruence with the product image. The participants were found to use different actual versus ideal self-images in product evaluation. The study suggests marketers should use self-congruence factors in order to determine their global marketing objectives and to approach different national markets separately (Quester, Amal & Li 2000).

Similar research in Botswana explored how culture can be used as a source of designing innovative products (Richie, Vesna & Hickling-Hudson 2006). Experimental design approaches were conducted with design students at the University of Botswana in order to analyse and identify socio-cultural factors that impact on design. The socio-cultural research was used to uncover users’ social, emotional, aesthetic values, and habits. The study advised designers to treat the use of socio-cultural factors as a bridge to new innovative design concepts. This improved the usefulness, usability, and desirability of products for consumers (Richie, Vesna & Anne 2006).

In relation to providing a good product innovation to consumers, the success of a product in the market place may be determined by its aesthetic appeal, the pleasure it creates, and the satisfaction it brings to the consumer. According to Khalid and Helander (2004), previous studies in product innovations have not focused upon these customer emotions. Thus, their research proposed a framework for analysis of customer emotions in the designer’s environment. According to this framework, customer needs and measured emotions are earlier aspects, which should be considered in the design process. It suggested that designers and manufacturers should apply an emotional design aspect as a bottom line of the product design process (Khalid 2006).

The cross-disciplinary field has been explored in order to identify future design research methods which can empower the market research area in motorcycle design. This resulted in the adaption of Semantic Differential and Multidimensional Scaling MDS, which are discussed further in the following section.

2.6 Semantic Differential and Multidimensional Scaling Method Overview

In order to design successful products it is essential to gain feedback from potential consumers (Engelbrektsson 2002). A successful product design should be meaningful, understandable and communicate with the users (Krippendorff 1989). This is particularly important for high volume manufacturing and service industries with known demographic profiles of their target market. Increasingly, markets are segmented into such demographics and products-services are designed for them. Normally, this is accomplished through market research which is then fed back into the product development process (Engelbrektsson & Soderman 2004). Traditionally, market research relied heavily upon methods such as focus groups, surveys, interviews, and questionnaire surveys (Hannington 2003). One delivers qualitative information in the form of language, while the other delivers quantitative information in the form of numbers. Neither fits comfortably with designers’ preferred mode of communication: the visual. In addition, neither method is designed to illuminate fine distinctions amongst the visual appearance of products-services (Hashim et al. 2009).

Among these methods, the focus group is by far the most popular and well-established technique in market research (Bruseberg & McDonagh 2001). Its major advantage is that detailed feedback can be obtained from a small sample of the demographic population of interest, usually around eight to twelve participants. It also has considerable practical advantages of being cheap to run. As such, almost anyone can set up a business conducting focus groups. The disadvantages are numerous, including small sample sizes, dependence upon the ability of participants to verbally articulate their responses, and the capacity of the leader of the group to distil the group’s reactions (Pullman & Robson 2007). The other most favoured method, the questionnaire-survey, is much more expensive to run, requires data handling and statistical analysis. Its major advantage is that hundreds of participants can be involved, particularly if the survey is conducted over the Internet. Its disadvantages are that it generates statistical analyses that require a high degree of sophistication to understand, and it provides limited insights into visual products-services. Finally, neither method involves users in an interactive task that deals directly with the visual, and does so in a way that requires only visual judgments.

Using the visual interactive associated in the design research method provides an advantage in the meaning of product appearances. The meaning of product appearance can communicate 44

with users in order for them to assess the product on functional, aesthetic, symbolic or ergonomic lines. These aspects play an important role in the overall product appraisal. If products are not clear or fail to communicate to the user, the product will be less appreciated. Therefore, it is important for designers to have a knowledge of what appearance attributes are perceived by users as favourable (Blijlevens, Creusen & Schoormans 2009).

Having reviewed the literature on product appearance relating to dimensions of aesthetics, semantics and symbolism, the Semantic Differential technique was chosen for this research. The Semantic Differential was chosen because it is effective and time saving to implement. This technique employs rating of ‘concepts’ by using bipolar scales and proves to be a flexible and reliable approach to measuring attitudes and other sentiments. Bipolar scales are defined by a pair of adjective with contrasting meanings such as Fast - Slow, and Cheap - Expensive. The ‘concept’ refers to the objects that are rated including automobiles and other products. There are typically three to five major factors of connotative meaning involved in factor analytic studies using the Semantic Differential scales. The most frequently obtained factor evaluation is: Liked – Disliked; Positive – Negative; and Honest – Dishonest.

The second most frequently obtained factor is potency, defined by adjectives such as Heavy – Light; Strong – Weak; Hard – Soft. The third factor is activity, defined by adjectives such as Active – Passive; Hot – Cold; and Fast – Slow. The advantage of this approach is that it is easy to construct special bipolar scales for a specific study. Such scales can help to ensure that one taps into particular facets of attitudes that may be important for the specific study (DeSarbo & Harshman 1985). Figure 2.15 demonstrates the adjectives based on Semantic Differential scale (Osgood & Suci 1955).

Figure 2.15: Semantic Differential scales

Source: (Osgood & Suci 1955)

The Semantic Differential scale can be used to investigate multidimensional and complex structures involving the perceptions and associations of a product, which may give rise to source effects (Osgood 1952). This method has been applied in examining the congruent relationship between self-image and product brands. One study examined whether products as symbols were perceived and organized into congruent relationships with the self-concept. The investigations appear to verify psychological theories that individuals tend to relate the brand symbol to their self-concepts (Dolich 1969). Similarly, the application of semantic differential scales has also been adapted in the study of users’ perception of a robot’s anthropomorphic influences on the cultural background of Japanese and US Americans participants (Bartneck 2008). The results from this study showed an effect of cultural background in participants’ perceptions of a robot’s anthropomorphism. Figure 2.16 shows the questionnaire used in their survey by adapting the Semantic Differential scales.

Figure 2.16: Semantic Differential questionnaire

Source: (Bartneck 2008)

A study of the influence of image congruence on consumer choice obtained significant relationships between self-concept and several automobile brands. The study used Semantic Differential scales to measures groups of car owners. The groups were defined as: group 1: owners of Cadillac, Lincoln, and Imperial; group 2: owners of Oldsmobile, Chrysler, Buick, and Pontiac; group 3: owners of Ford, Chevrolet, and Plymouth; group of 4: owners of Volkswagen, Falcon, Renault, Rambler, Corvair, and Volvo. The results showed a highly significant degree of congruity existed in the way respondents from the four groups perceived their cars and themselves. It appears that automobiles are extensions of the owner’s image of self. It also appears that an individual’s cognitive structure, their self-image, and their environment are major influences on their perception of automobiles (Birdwell 1968).

Another method to provide information on consumer personality as a strategic marketing tool was introduced by Shank and Langmeyer, using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator MBTI and product personality. The MBTI questions were distributed to respondent by letter. The MBTI

questions categorize individual questions into four pairs of opposite personality traits: extroversion - introversion, sensing - intuition, thinking - feeling, and judging - perceiving. Product personality or brand image was assessed in the study by using popular American products and services to consumers, for example McDonald’s, White Castle, Reebok, and Nike. The questions using bipolar adjectives that needed to be rated by respondents were similar to the Semantic Differential scales. The results showed several Myers-Briggs personality types were related to perceived product/service image attributes (Shank & Langmeyer 1994).

The Semantic Differential technique has been chosen and adapted with the Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) technique in this research. MDS is a technique where products are positioned in a proximities space or pair distances in order to generate a low-dimensional and spatial presentation of data: the closer together in the space, the more similar the products (Antikainen, Kälviäinen & Miller 2003 ; Schiffman, Reynolds & Young 1981 ; Walter 2004). It can be used to measure and understand the relationships between objects. Using this technique would allow large amounts of data to be systematized and compressed (Schiffman, Reynolds & Young 1981). This technique has been used as a method for representing perceptions of products, pricing and branding in the study of channels of distribution, personal selling, the effect of advertising, research related to fact finding, analysis of marketing research, and in attitude research (Abelson 1955 ; Cooper 1983). Figure 2.17 shows the two- dimensional plot of Semantic Differential scales, which was adapted with a MDS visual technique for this research.

Figure 2.17: Two-dimensional plot of the Semantic Differential

Source: (Antikainen, Kälviäinen & Miller 2003)

The earliest application of MDS in marketing research was conducted by Torgeson in 1952 to identify consumers’ perception of a new pattern designed by a New England silverware manufacturer. This was followed by Stefflre in 1969 in a study emphasizing more the advantages of MDS as presentation of data in order to show the critical features related to buyers’ judgement of stimuli (brands or products). MDS procedures, which use direct similarity or dissimilarity measures as input, have the advantage of being low in experimenter contamination. The procedures do not require a deep knowledge of the attributes of the stimuli in the survey. Rather, this technique provides a space that reveals dimensions relevant to the subjects. The major disadvantages of MDS is that such experiments can be time consuming and expensive (Schiffman, Reynolds & Young 1981 ,p. 3). Figure 2.18 shows the MDS in use with mathematical procedures.

Figure 2.18: Multidimensional Scaling

Source: (Schiffman, Reynolds & Young 1981)

MDS generally uses a mathematical procedure, which can systematize data by representing the similarities of objects as in a map. This usually involves gathering four types of data: 1) similarity judgments among all pairs of stimuli; 2) ratings of stimuli on descriptors such as adjectives; 3) objective measures relating to the sensory properties of the stimuli, and 3) information about the subjects (Schiffman, Reynolds & Young 1981). The adjectives and stimuli in MDS are usually defined by words (verbal) or numbers (numerical). The need for a technique which is more visually flexible and provides multiple ways of presenting results is necessary in this task (Antikainen, Kälviäinen & Miller 2003). As suggested, the use of visual representations of graphic aspect are emphasised more in displaying interrelationships among products rather than the interpretation of dimensions (Carrol & Green 1997). Similarly, MDS was adapted into perceptual mapping technique by combining it with image morphing technique in a study of understanding how product shapes evoke affective responses (Chen et al. 2003). Figure 2.19 shows the automobile perceptual map, which was based on MDS scales.

Figure 2.19: Automobile perceptual map based from Multidimensional Scaling

Source: (Chen et al. 2003)

The overview methods of the Semantic Differential and the MDS give a basic introduction to the techniques in this study. The application of this method is explored further in Chapter 4 of this research using a Motorcycle Positioning Task. This involved Australian and Malaysian participants in indicating their perceptions of motorcycles.

The following section provides an overview of the Room Effect method and the Five Factor Model of Personality traits which were adapted from other disciplines for this study. The applications of this method are explored further in Chapter 5 of this research using a pilot study of the Room Effect method.

2.7 Room Effect and Human Personality Traits Overview

The appearance of a product plays an important role and is crucial to its success, and this is particularly true in the highly competitive market of the automotive industry. Where the competition of products is fierce, market research is customarily conducted as part of new product development for automotive companies. A company that is able to communicate a certain meaning through their product appearances will have an advantage in the market and increase the product’s chance of success to the users (Blijlevens, Creusen & Schoormans 2009 ; Bloch 1995 ; Hertenstein, Platt & Veryzer 2005 ; Yamamoto & Lambert 1994).

Within the automotive industry, a wide range of techniques have been adapted for application in market research. The application of these methods reflects the increasingly competitive segmentation of the global automotive market. It also reflects the speed of new product development and the shortening of product life cycles. In product development, segmentation is particularly problematic, whereby a product is designed for a specific demographic. The difficulty here is that the design may satisfy that particular demographic in one country, but not in another. Even something as apparently trivial as the naming of vehicles needs careful market research. Traditionally, the market research techniques used are predominantly variants of the focus group, interviews and the survey-questionnaire methods. However, these methods have been extended to incorporate a range of techniques that originated in other disciplines. In regard to this, styling is potentially even more problematic whereby the top and the bottom of the market may be understood, but the vast topographic battleground of the middle segment may vary from country to country. In response to such complexities, a range of techniques have been adapted and applied in the automotive industry (Effendi et al. 2009).

A common feature of this market research technique is their focus upon the product per se, and how people perceive and evaluate it, without focusing upon the person associated with the product: in other words, the effect the product has upon how people perceive its owner. An alternative technique derives from environmental psychology. Termed the Room Effect, it indicates the effect the setting has upon perceptions of the person in a room. Until now this method has not been applied to research related to products. A review has been undertaken revealing various theories regarding the methods in environmental psychology. The most influential theory by Canter, West and Wools called the ‘Room Effect’ strongly suggests that people are also adept at associating the surrounding environment with the person type 52

(Canter, West & Wools 1974). The methods justified the conclusion that judgements of an individual are influenced by the room in which the person is situated. Furthermore, a study by Lawrence and Leather suggested the stability of an occupational stereotype is influenced by environmental conditions (Lawrence & Leather 1999). The ‘Room Effect’ method, whereby judgements of an individual are influenced by the room in which the person is situated, is illustrated by images taken from the study of the effects of backgrounds on judgements of people (Canter, West & Wools 1974). The experiment signifies that inference rules operate which assume similarity between people and their physical surroundings. The study presented pictures of people photographically superimposed on a variety of backgrounds, to give the effects in three experiments. Figure 2.20 shows the Room Effect method applications.

Figure 2.20: Room Effect method

Source: (Canter 1977)

The first experiment used line drawings of rooms containing seated figures, while the second experiment used colour slides of actual rooms, and ratings were made both by architecture and by non-architecture students. The third experiment used head and shoulder photographs of people superimposed upon a variety of room backgrounds. Unaware of these manipulations, respondents were asked to rate the people represented in the illustrations. It was found that the ratings were notably different depending upon the background against which the people were seen (Canter 1977). The results indicate that peoples’ interactions with the environment are determined by the meanings they attribute to it, and there influence the expectations on behaviour within a particular environment.

Earlier, in 1956, an observation of a similar Room Effect study, whereby the characteristics of the room impacted upon judgements of people’s faces associated with the room, was conducted (Maslow & Mintz 1956). In this study, faces in a ‘beautiful’ room were judged

higher in ‘energy’ and ‘well-being’ than those in an ‘average’ room, which in turn were higher than those in the ‘ugly’ room (Wilson & Mackenzie 2000). Similarly, the study also found an association between the design of a professor’s room and the presumed characteristics of the professor who would be found there (Campbell 1979). The Room Effect method was chosen and adapted to ‘picture stimuli’ for this research. However, as the survey explored consumer response in judging and perceiving the human image upon motorcycle design across different cultures and genders, questions that related to human personality had to be identified for the survey. For this reason, a review of personality and consumer behavioural research was undertaken.

There were various types of Five-Factor Models of Personality traits, which have been developed by other researchers, starting from Fiske in 1949 to Lorr in 1986, which consist of a wider range of dimensions to portray individual difference. All of these dimensions were studied and created in response to different factors, which can be measured with high reliability and validity and provide reliable answer to the question of personality structure (Digman 1990). In this research, studying product perception is indirectly related to understanding the interaction between human personality and product personality, as a picture of a human and a product were incorporated in the pilot and the actual survey. In the survey for this research, participants were presented with a picture of a motorcycle and a human model as the stimuli. The stimuli personalities were based on dimensions from human personality. Human personalities can be described in five dimensions: 1) Agreeableness; 2) Extraversion; 3) Conscientiousness; 4) Neuroticism; and 5) Openness to experience (McCrae & John 1992). These factors are known as the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits (FFMP), which were chosen to act as a ‘text stimuli’ for the motorcycle perception testing.

Several researchers in earlier studies of consumer behaviour have used standardised human personality scales to assess the personality of products and brands, such as Gordon’s Personal Profile, Edward’s Personal Reference Schedule, Thurstone’s Temperament Schedule, McClosky’s Personality Inventory, Dunnette’s Adjective Checklist, and Cattell’s 16-Personality Factor Inventory and Product-anchored Q-Methodology, and the California Personality Inventory (Kassarjian 1971 ; Sirgy 1982). Therefore, there is a need for personality or consumer behaviour researchers to develop personality inventory scale, in order to define product personality.

Several research studies indicated that product aesthetics evaluations are linked to product personality perceptions, and personality traits were determined as reliable factors and act as an approach to uncover underlying perceptual processes that drive perceptions of product personality (Brunel & Kumar 2007). The Five-Factor Model of Personality traits or ‘Big Five’ are basic trait factors which capture the meaning of personality characteristics and were used in the study of cross-cultural meaning in different countries and cultures (De Raad 1998 ; Digman 1990 ; Goldberg 1990, 1992 ; Hastings 2007). Thus, the use of FFMP adapted with the Room Effect method is considered to serve the purpose of this research as it enhances the other research related purpose (Mount & Barrick 1998). As past research indicated a relationship between product use and personality traits, the intention in this research was to uncover an approach using this method (Tucker & Painter 1961). In relation to this, the overviews of the Room Effect method and The Five-Factor Model of Personality traits served a basic purpose of this study.

2.8 Summary

This chapter has provided an overview of the literature on automotive marketing and design research methods followed by an overview of the problems arising in the automotive and motorcycle industry in Malaysia. In addition, and based upon personal knowledge of the company, Modenas does not take advantage of the sophisticated market research methods used by other companies. This may reflect its origins as a national company, and one somewhat shielded from global competition. Further literature explored the methods used by other successful automotive and motorcycle companies in improving their marketing techniques. In determining the best approach to the study of motorcycle appearance, further literature concentrated on other possible disciplines in order to formulate an efficient marketing technique to suit this study. The following chapter presents the research approach for this study.

Chapter 3

Research Approach and Method

3.1 Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of the research approach and the justification for the method used. The process undertaken in developing and conducting this research is represented diagrammatically in Figure 3.1. The majority of these steps are discussed in this chapter unless otherwise indicated.

Figure 3.1: Summary of the research process.

This research investigated the current methods used by the automotive industry to identify user perception towards motorcycle design. The question that arose from this research was whether a method derived from other disciplines could be used to shed light upon a design/marketing problems that are currently confronting the Malaysian motorcycle industry. In order to achieves this, an investigation of the meaning of the motorcycle to the user, the

effect the motorcycle design and motorcycle personality have upon perception of its owner are explored.

The second phase of this research concentrates on the development of the survey instrument. The reason for selecting the approach has been outlined in this chapter. Furthermore, the selective method of the pilot and the actual survey is also justified in this chapter.

3.2 Overview of the Research Approach

The major focus of this study was to explore consumer response to motorcycle design across different cultures and genders. The methods were selected to discover how the Modenas motorcycle is perceived, initially by the Malaysian and Australian participants and finally, by international participants. This research was conducted by using a parallel technique of both qualitative and quantitative approaches to data collection. The methods were implemented in two different phases: 1) parallel technique of pilot survey (Motorcycle Positioning Task and the Room Effect method) and 2) actual survey (Room Effect method).

There is considerable support in the research methods literature for the efficacy of combining both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Bryman (1988) advocates that the qualitative approach can facilitate the quantitative approach by serving as a source of hypotheses. Deshpande (1983) suggests that qualitative fieldwork can assist quantitative surveys, data collection and analysis. The concept of using more than one method of investigation, thus, creating more than one type of data, will provide more information within the research (Bryman 1988 ; Deshpande 1983).

Furthermore, Neuman (2003) states:

The methods or styles have different, complementary strengths... a study using both is fuller or more comprehensive... another way is to carry out the study using the two methods in parallel, or both simultaneously (Neuman 2003, p. 139).

3.3 Justification of the Research Approach

The primary focus of this research is to use a parallel technique of data collection of both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Both research approaches are associated with different data collection methods. Although they are distinctive approaches, both contain similarities and overlaps that can be brought together in various ways (Bryman 1988 ; Miles & Huberman 1994 ; Punch 1998). The strategy of ‘triangulation of measurement’, suggests that social scientist are likely to show the success of their research finding by using more than one method of investigation.

One might question whether research is conducted in these ways, but the suggestion that the two research traditions are rooted in divergent epistemological implications seems to carry with it connotations of these kinds. However, the view that quantitative and qualitative research represents different epistemological implications is not held by all writers, even though they view the two approaches as distinctive. The alternative standpoint is to suggest that quantitative and qualitative researches are each appropriate to different kind of research problems, implying that the research issue determines (or should determine) which style of research is employed (Bryman 1988, p. 105).

In simple terms, qualitative research collects non-numerical data. It deals with material such as words and images. This form of research uses investigation tools such as individual or group interviews, literature reviews, and participant observation to understand and explain social behaviour. Qualitative tends to be more open and collects ‘rich’ and ‘deep’ information especially by using the ethnographic method. This method is useful to gain an insider’s perspective and the meanings people attach to objects and events. As a result, it can be used to study people’s experiences including meanings and purposes (Punch 1998).

In contrast, quantitative research collects numerical data and emphasize the measurement and analysis of association, differences, and causal relationship between variables (Denzin & Lincoln 2003). Quantitative research uses numerical data and may be collected using a range of techniques including experiments, surveys, content analysis, and existing statistics (Punch 1998). Quantitative research technique focused around the development of questionnaires,

the data from which can be measured. Consequently, methods are less varied than qualitative research and one of the strengths of quantitative research is that it can be more easily replicated (Bryman 1988 ; Punch 1998).

By combining both qualitative and quantitative approach in this research, it was intended to contribute to an understanding of how a person associated with the motorcycle was perceived by the public. The parallel techniques for this research following both approaches are illustrated in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Parallel method of approach.

3.4 Justification for the Method

Prior to undertaking this research, a review of the literature of market research methods was conducted in order to identify the current practice in the automotive industry. The existing automotive companies used market research methods in order to understanding the behaviour of their consumers. Often marketing research methods in the automotive industry are applied in relation to maintaining and monitoring user groups (Morgan 1996), sponsoring special racing events (Cornwell, Pruitt & Ness 2001), monitoring chat rooms and user groups (Baumgartel 1989), and using various qualitative and ethnographic approaches (Barabba, Zaltman & Spitzer 1991 ; Clardy 2006 ; Griffin & Hauser 1993). By using these methods, automotive firms invested heavily in qualitative approaches such as conjoint analyses; activities, interests, opinion (AIO) studies; as well as large-scale clinics (Jocelyn 1999) whereby customers’ opinion and reaction to prototypes and concepts are observed (Plummer 1974 ; Urban, Weinberg & Hauser 1996). Other methods involved was listening in on customers dialogues, using websites to identify combinations of customer needs (Urban & Hauser 2004). For example, the empathic design method of watching consumers use products or services in their own environment has been used by the Nissan company to understand their consumer behaviour (Leonard & Rayport 1997).

The focus group method was used by Lexus of Toyota Motor Corporation in Beverly Hills, California and by Harley-Davidson Motorcycle Company in order to gather their consumers’ experiences (Chon 2007 ; Morgan 1996 ; Murphy 1996). The motivation research method has been used by Piaggio, who conducted thorough interviews in attempt to ‘uncover previously hidden or repressed desires’ of consumers (Arvidsson 2001). In addition, Harley-Davidson has used ethnographic methods to understand consumers’ behaviour and to create special relationships with them (Bhattacharya & Sen 2003).

The above methods are focused upon the vehicle per se. Despite the various methods and techniques that have been applied to the investigation of the emotional relationship of consumers with automotive design, there is a lack of research devoted specifically to the consideration of the value a product bestows upon the user. Currently, market research methods are more focused on consumers’ judgement of the product itself, overlooking a key feature of products, the capacity of the product to confer its characteristics upon its owner. Within the automotive industry, wide ranges of methods have been adapted for use by

companies to compete in the global market. Market research has increasingly integrated methods and techniques from other disciplines such as human factors/ergonomics, and the social sciences (Crilly, Moultrie & Clarkson 2004 ; Langford & McDonagh 2002).

The visual form in automotive design is an important element to be considered as it is related to consumer aesthetics response. Holbrook (1986) considers that these responses are key components of the buyer experience. Products with strong aesthetics components might be expected to vary with personality and demographic variables (Holbrook 1986 ; Xu & Cai 2004). These potential variations are described as ‘meaningful heterogeneity’ which refers to individual differences in evaluative judgement associated with social and psychological factors that vary across populations.

Psychological factors are divided into four variables which are visualizing/verbalizing tendency, intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, romanticism/classicism, and gender. In visualizing/verbalizing tendency, aesthetic responses might differs among individuals according to their leaning towards more visual as opposed to verbal modes in making their judgement. Individuals with strong visualization involve holistic sensitivity to organic patterns and cue configurations while in contrast, individual with strong verbalization give attention to atomistic stimuli and isolated cues (Holbrook et al. 1984).

Extrinsic value is associated with a thing or event viewed as a means to some end, while intrinsic value is associated with some experience sought for its own sake as an end in itself. Individuals with strong tendencies toward intrinsic motivation might differ from those with stronger extrinsic motivation in the direction of their evaluative responses or in the types of value they use in making judgement (Holbrook 1999).

Romanticism and classicism deal with the different world views characteristics of romanticism as opposed to classicism. Individuals with strong tendencies toward romanticism are regarded as sensitive, emotional, chaotic, and free-spirited, while those tending to classicism are regarded as purposive, reasonable, orderly, and controlled (Holbrook 1986). Finally, psychological factors might differ according to a person’s gender. Males and females may judge aesthetic stimuli differently when they interacts with these three psychological factors. As proposed by Holbrook (1986), heterogeneity in aesthetic responses should depend on

personality differences associated with visualizing/verbalizing, intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, romanticism/classicism, and gender.

A study by Desmet (2002) investigated consumer response to products, but he was more interested in emotional response. These emotional responses can be distinguished into three aspects: 1) aesthetics response: concerned with the attractiveness (or not) of the product; 2) semantic: concerned with evaluating qualities like function and mode-of-use; and 3) symbolic: what the product says about the owner/user. Emotions enrich virtually all of our waking moments with either a pleasant or an unpleasant quality. Emotions elicited by product appearance are often considered to be intangible and therefore impossible to predict or design for. One reason for this difficulty is because individual emotions are subjective and are a response to the symbolism of a product. In the motorcycle industry, symbolism is a major factor in product appearance as different products have different symbolic connotations to different market segments. For example, a motorcycle such as the Harley-Davidson is typically perceived as a symbol of social status, power, and rebellion (Brown 2000).

Symbolism affects the objects we possess because objects communicate aspects of our personality, group membership, and aspirations. Veblen in his classic book, ‘The Theory of the Leisure Class’, articulated this and invented the term ‘Conspicuous Consumption’, where he described the role of possessions in the definition of our social identity (Veblen 2005). A later advocate was Goffman with ‘The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life’ (Goffman 1959). This, again, identified the role of objects in socially positioning people, epitomized by the role of the living room as a stage in which people perform to guests. The theatrical props were, of course, the furniture and furnishings. Empirical evidence exists for this and theorists of the materials culture fraternity have since extended it (Laumann & House 1970). Its latest empirical manifestation is in what has been called the ‘Room Effect’.

In relation to Modenas both import and export threats exist. Complicating this further are the demographic shifts in taste that take place whereby the design of a motorcycle intended for one demographic in one country may be unacceptable to that same demographic in another country. One such demographic is the emergence of women as a significant market for motorcycles, particularly in South-East Asia. This may requires major changes in the styling of motorcycles. For example, in South-East Asia the traditional motorcycle must contend with

sophisticated models of motorcycle-scooters that clearly appeal to women. Initially, these came from Japan.

3.5 Methods Overview

In order to assess user requirements and to establish how users perceive competing models of motorcycles, methods were required that could be cost effective and adaptable. As indicated, a major problem may lies in the styling of motorcycles, whereby designers require feedback, and preferably in a visual form. The method applied in this research is one of a suite of such techniques being designed for this purpose. Two methods were developed and used in a pilot survey: 1) Motorcycle Positioning Task and 2) the Room Effect method. The actual survey using the Room Effect method was then extended based on results of the pilot survey. The following section outlines the methods chosen in this area. A justification for the method is also provided as a preliminary introduction and discussed further in a separate chapter.

3.5.1 Pilot Survey 1: Motorcycle Positioning Task

The first pilot survey was carried out in order to test a method that could provide insights into user perceptions towards the product per se. For this first pilot survey named as Motorcycle Positioning Task, a qualitative approach was adopted, derived from combining the two methods of the Semantic Differential (Osgood & Suci 1955) and the MDS (Antikainen, Kälviäinen & Miller 2003). This method uses a visual field format whereby participants’ manoeuvre and position products relative to one another in a visual space. Essentially, it adopts the format of MDS (Schiffman, Reynolds & Young 1981), where objects are positioned in a proximate space: the closer together in the space, the more similar are the products. Unlike standard MDS, the dimensionality of the proximities space was predetermined. And it is here that the dimensions commonly identified in Semantic Differential studies can be used. Naturally, different dimensions can be used according to the interests of the designer- researcher. While the above may sound complex, in practice it is extremely easy to set up and analyse, and participants also find it easy to use. From the standpoint of both the designer and

the participant, it requires neither verbal articulation nor an understanding of numbers- statistics. In addition, it will generate visual output.

The Motorcycle Positioning Task was designed to be used with participants from different nationalities, Australian and Malaysian, where they were given one identical task, involving motorcycle pictures. The participants were asked to position the motorcycle pictures on the visual axis of a plot that was provided. The task was designed and conducted manually on paper. The first plot used an Evaluation axis consisting of like – dislike and a Social axis consisting of cheap – expensive, positioned orthogonal to one another. The second plot used a Potency axis, strong – weak and an Activity axis, slow – fast. Motorcycle pictures were selected and prepared randomly and participants were required to position the pictures relative to one another in this space. The results from each participant were combined discussed further into the mean position for each of the stimuli. The stimulus and procedure for this task are shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Sample of stimulus material for the Motorcycle Positioning Task.

3.5.2 Motorcycle Positioning Task Justification

In the automotive industry, few studies have been carried out involving the Semantic Differential technique. The technique has been applied in the study to measure self-concept, person-concept and product concept, by using automobiles that had a distinctive image and were well known to the respondents (Malhotra 1981). Similarly, this technique also been employed in evaluating unattractive aspects of cars (Steg, Vlek & Slotegraaf 2001). The Semantic Differential technique has proved particularly valuable for examining attitudes in different cultures in cross-cultural research. One of the advantages is that the bipolar adjectives chosen can be directly translated into the relevant language.

The use of visual image of motorcycle pictures in this task shows the importance of visual materials in the market research of products. The use of visuals is one of the generative techniques used to elicit people’s experiences and thoughts about a product’s scenario of use through participatory design approaches (Visser et al. 2005). As indicated, market research may rely on this method in order to gain an understanding about user perceptions. Visual research methods can be divided into three broad activities: 1) making visual representations (studying society by producing images); 2) examining pre-existing visual representations (studying images for information about society); and 3) collaborating with social actors in the production of visual representations (Pink 2001). Thus, visual elements play an important role in some projects, rather than spoken or written words, but their application is still limited and depends on project or individual objectives (Pink 2001). Visual materials have been argued to achieve results in marketing research that are worthwhile, rather than methods that rely solely on speech and writing (Knowles & Sweetman 2004).

In relation to product design, visuals have been commonly used by researchers/designers to be evaluated by users in eliciting their perception and responses (McDonagh, Bruseberg & Haslam 2002). The results together with the visuals are later referred to by designers in order to get fresh ideas for their design (Nakakoji, Yamamoto & Ohira 1999). In addition, numerous researchers in design have used visual product evaluation techniques in understanding user perceptions towards products. For instance, a visual based instrument called PrEmo, is used to assess emotions elicited by product appearance, focusing on car designs (Desmet & Hekkert 2002 ; Desmet, Hekkert & Hillen 2003 ; Desmet, Hekkert & Jacobs 2000). In another study, a number of visual images were used to investigate types and characteristics of household

products that elicited pleasurable responses among young, college-age consumers (Chang & Wu 2007). Similarly, research has shown that the use of visual images to identify the appearance of a product plays a role in consumer product evaluation and choice, and will help product development managers to optimize the appearance of products (Creusen & Schoormans 2005).

3.5.3 Pilot Survey 2: Room Effect Method

The second pilot survey was carried out to test a method that could determine how a product was perceived when it was associated with a person. For this second pilot survey, named the Room Effect method, a quantitative approach was applied. It is derived by combining two methods of the Room Effect (Canter, West & Wools 1974) and the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits (McCrae & John 1992). The Room Effect derives from environmental psychology. Canter, West and Wools (1974) found that the characteristics of a room were transferred to its prospective occupant. A warm room would equate with a warm occupant and a powerful room with a powerful occupant. Earlier, Maslow and Mintz (1956) observed a similar ‘Room Effect’, whereby the characteristics of the room impacted upon judgements of people’s faces associated with the room. For example, faces in a ‘beautiful’ room were rated higher in ‘energy’ and ‘well-being’ levels than those in an ‘average’ room, which in turn were rated higher than those in the ‘ugly’ room. Campbell (1979) also found an association between the design of a professor’s room and the presumed characteristics of the professor who would be found there.

In the pilot survey for this research, participants were given a paper based questionnaire. The participants consisted of different nationalities and ethnicities from Australian and Malaysian. The Australian participants were students from 1st year of Film and Television, Faculty of Design, Swinburne University of Technology, Australia while the Malaysian participants were students of Diploma in Banking, Faculty of Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Kedah, Malaysia. The stimuli pictures of products and peoples in this research were paired following the Room Effect study format (Canter, West & Wools 1974). The stimuli consisted of the Vespa and the Modenas motorcycles-scooters which were placed in the background, and male and female models from Australian and Malaysian were placed in the foreground. These

stimuli pictures were digitally modified to be as similar as possible in terms of size, orientation and colour.

Participants were asked to evaluate the stimuli by answering 9-likert scale questions derived from the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits covering Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and Openness to Experience (McCrae & John 1992). The results were then analysed by using the Statistical Analysis Software of SPSS. The stimulus material for this survey is shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: Sample of stimulus material for paper based questionnaire.

3.5.4 Room Effect Method Justification

Before any company heads towards globalization for their products, the company must understand and acknowledge the cultural differences for their markets. If the company fails to identify the needs and specifications of the population, it will limit the products’ marketability. The success recipes behind the proper positioning of products on the market depend on the understanding of intercultural differences. It is acknowledged that designers must understand the needs, tasks and environments of their target consumers in order to make products profitable (De Leur et al. 2006).

The questions that arise from this research are whether a method derived from environmental psychology can be used in judging and perceiving motorcycle design, in order to shed light upon a problem confronting the Malaysian motorcycle industry. Environmental psychology has been described as the effects of the physical-spatial environment on human behaviour. The Room Effect method was established within this field as a means to measure the effect room contexts have on judgements of people who are associated with the context.

The Five-factor Model of Personality traits, in supporting the Room Effect method, served the purpose of this research. As suggested, combinations of methods are effective in the examination of much social research (Babbie 1990 ; Moisander & Valtonen 2006). This type of method has been proven to be affective in testing human personality and the representation of human traits factor. The application of the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits provides an advantage, because it has been tested earlier and proven to be effective in cross-cultural research. In product personality study, the relevance of its applications is recommended to products and brands research (Aaker 1997 ; Govers & Mugge 2004 ; Mount & Barrick 1998). However, these previous studies were tested with utilitarian product such as toasters, and have not been employed in research into motorcycles. Employing the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits with the Room Effect method in this research will demonstrate its potential- or not-in this field.

Previous studies indicate that there are differences in personality traits between ethnic groups and countries. The largest differences were found between countries on the Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Agreeableness traits in both global and facet trait level. Small significant differences were also detected for the Conscientiousness and Neuroticism traits. A study by

Packman, Brown, Englert, Sisarich, and Bauer (2005) examined human personality differences only between three ethnic group in New Zealand and between three countries, New Zealand, Australia and South Africa (Packman et al. 2005). However, caution is required in arguing that such universality of ecologies shapes cultures and that cultures influence the development of personalities. Although a large literature suggests that the Five Factor Model of Personality traits emerge in various cultures, almost no study have focused on non-western samples (Triandis & Suh 2002). One previous study did focus on Malaysians, and shows that Malaysian people appeared to have high scores in Agreeableness and low scores in Extraversion and Openness compared to Americans (Mastor 2000). In the present research, this exploration will identify the relevancy of the Five-factor Model of Personality traits for this method.

3.5.5 Actual Survey: Room Effect Method

From the pilot study, an actual survey was developed based on both methods. The Room Effect method was chosen as the method for the actual survey, as this method was deemed most appropriate for discovering how physical environment plays a role in person perception (Canter, West & Wools 1974). Based on the result from the pilot study, a redesign of the format was needed before conducting the actual survey. The visual stimulus material was modified so that the Yamaha motorcycle-scooter replaced the Vespa and different male and female models were selected. The number of questions was also reduced. The actual surveys were conducted via an Internet website as an online survey. The stimulus material for this survey is shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5: Sample of stimulus material for online questionnaires.

3.6 Summary

This chapter has provided an overview of the research method and the justification for using these methods. In determining the best approach to the study of motorcycle appearance perception, there was a requirement to consider the most reliable methods that were suitable to explore how the motorcycle is perceived by users. Two methods were chosen to conduct this research via pilot studies, comprised of the Motorcycle Positioning Task and the Room Effect method.

The preliminary results from the pilot studies showed the need to identify and consider one particular method for the research in an actual survey. Judged from the results, the Room Effect method was chosen to be a suitable format for the actual survey. However, redesign of the questionnaire was needed in order to suit the current research purposes.

The following chapter will present the findings from the qualitative approach of the pilot study by using the Motorcycle Positioning Task in order to analyze the user’s perceptions towards the product per se.

Chapter 4

Pilot Survey 1: Motorcycle Positioning Task

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the pilot survey. The survey involved examining the perceptions of Australian and Malaysian participants towards motorcycles. The process undertaken in conducting this task is represented diagrammatically in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Motorcycle Positioning Task process.

This method, termed the ‘Motorcycle Positioning Task’, derived by combining the Semantic Differential technique (Osgood & Suci 1955) and MDS (Antikainen, Kälviäinen & Miller 2003). It uses a visual field format whereby participants’ manoeuvre and position products relative to one another in a visual space and uses Semantic Differential scales to assess the feasibility of using this method to gain insights into products.

Essentially, this method adopts the format of MDS, where objects are positioned in a proximities space, the closer together in the space, the more similar the products (Schiffman, 72

Reynolds & Young 1981). It is also developed to measure and understand the relationships between these products in their proximities space (Antikainen, Kälviäinen & Miller 2003 ; Schiffman, Reynolds & Young 1981 ; Walter 2004).

Other methods are time-consuming for participants and participants can find a task difficult to understand. The Motorcycle Positioning Task does not have these limitations, it takes participants only a short time to complete the task and the task is easy to understand. The method was designed to be used with participants from different nationalities, Australian and Malaysian, where they were given one identical task, involving motorcycle pictures. These participants were asked to position the motorcycle pictures on the visual axes consisting of Semantic Differential adjectives. The following section describes this method.

4.2 Stimulus Material

The survey stimuli consisted of 10 pictures of motorcycles from different motorcycle manufacturers. The pictures were selected based on popularity, differences in engine capacity, prices, and familiarity of the motorcycle models on road in both Malaysia and Australia. For motorcycles for which the model name was visible, the model name was made unrecognizable in order to prevent an influence from the makers’ name. These changes were made to minimize biased judgement and distraction of participants during the survey.

The representative motorcycles; Ducati 1200r, Honda DN-01, Harley-Davidson FLSTF Fat Boy, Triumph Street Triple, Modenas Jaguh, Yamaha Majesty, Modenas Elegant, Piaggio Zip, Bolwell Sym, and Modenas Karisma in order, were identified with the letters; A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, and I.

The varieties of images representing these selected brands of motorcycles were gathered from an Internet search of images. In each motorcycle picture, the composition of each photograph was identical, with the motorcycle pictures digitally modified to be as similar as possible in size and orientation. The process undertaken in selection of these motorcycle images is represented diagrammatically in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Process of motorcycle stimuli selection.

Selected motorcycle specifications are given in Table 4.1. The detailed specification of selected stimuli such as segment represented, engine capacity, and prices are includes in this figure. Figure 4.3 shows the selected stimuli pictures of motorcycles used for this survey.

Figure 4.4 shows that the stimulus material for task 1 used an Evaluation axis consisting of like – dislike and a Social axis consisting of cheap – expensive, positioned orthogonal to one another. Figure 4.5 shows the stimulus material for task 2 used a Potency axis consisting of strong – weak and an Activity axis consisting of slow – fast, also positioned orthogonal to one another. These papers were used as a visual space where participants could manoeuvre and position the motorcycle pictures according to their preferred axis of adjectives.

Table 4.1: Type of selected stimuli motorcycles.

Items Motorcycle Company Model Engine Prices in AUD type/segment capacity cc $ A Sportsbike Ducati 1200r 1200 cc $ 21 900.00 B Cruise Bike Honda DN-01 680 cc $ 9 500.00 C Easy rider Harley-Davidson FLSTF Fat Boy 1584 cc $ 26 999.00 D Naked Bike Triumph Street Triple 675 cc $ 11 900.00 E Easy rider Modenas Jaguh 175 cc $ 2 200.00 F Scooter Yamaha Majesty 400 cc $ 6 099.00 G Scooter Modenas Elegant 150 cc $ 3 100.00 H Scooter Piaggio Zip 50 cc $ 1 300.00 I Scooter Bolwell Sym 50 cc $ 2 980.00 J Scooter Modenas Karisma 125 cc $ 1 700.00

Figure 4.3: Picture of selected motorcycles.

Figure 4.4: Stimulus material for task 1.

Figure 4.5: Stimulus material for task 2.

4.3 Participants and Procedures

A total of 16 participants were involved in the study, consisting of 8 people from Malaysia and 8 people from Australia (9 men and 7 women). A convenience sample of university staff from these different nationalities was used. The participants were recruited voluntarily from the staff of the Faculty of Design, Swinburne University of Technology, Australia and staff of Academic Administration, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. The background characteristics of the participants are given in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Background characteristics of survey participants.

Items Number Percentage (%) Country Australia 8 50.0 Malaysia 8 50.0 Gender Male 9 56.0 Female 7 44.0

Participants were invited individually to a private room in order to participate in this survey. This was to ensure the privacy of the participants involved and to avoid any distractions during the time the survey was conducted. The participants were then briefed verbally by the researcher about the survey and the project consent information in order to ensured that their participation was voluntary, and that they understood their responses would be treated anonymously and that they were free to discontinue at any time during the survey.

Once participants understood the instructions and agreed to participate, they were given one identical task, involving motorcycle pictures. They were provided with 10 pictures of motorcycles and a piece of paper containing the visual axis plot of the task. The task consisted of two parts; 1) Evaluation factor (like – dislike) and Social factor (cheap – expensive); and 2) Potency factor (strong – weak) and Activity factor (slow – fast).

Participants were required to manoeuvre each motorcycle picture according to the visual axis adjectives on the paper. Each motorcycle picture was then positioned on the paper and the process continued for all of the pictures. The two parts of the task (Evaluation-Social and Potency-Activity) were conducted separately. Overall, the survey took approximately 15 minutes for the participants to complete. At the end of the survey, participants were required 79

to submit their paper plot to the researcher and finish their task. The procedure and steps in conducting this survey are represented in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6: Motorcycle Positioning Task procedure.

Ethics approval to ensure the privacy of participants and to ensure that participants were protected followed the ethical research procedures of the countries involved (Rose 2007). In Australia, ethics approval was granted for this research by the Swinburne Human Research Ethics Committee (SUHREC) in line with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research. In Malaysia, ethics approval was granted by the Research Committee of the Economic Planning Unit, Prime Minister’s Department of Malaysia. The guidelines of the 80

different Committees were followed in undertaking this research; that is, participation in the research was voluntary, all responses were anonymous and participants were briefed verbally before the survey was conducted.

4.4 Analysis

The results were analysed in the following way. As soon as the first Malaysian participant completed Task 1, their distribution of stimuli was recorded by the researcher on a separate plot. The same procedure was followed for each of the remaining 7 Malaysian participants, so that eventually all individual distributions for Malaysians for Task 1 could be viewed together on one single plot. This procedure was then carried out for Australians for Task 1 and for the Malaysian group and the Australian group for Task 2. The scatter plot for Malaysians and Australians for Task 1 was then compared, and the same for Task 2. The interpretations of the result were made by observing the distribution of motorcycle pictures around the axes of the plot. The results are discussed in the following section.

4.5 Evaluation and Social Factors Result

Plot 1 (Figure 4.7) and plot 2 (Figure 4.8) present the results for the Evaluation and Social factors by the Malaysian and Australian participants. The Malaysian participants exhibited less agreement than the Australians for both factors. This is shown by the degree of scatter around the axes and arrow mark in the axes. There is however strong agreement that the scooters are perceived as cheap and disliked.

This contrasts with the perceived expensiveness and liking for other types of motorcycles. Unsurprisingly, motorcycles with an engine capacity of more than 200 cc were rated as expensive, with Italian motorcycles being rated as the most expensive and the most liked.

Honda DN-01 was also rated expensive and liked. This may reflect on its front design, which represents an angry human face, and was especially designed by the Honda company for traffic safety (Taylor 2008). Bolwell’s Sym scooter was also highly evaluated and outperformed the other scooters. This may again reflect the design, which was retro and mimicked Italian styling (Johnson 2006). In contrast, the Modenas motorcycle-scooter Karisma was rated as cheap and disliked.

Figure 4.7: Plot 1 - Evaluation and Social factors for the Malaysian participants.

Figure 4.8: Plot 2 - Evaluation and Social factors for the Australian participants.

4.6 Potency and Activity Factors Result

Plot 3 (Figure 4.9) and plot 4 (Figure 4.10) present the results for the Potency and Activity factors by the Malaysian and Australian participants. As with the results above, the Malaysian participants exhibited less agreement than the Australians. This is shown by the degree of scatter around the axes and by the arrow spread around the axes. There was strong agreement that scooters were weaker and slower than other motorcycles, and also that the Italian motorcycles were faster and stronger. Into this category also came the Honda DN-01 and Harley-Davidson FLSTF Fat Boy. The Modenas motorcycle-scooter Karisma and Bolwell Sym were consistently rated as slow and weak compared to the other scooters.

Figure 4.9: Plot 3 – Potency and Activity factors for the Malaysian participants.

Figure 4.10: Plot 4 – Potency and Activity factors for the Australian participants.

4.7 Discussion

The purpose of this pilot study was to assess the feasibility of using this technique to gain insights into products. Effectively, one purpose of the pilot was to determine whether it was a meaningful task for participants to position products within a two-dimensional space characterised by two orthogonal scales. Further, the pilot sought to determine if the task was meaningful cross-culturally, in this case to both Malaysians and Australians. A negative answer, indicating the task lacked meaning, would be signified by a fairly random spread of products (motorcycles) within the two-dimensional spaces. In fact, there was a clear pattern of placements that made intuitive sense. For example, we would expect the likes of Ducati and Harley-Davidson to be positioned high in expensive and Chinese imports to be low in expensive which is what occurred.

In addition, the other purpose of this task was to assess the feasibility of using visual methods to gain insights into the research on product appearance. That is, whether it is a meaningful method for designers to develop research techniques relying on visual materials, and whether the method is effective in researching and describing the social and emotional impact of designed objects on consumer’s lives.

On the basis of earlier research using the Semantic Differential, we would also anticipate higher agreement amongst participants for the Potency-Activity factor than for the Evaluation- Social factor. Agreement was shown by the motorcycle pictures scatters around the axis of both countries. From inspection of the plots this was apparent for both Malaysians and Australians; that is, the spread within the space was less for the Potency-Activity factor than for the Evaluation-Social factor. The results show the above effects occur for motorcycles, giving further confidence in the meaningfulness of the task. The presence of such effects for the two distinct national groups, Malaysians and Australians, lends further weight to the feasibility of the task.

4.8 Summary

This stage of the research introduced the Motorcycle Positioning Task as a new method for investigating perceptions towards the product per se. However, the qualitative nature of this method meant that there was a lack of statistical evidence to support the reliability of the results. There was also only a small sample across different nationalities in order to understand of how the motorcycles are perceived. However, this method supported the preliminary stages of this research in exploring a new motorcycle market research method by using visual elements to provides an insight into product appearance.

The next stage was to develop another research method as a pilot study, which would address the limitations of the qualitative method but would still incorporate the visual elements as an important aspect of the process. A combination of research techniques was considered as the major aspect to be included in this method. The second method of pilot study therefore consisted of a quantitative approach, with a statistical analyses, which enabled more specific questions to be answered.

Chapter 5

Pilot Survey 2: Room Effect Method

5.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the quantitative pilot survey investigating how participants perceive people in the presence of motorcycles. The research combined the Room Effect method (Canter, West & Wools 1974) and the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits (McCrae & John 1992). By utilising these two methods the survey explored the effect a product has upon how its owner is perceived. The purpose of this preliminary study was to validate the proposed research methods and procedures before using them in the final research (Clark-Carter 2004). The process undertaken in conducting this survey is represented in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: The Room Effect method survey process.

Current research on motorcycle marketing techniques tends to focus on how a product is perceived rather than on the effect the product has upon how its owner is perceived. In contrast the Room Effect method highlights the effect a setting has upon how a person within that setting is viewed. This research applied the Room Effect method to products by exploring how people were perceived while in the presence of motorcycles. Until now the Room Effect method has not been applied to products. The Vespa and the Modenas motorcycle-scooters were used in this study to test whether there is a ‘Product Effect’ as there is a Room Effect. As 89

cultural differences may play a part in the way a person is perceived this research used participants from both Australia and Malaysia.

5.2 Participants and Procedure

University students were used for this survey. Since it is known that product judgment can be influenced by background factors such as age, education and socio-economic status, students were selected to form a relatively homogenous group (Babbie 1990 ; Punch 1998). Participants were chosen from non-design courses such that prior knowledge of similar research would not effect their responses (Wilson & Mackenzie 2000). By having a set of similar participants it was hoped that the results of the survey could more easily be interpreted.

The survey involved a total of 148 participants (N = 148) from Malaysia and Australia. As this was a pilot survey, this sample size is considered reasonable (Carter 2004). The Australian participants consisted of Film and Television students, Faculty of Design (Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia), while the Malaysian participants consisted of Diploma of Banking students, Faculty of Business Management (Universiti Teknologi MARA, Sungai Petani, Malaysia). Table 5.1 summarises the participants’ demographic details.

Table 5.1: Background characteristics of participants.

Item Number Percentage (%) Country Australia 68 46.0 Malaysia 80 54.0 Gender Male 57 38.6 Female 91 61.4 Age Under 19 36 24.4 20 - 21 92 62.1 22 - 25 14 9.5 26 - 30 3 2.0 31 or above 3 2.0

5.2.1 Stimulus Material

In order to test for possible effects, products and people that were clearly different were utilised in this study. The stimuli consisted of the Vespa and the Modenas motorcycles under the scooter category. These types of motorcycles were chosen as they are from the similar product category of scooters, but represent different market segments.

The Vespa scooter GTS 250 with engine capacity of 250 cc represents the high value segment while the Modenas scooter Karisma with engine capacity 125 cc represents the low value segment (Freeman 2005 ; Hinchliffe 2006 ; Modenas homepage 2005). The rationale behind this was that if product effects were not realized for this major comparison, then they were unlikely to manifest for more similar products. The process undertaken in selection of these motorcycle-scooter images is represented diagrammatically in Figure 5.2.

Considerable effort went into finding two pairs of Malaysian and Australian human models of comparable age and looks. The rationale for this was that extremely attractive or extremely unattractive looking models were unlikely to be as affected by a ‘Product Effect’ as more neutral looking people. Therefore neutral looking models were selected to minimize biased judgement and distraction of participants. For example, several studies found that people wearing glasses were judged differently to those not wearing glasses, and therefore variables such as this were avoided in this study (Thornton 1943, 1944).

As outlined by previous studies, the facial reaction of the models must also be comparable and neutral with smiles and frowns avoided (Frank et al. 2000). The models chosen were aged between 20 and 30 years, as people within this age range were considered the target users. The selection of appropriately aged models was also important to reduce the potential for participant bias towards other age groups, considering the importance of face perception as part of this study (Ebner 2008 ; Hellström & Tekle 1994 ; McKeachie 1952). Furthermore, only the head and shoulders of the models were shown, thereby limiting the amount of information available to those participating in the survey. The process undertaken in selection of these people’s images is represented diagrammatically in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.2: Process of motorcycle-scooter stimuli selection.

Figure 5.3: Process of people’s stimuli selection.

The products and people were then paired following the Room Effect study format (Canter, West & Wools 1974). The type of motorcycles, consisting of the Vespas and the Modenas scooter, were placed in the background with photographic images of people, the male and female models from Malaysia and Australia, placed in the foreground. In each combination, the composition of the photograph was identical, with the motorcycle-scooters digitally modified to be as similar as possible in terms of size, orientation and colour. In addition, text such as ‘In the above picture, a man is with his scooter. Can you please give your impression of him by answering the questions below’ accompanied each picture. The purpose of the text was to avoid any possible confusion among participants by providing a clear explanation of what they were viewing. As outlined in Table 5.2 and Figure 5.4, the stimuli consisted of eight different combinations of motorcycle pictures and people.

Table 5.2: Combinations of eight different stimuli.

No Model gender and nationality Motorcycle-scooters 1 Male Australian Vespa scooter GTS 250 2 Male Australian Modenas scooter Karisma 3 Female Australian Vespa scooter GTS 250 4 Female Australian Modenas scooter Karisma 5 Male Malaysian Vespa scooter GTS 250 6 Male Malaysian Modenas scooter Karisma 7 Female Malaysian Vespa scooter GTS 250 8 Female Malaysian Modenas scooter Karisma

Figure 5.4: Stimuli pictures of eight different combinations of independent variables.

5.2.2 Questionnaire

Data were collected using a questionnaire, which contained eight sets of pictures. Each picture presented a different set of stimuli incorporating three independent variables of motorcycle, model gender and country. The questionnaire contained 23 questions including 18 questions derived from the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits, five questions regarding the stimuli, and two questions about participant’s age and gender. The five questions regarding the stimuli asked participants to estimate the height, weight, age, education and parental income of the models. The intention of these questions was to understand whether the appearance of the motorcycle affected the perception of the physical and demographic characteristics of the human models in the pictures. Table 5.3 outlines the questionnaire format.

Table 5.3: Questionnaire formation.

Item Questions Theme

Q1 Your Age Demographic Q2 Your Gender Q3 How tall do you think he/she is? (In cm) Physical Attributes Q4 How heavy do you think he/she is? (In kg) Q5 How old do you think he/she is? Age Q6 What level of education did he/she achieve? Education Q7 What do you think his/her parent’s annual income will Social Attributes be? Q8 He/She looks like he/she has a positive attitude to life. Conscientiousness Q9 He/She is creative. Openness to Experience Q10 He/She looks friendly. Agreeableness Q11 He/She looks unstable. Neuroticism Q12 He/She looks masculine/feminine. Extraversion Q13 He/She looks trustworthy. Agreeableness Q14 He/She looks anxious. Neuroticism Q15 He/She is elegant. Extraversion Q16 He/She looks sporty. Q17 He/She looks stylish. Openness to Q18 He/She looks open to new ideas. Experience Q19 He/She is attractive. Extraversion Q20 He/She appears generous. Agreeableness Q21 He/She looks reliable. Conscientiousness Q22 He/She looks efficient. Q23 He/She looks organised. Q24 He/She appears kind. Agreeableness Q25 He/She looks vulnerable. Neuroticism

Eighteen questions focused upon the personality characteristics of the models. The questions were based on the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits covering Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience (McCrae & John 1992). Three to four traits were used for each category, the rationale being that a wide range of personality traits was required without risking the difficulty of having too many questions for participants to answer. Table 5.4 outlines the selection of traits used for developing these questions. A set of statements was devised corresponding to the traits outlined in Table 5.4. The statements were randomised by using a Table of Random Numbers and were administered to participants in either the first order or its reverse. This counterbalance was deemed important to account for possible order effects (Haber & Runyon 1973).

Table 5.4: Types of personality adjectives used based on the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits.

Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism Openness to Experience Masculine / Feminine Friendly Positive Attitude Unstable Creative Elegant Trustworthy Reliable Anxious Stylish Sporty Generous Efficient Vulnerable Open to new ideas Attractive Kind Organised - -

Research also indicates that the dimensions of Agreeableness, Extraversion and Conscientiousness are relevant to product appearance (Govers & Schoormans 2005). The rationale of adapting the personality traits questions in this survey therefore was to test for possible transfer effects – Product Effect – from the motorcycle to the model.

Each of the personality trait statements was accompanied by a nine-point Likert scale to indicate the participants’ level of agreement/disagreement (Carter 2004). Malaysian participants received a Malay language version of the questionnaire while Australian participants received an English language version. Overall, the questionnaire took approximately 30 minutes for the participants to complete.

5.3 Analysis: Factor Analysis

Data collected were analysed using Factor Analysis in the SPSS software package. This statistical technique enables the range of questions to be reduced to a number of underlying factors. A ‘simple structure’ is also produced which defines the underlying structure among the variables in the analysis (Acton & Miller 2009 ; Hair et al. 2005). ‘Simple structure’ is the term developed by Thurstone (1928), which involves rotations of factor axes to a position of greater “psychological meaningfulness” (Comrey 1973).

An exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted using Principal Axis Factoring (PAF) (which analyses shared variance amongst the items) with Direct Oblimin rotation. The Kaiser-Meyer- Olkin (KMO) obtained was .882, indicating a good correlation amongst variables. Results from the Bartlett Test of Sphericity achieved a level of < .000 indicating that the items can effectively be grouped, with positive prospects of a successful Factor Analysis. Once the extraction of factors was completed the table of ‘Communalities’ indicated how much of the variance in each of the original variables could be explained by the extracted factors. Higher communalities are needed, as they must exceed > 0.2 for each variable. Table 5.5 outlines the Communalities that were obtained from the analysis.

Table 5.5: Factor Analysis output, Communalities.

Initial Extraction Height .608 .731 Weight .601 .657 Age .213 .264 Education level .433 .627 Parents’ Annual Income .418 .482 Positive Attitude .583 .599 Creative .419 .398 Friendly .508 .500 Unstable .363 .526 Masculine / feminine .459 .469 Trustworthy .594 .597 Anxious .315 .465 Sporty .409 .405 Stylish .650 .772 New ideas .544 .558 Attractive .556 .633 Generous .494 .515 Reliable .606 .602 Efficient .523 .493 Kind .597 .702 Vulnerable .277 .358

Note: Extraction method: Principal Axis Factoring

Table 5.6 provides the Total Variances obtained from the analysis and the number of factors extracted from the 21 items. The results show five factors that have Eigenvalues over 1. Eigenvalues or latent root represents the amount of variance accounted for by a factor (Hair et al. 2005). The results suggest five factors, which account for 54.061 per cent of the variance.

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Table 5.6: Factor Analysis output, Variance Explained.

Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Total % of Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative % Variance 1 6.613 31.492 31.492 6.177 29.415 29.415 2 2.788 13.276 44.767 2.384 11.350 40.766 3 1.711 8.149 52.916 1.259 5.993 46.759 4 1.495 7.120 60.036 1.009 4.803 51.562 5 1.008 4.799 64.835 .525 2.499 54.061 6 .819 3.902 68.737 7 .706 3.363 72.101 8 .662 3.151 75.251 9 .604 2.875 78.126 10 .572 2.724 80.850 11 .539 2.566 83.416 12 .503 2.396 85.812 13 .450 2.141 87.953 14 .412 1.962 89.915 15 .390 1.856 91.771 16 .356 1.695 93.467 17 .323 1.540 95.006 18 .319 1.518 96.524 19 .259 1.234 97.757 20 .241 1.148 98.906 21 .230 1.094 100.000

Note: Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring

In order to determine the number of factors correctly, a Scree Plot was used to plot the Eigenvalues and to provide a visual verification of the factors selected. The Scree Plot of Eigenvalues in Figure 5.5 was used to confirm the number of factors. It shows five factors accounting for a large amount of the total variance. As seen in Figure 5.5, the plot starts to straighten out after point 5; therefore, the decision to choose only five factors was clear.

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Figure 5.5: Factor Analysis output, Scree Plot.

The Pattern Matrix was based on Principal Axis Factoring extraction and Direct Oblimin with Kaizer Normalization rotation, which converged in ten iterations. Table 5.7 outlines the Factor Analysis output of the Pattern Matrix. Loadings on variables can be positive or negative, ranging from zero to a maximum absolute value of one (+1.0). The larger the absolute value, the stronger the link between that variable and the factor. To determine how many factors to extract, there are several opinions based on individual discretion or preferences. However, according to Comrey (1973) in order to ensure a strong correlation, items require an absolute value of greater than 0.44. In this case, all 21 items were loaded above 0.44, with increased loadings becoming more powerful in determining the factor (Acton & Miller 2009).

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Table 5.7: Factor Analysis output, Pattern Matrix.

Factor 1 2 3 4 5 V1 Kind .918 .208 V2 Reliable .744 -.238 V3 Trustworthy .720 -.140 V4 Generous .706 V5 New Ideas .633 -.225 V6 Positive Attitude .605 .205 -.101 -.126 .113 V7 Efficient .582 -.129 -.189 V8 Friendly .561 .159 -.186 V9 Creative .472 .113 -.231 V10 Height .746 .228 V11 Weight .677 .158 -.108 .199 V12 Stylish -.137 -.815 V13 Attractive .142 -.715 V14 Sporty .135 -.608 V15 Masculine/feminine -.326 -.441 -.118 .241 V16 Unstable .181 .695 V17 Anxious -.102 .688 V18 Vulnerable .564 V19 Education level .740 V20 Parents’ Annual Income .107 .219 .539 V21 Age .519

Note: Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring. Rotation Method: Direct Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization. a. Rotation converged in 10 iterations.

The results of the analysis suggested that all items tested were correlated and could be simplified into five factors. At this point, the correlated items were grouped into individual factors and named to represent conceptually distinct variables. Three factors were labelled according to human personality traits: Factor 1 – ‘Personality’, Factor 3 – ‘Appearance’ and Factor 4 – ‘Neuroticism’. In relation to the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits, only Neuroticism corresponded in this test. Factor 2 contained variables that referred to physical appearance and hence was labelled ‘Physical Attributes’ and Factor 5 contained variables related to demographics and was labelled ‘Social Attributes’.

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Cronbach’s Alpha was used to test the internal consistency of the scale created from the Factor Analysis. An alpha coefficient value of ≥ 0.70 is considered a ‘satisfactory level’ (Bryman 2008). In this test, a highly satisfactory alpha level was achieved, ranging from .799 to .900 for Appearance, Physical Attributes and Personality factors. Furthermore, a normality test was performed using Skewness and Kurtosis with the results of √β1 = .011 for Social Attributes, √β1

= .268 for Neuroticism and β2 = -.249 for Appearance, indicating that a normal and unbiased distribution was attained. Table 5.8 outlines the descriptive statistics of the Factor Analysis.

Table 5.8: Factor Analysis output, Descriptive Statistics.

Factors N Min Max Mean Std. Cronbach’s Skewness Kurtosis Deviation Alpha Physical Attributes 592 1.00 5.00 2.394 1.231 .815 .469 -1.002 Height + Weight

Social Attributes 592 1.00 4.67 2.766 .831 .660 .011 -.770 Education Level + Age + Parents’ Annual Income

Neuroticism 592 1.00 8.67 3.808 1.541 .673 .268 -.329 Unstable + Anxious + Vulnerable

Appearance 592 1.00 9.00 5.668 1.676 .799 -.469 -.249 Attractive + Sporty + Stylish + Masculine/feminine

Personality 592 1.00 9.00 6.165 1.261 .900 -.584 1.143 Reliable + Trustworthy + Generous + New Ideas + Positive Attitude + Kind + Friendly + Creative + Efficient

Valid N (listwise) 592

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5.4 Analysis: Mixed Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

The next step in the pilot study was to test the three independent variables by using a Mixed Analysis of Variance or ANOVA. This involved two within-subjects variables and two between- subjects factors. The within subjects factors were motorcycle-scooter (Vespa or Modenas) and model gender (male or female). The between subjects factors were the participant’s gender (male or female) and participant’s country (Australia or Malaysia). The three independent variables of motorcycle, participant’s country and participant’s gender were tested with seven dependent variables, which included two items that were excluded earlier in order to produce a simple Factor Analysis structure.

As such, the seven dependent variables were; Physical Attributes, Social Attributes, Neuroticism, Personality, and Appearance, together with Elegant and Organised, which were excluded earlier. Table 5.9 demonstrates the significant effects between within-subject factors and between-subject factors extracted from the Mixed ANOVA. Plots appearing later illustrate these results.

Table 5.9: Mixed ANOVA results, Significant Effects.

Scale Effect Personality Appearance Neuroticism Physical Social Elegant Organised Attributes Attributes Motorcycle .035 .000 .000 Model gender .000 .000 .000 Motorcycle x .046 .022 Participant’s gender Motorcycle x .000 Country Model gender x Participant’s gender Model gender x .012 .000 .033 .011 .000 Country Motorcycle x Model gender

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5.5 Mixed ANOVA result

5.5.1 Factor 1: Personality

A mixed-design ANOVA with motorcycle-scooters (Vespa, Modenas) and model gender (male, female) as within-subjects factors, and participants’ country (Australia, Malaysia) and participants’ gender (male, female) as between-subjects factors, revealed effects of Personality and motorcycle, F(1, 144) = 4.509, p < .035, ηp2 .030 and model gender, F(1, 144) =

13.575, p < .000, ηp2 .086. This was qualified by an effect between model gender and country,

F(2, 144) = 6.434, p < .012, ηp2 .043.

As indicates in Figures 5.6, the Malaysian participants perceived the female models more favourably than the male models, while the Australian participants perceived the female models slightly more favourably than the male models.

Figure 5.6: Repeated Measures output for Personality (Reliable, Trustworthy, Generous, New Ideas, Positive Attitude, Kind, Friendly, Creative, and Efficient).

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5.5.2 Factor 2: Appearance

In the case of Appearance, the results show significant effects of model gender, F(1, 144) = 50.572, p < .000, ηp2 .260, and between model gender and country, F(2, 144) = 18.143, p <

.000, ηp2 .112.

Figure 5.7 reveals that the Malaysian participants perceived the female models as more attractive than the male models while the Australian participants judged the female models slightly more attractive than the male models.

Figure 5.7: Repeated Measures output for Appearance (Attractive, Sporty, Stylish, and Masculine/feminine).

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5.5.3 Factor 3: Neuroticism

In the case of Neuroticism, the results show significant effects between model gender and country, F(2, 144) = 4.636, p < .033, ηp2 .031, and motorcycle and participants’ gender, F(2,

144) = 4.067, p < .046, ηp2 .027.

Figure 5.8 reveals that the Malaysian participants perceived the male models higher in Neuroticism than the female models, while the Australian participants perceived female models higher in Neuroticism than the male models.

Figure 5.8: Repeated Measures output for Neuroticism (Unstable, Anxious, and Vulnerable).

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Figure 5.9 reveals that the male participants perceived the models appearing with the Modenas as higher in Neuroticism than the models appearing with the Vespa. The female participants perceived the models appearing with the Vespa as higher in Neuroticism than the models appearing with the Modenas.

Figure 5.9: Repeated Measures output for Neuroticism (Unstable, Anxious, and Vulnerable).

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5.5.4 Factor 4: Physical Attributes

In the case of Physical Attributes, there was a significant effects of model gender, F(1, 144) = 174.267, p < .000, ηp2 .548, and an interaction between model gender and country, F(2, 144) =

6.693, p < .011, ηp2 .044.

Figure 5.10 reveals that the Australian participants perceived the male models strongly as taller and heavier than the female models. In addition, the Malaysian participants perceived the male models as taller and heavier than the female model. However, the effect is less pronounced for the Malaysian participants.

Figure 5.10: Repeated Measures output for Physical Attributes (Height and Weight).

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5.5.5 Factor 5: Social Attributes

For Social Attributes there was an interactions between model gender and country, F(2, 144) = 18.380, p < .000, ηp2 .113, and between motorcycle and participant’s gender, F(2, 144) =

5.348, p < .022, ηp2 .036.

Figure 5.11 reveals that the Australian participants perceived the male models as looking older, having a higher income, and being more highly educated than the female models. The Malaysian participants rated the female models as looking older, having a higher income, and more highly educated than the male models.

Figure 5.11: Repeated Measures output for Social Attributes (Education level, Age, and Parents Annual Income).

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Figure 5.12 reveals that the female participants regarded the models appearing with the Vespa as appearing older, having a higher income, and being more highly educated over the models appearing with the Modenas. In reverse, the male participants rated the models with the Modenas as appearing older, having a higher income, and being more highly educated than the models appearing with the Vespa.

Figure 5.12: Repeated Measures output for Social Attributes (Education level, Age, and Parents Annual Income).

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5.5.6 Elegant

In the case of Elegant, there were significant effects between motorcycle, F(1, 144) = 103.009, p < .000, ηp2 .417 and motorcycle and country, F(2, 144) = 17.901, p < .000, ηp2 .111.

Figure 5.13 reveals that participants from both countries found the models appearing with the Modenas as more Elegant. This effect was less pronounced for the Malaysian participants.

Figure 5.13: Repeated Measures output for Elegant.

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5.5.7 Organised

For Organised there was a significant motorcycle effect, F(1, 144) = 17.567, p < .000, ηp2 .109.

Figure 5.14 reveals that both Australian and Malaysian participants regarded the models appearing with the Modenas as more organised than the models appearing with the Vespa.

Figure 5.14: Repeated Measures output for Organised.

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5.6 Discussion

The aim of this pilot study was to investigate whether the Room Effect studies would be applicable to products. In other words, whether there is a Product Effect. That is, can a product affect the way a person is perceived when they are associated with that product. The results indicate that a Product Effect does exist. Given the sample size of this study it was not anticipated that major effects would emerge. However, significant results were obtained for a number of the measured items, with indications of a strong cross-cultural Motorcycle Effect and gender effects. While generalisations from this pilot study are somewhat difficult to make, the results suggest that the Product Effect was more pronounced for the female models. Furthermore, this was consistent for both the Malaysian and Australian participants.

The results indicate the similarities and differences between the perceptions of participants based on their nationality. The overall results indicate a gender agreement that the female models were rated more favourably in terms of Personality and Appearance by both the Malaysian and Australian participants. However, a strong gender differences referring to Physical Attributes of the models occurred, with the male models being perceived, perhaps understandably as taller and heavier than the female models. These results support previous studies which indicate that taller people appear to have a higher status, are positively perceived and that height affects perceptions of a person’s income (Case & Paxson 2008 ; Loh 1993).

The results for the Social Attributes factor indicate that the Australian participants rated the male models favourably as looking older, having a higher income, and being more highly educated than the female models. This indicates that participants observed the male models as more matured, wealthier and more highly educated. The possible explanations for male models to having a higher income are maybe linked by the results of the study, which indicates that in car advertisement a male model increases the effectiveness ratings compared to female models (Kanungo & Pang 1973). This results also support previous evidence by Glick (1991) which shows that males are more likely to be paid more, not because they are perceived to have masculine personality traits, but simply because they are men. This may suggest why participants are more likely to perceive the male models more favourably than the female models in appearing to have higher incomes. This result also supports research by

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Dunn (2010), which concluded that attractiveness can be intensified by manipulating status by luxury motor-cars, which in this case is related to the male models.

The Motorcycle Effect seems differentiated not only by the participants’ country but also by the participants’ gender. A strong Motorcycle Effect occurred for the Social Attributes factor according to the participants’ gender, with female participants finding both models older, having a higher income and more highly educated when they appeared with the Vespa than with the Modenas. One question arising from this finding is why male participants perceived the models appearing with the Vespa as having lower income than the models appearing with the Modenas, given that the Vespa is an expensive motorcycle. A possible explanation for this result may be that the novelty factor could affect the perception or judgement of participants’ towards the product (Bianchi 2002). This result supports the study by Bianchi (2002), which showed the same product could be perceived completely differently depending on the choices of different participants, or by the same participants in different environments and with different knowledge or experiences (Bianchi 2002).

5.7 Summary

The key result of this pilot study was that a Product Effect exists, similar to the Room Effect. The results support a Motorcycle Effect. The next stage of the research was to obtain a larger sample of participants. This was achieved by utilising an international survey that was conducted using Internet facilities developed in-house. In addition, the stimuli were redesigned based on the results of this pilot study. With a larger sample and stimuli redesign, the intention was to test with a larger sample and to construct a more sophisticated statistical model of the outcomes.

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Chapter 6

Actual Survey: Room Effect Method

6.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the actual survey that was used as part of this study. Using the Room Effect method as the basis, the survey examined online participants’ perceptions of motorcycles. The process undertaken in developing and conducting this actual survey is represented in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1: Actual survey method process.

As indicated previously two pilot studies were undertaken in parallel to formulate and validate the potential method for the actual survey. The first pilot study involved the Motorcycle Positioning Task (chapter 4), while the second looked at the Room Effect method (chapter 5). Results of the Motorcycle Positioning Task indicated that incorporating visual methods can provide insights into product appearance. However, this task needed to include a possible combination of statistical analyses and a variety of samples across nationalities. These inclusions would enable the research to answer more specific questions. The Room Effect pilot study showed that the same principles can be applied in the study of product design. The pilot study revealed that the product associated with a person influences the perception of that person. This suggested that a product effect was present, based on combining measurements 117

developed in the survey. The presence of such an effect was indicated for the two distinct cultural groups, Malaysians and Australians. However, given that only small samples were involved for both pilot surveys further research needed to be carried out to validate this effect.

The Room Effect method was the preferred method for the actual survey. This was due to the significant results it produced in the pilot study, with some indications of cross-cultural agreement. While generalization from a pilot study is somewhat premature; the results suggest that the Room Effect method is feasible for this research. Additionally, with some modification of the pilot study format, this method would allow for the use of more sophisticated statistical analysis.

This actual survey was implemented on the Internet with participants accessing the survey using the Swinburne University of Technology website. The survey was designed to assess the impact the presence of a product, in this case a motorcycle, could have on the way participant’s viewed a person. The survey was developed in collaboration with an internal web consultant and web designer to ensure the effectiveness of the survey on the website (Hannington 2003). As a reward for participants taking the time to complete the survey they were given the chance to win an iPod touch, with the winner chosen randomly by computer selection. Ethics approval for this research was granted by Swinburne’s Human Research Ethics Committee (SUHREC) in line with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research.

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6.2 Participants and Procedure

The survey was implemented on Swinburne University of Technology’s website. The survey involved a total of 1078 participants N = 1078 from a total of 108 countries, with the three major countries being Australia, India, and the United States of America. Table 6.1 summarise the participants’ demographic details.

Table 6.1: Background characteristics of participants.

Item Number Percentage (%) Gender Male 768 72.0 Female 310 28.0 Age Under 20 118 11.0 20 - 29 547 51.1 30 - 39 220 20.1 40 - 49 119 11.0 50 - 59 40 3.7 60 or above 34 3.1

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6.2.1 Stimulus material

In order to test for possible effects, products and people that were clearly different were utilised in this study. Based on the previous results from the pilot survey, the type of motorcycle-scooters and people used as stimuli were changed. In place of the Vespa, the Yamaha was paired with the Modenas motorcycle-scooter as before. These types of motorcycles were chosen as they are from a similar category of scooter, but represent different market segments for the same reasons as in the pilot survey. The Yamaha scooter Majesty with engine capacity of 400 cc represents the high value segment while the Modenas scooter Karisma with engine capacity 125 cc represents the low value segment similar to that in the pilot survey. The rationale for this choice was that if the motorcycle-scooter models were not familiar to participants, then they were unlikely to provide a reliable perception of the stimuli. The process undertaken in selection of these motorcycle-scooter images is represented diagrammatically in Figure 6.2.

Based on the pilot study, considerable effort went into finding two pairs of Asians and Caucasians of comparable age and looks as before. The rationale for this was that extremely good or bad looking models were unlikely to be as affected by a ‘Product Effect’ as more neutral looking people. Therefore neutral looking models were selected to minimize biased judgement and distraction of participants for the same reason as before, as this survey involved international participants. Furthermore, only the head and shoulders of the models were shown, thereby limiting the amount of information available to those participating for the same reasons as previously in the pilot survey. The process undertaken in selection of these people’s images is represented diagrammatically in Figure 6.3.

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Figure 6.2: Process of motorcycle-scooter stimuli selection.

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Figure 6.3: Process of people’s stimuli selection.

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The products and people were then paired following the Room Effect study format (Canter, West & Wools 1974). The type of motorcycles, consisting of the Yamaha and the Modenas scooter, were placed in the background with photographic images of people, the male and female models of Asian and Caucasian ethnics, placed in the foreground. In each combination, the composition of the photograph was identical, with the motorcycle-scooters digitally modified to be as similar as possible in terms of size, orientation and colour. Additional text under each picture, for example ‘In the picture, a man/woman is with his/her scooter. Can you give your impression of him/her by answering the questions below’, was attached in order to notify the participants about the survey pictures. The purpose of the text was to avoid any possible confusion among participants by providing a clear explanation of what they were viewing. Table 6.2 and Figure 6.4 summarise the stimuli combinations and stimuli pictures.

Table 6.2: Combinations of eight different stimuli.

No Model gender and nationality Motorcycle-scooters

1 Male Caucasian Yamaha scooter Majesty 2 Male Caucasian Modenas scooter Karisma 3 Female Caucasian Yamaha scooter Majesty 4 Female Caucasian Modenas scooter Karisma 5 Male Asian Yamaha scooter Majesty 6 Male Asian Modenas scooter Karisma 7 Female Asian Yamaha scooter Majesty 8 Female Asian Modenas scooter Karisma

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Figure 6.4: Stimuli pictures for questionnaire.

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6.2.2 Questionnaire

Data were collected using an online questionnaire which contained eight sets of pictures. Each picture presented a different set of stimuli incorporating three independent variables (motorcycle, model gender, and model nationality). The questionnaire contained 18 questions including five questions regarding the Asian and Caucasian models, 11 questions derived from the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits, and two questions regarding the participant’s age and gender. The five questions regarding the models asked participants to estimate their height, weight, age, education, and parental income.

Eleven questions focused upon the personality traits of the models. The questions were based on the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits covering Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Openness to Experience. The Neuroticism factor was excludes in this survey due to the ‘inconsistency effect’ produced by some of the traits during the pilot test. The excluded traits were: Unstable, Anxious, and Vulnerable (Neuroticism); Friendly and Kind (Agreeableness); Sporty (Extraversion); and Open to New Ideas (Openness to Experience). Two to four traits were used for each category, the rationale being that a wide range of personality questions could defer participants from completing the questions. A set of statements was devised corresponding to the traits outlined in Table 6.3.

Table 6.3: Types of personality adjectives used based on the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits.

Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Openness to Experience Masculine/feminine Trustworthy Positive Attitude Creative Elegant Generous Reliable Stylish Attractive - Efficient - - - Organised -

Table 6.4 outlines the questionnaire format. The statements were randomised by using a Table of Random Digits and were administered to participants in either the first order or its reverse. This counterbalance was deemed important to account for possible order effects (Haber & Runyon 1973). Each of the personality traits statements was accompanied by a nine-point likert scale to indicate the participants’ level of agreement/disagreement (Carter 2004).

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Table 6.4: Questionnaire formation.

Item Questions Themes

Q1 How tall do you think he/she is? (In cm) Physical Attributes Q2 How heavy do you think he/she is? (In kg) Q3 How old do you think he/she is? Age Q4 What level of education did he/she achieve? Education Q5 What do you think his/her parent’s annual income will be? Social Attributes Q6 He/She looks like he/she has a positive attitude to life. Conscientiousness Q7 He/She is creative. Openness to Experience Q8 He/She looks masculine/feminine. Extraversion Q9 He/She looks trustworthy. Agreeableness Q10 He/She is elegant. Extraversion Q11 He/She looks stylish. Openness to Experience Q12 He/She is attractive. Extraversion Q13 He/She appears generous. Agreeableness Q14 He/She looks reliable. Conscientiousness Q15 He/She looks efficient. Q16 He/She looks organised. Q17 Your Age Demographic Q18 Your Gender

As the survey was accessed on the Internet the consent information statement was displayed on the first screen of the survey. At this stage, participants were informed that their responses would be treated anonymously, that their participation in the survey was voluntary, and that they were free to discontinue at any time. The project consent information statement was included in every set of questions and came with a specific visual stimulus and similar layout. This was to ensure that all the questions would be answered according to the particular set. If participants decided to decline the survey, they could choose to disagree at this screen and then be excluded from the survey. If they agreed and were willing to participate in the survey, they would then precede to the first question. Each participant had to rate only one set of stimuli with the order of the eight stimuli digitally randomised. Overall, the survey took approximately 15 minutes to complete. At the end of the survey, participants were required to click a submit button in order to finish their session and submit the survey. 126

6.3 Analysis: Factor Analysis

Data collected were analysed using Factor Analysis in the SPSS software package with 1078 samples examined. Completed surveys missing more than 30 per cent of data were excluded from the analysis. The remaining data were input using the Expectation-Maximisation (EM) algorithm in SPSS.

An exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted using Principal Axis Factoring (PAF) (with analysis shared variance amongst the items) with Direct Oblimin rotation. Three items of age, education and parental income were excluded and required to be analysed separately in order to construct a simple structure. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) obtained was .907, indicating a good correlation amongst variables. Results from the Bartlett Test of Sphericity achieved a level of < .000 indicating that the items can effectively be grouped, with positive prospects of a successful Factor Analysis. Once the extraction of factors was completed the table of ‘Communalities’ indicated how much of the variance in each of the original variables could be explained by the extracted factors. Higher communalities are needed as they must exceed .2 for each variable. Table 6.5 outlines the Communalities that were obtained from the analysis.

Table 6.5: Factor Analysis output, Communalities.

Initial Extraction Height .492 .614 Weight .497 .773 Positive Attitude .505 .465 Creative .482 .461 Masculine/feminine .457 .439 Trustworthy .598 .616 Elegant .587 .568 Stylish .569 .484 Attractive .521 .481 Generous .563 .575 Reliable .654 .634 Efficient .610 .561 Organised .558 .541

Note: Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.

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Table 6.6 provides the Total Variances obtained from the analysis and the number of factors extracted from the 13 items. The results show two traits that have Eigenvalues greater than 1. Eigenvalues or latent root represents the amount of variance accounted for by a factor (Hair et al. 2005). The results indicate two traits which account for 55.474 per cent of the variance.

Table 6.6: Factor Analysis output, Variance Explained.

Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Total % of Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative % Variance 1 6.279 48.301 48.301 5.817 44.745 44.745 2 1.704 13.110 61.410 1.395 10.729 55.474 3 .893 6.872 68.283 4 .777 5.980 74.263 5 .579 4.457 78.720 6 .478 3.680 82.399 7 .441 3.395 85.794 8 .374 2.880 88.674 9 .338 2.603 91.277 10 .306 2.358 93.635 11 .301 2.315 95.950 12 .280 2.157 98.107 13 .246 1.893 100.000

Note: Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring a. When factors are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance.

In order to confirm the number of factors, a Scree Plot was used to plot the Eigenvalues and to provide visual verification of the factors selected. Figure 6.5 shows five factors accounting for a large amount of the total variance, however, the plot starts to straighten out after point 2; therefore, the decision to choose only two factors was clear.

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Figure 6.5: Factor Analysis output, Scree Plot.

The Pattern Matrix was based on Principal Axis Factoring extraction and Direct Oblimin with Kaizer Normalization rotation, which converged in three iterations. Table 6.7 outlines the Factor Analysis output of the Pattern Matrix. Loadings on variables can be positive or negative, ranging from zero to a maximum absolute value of one (+1.0). The larger the absolute value, the stronger the link between that variable and the factor. To determine of how many factors to extract, there are several opinions based on individual discretion or preferences. However, according to Comrey (1973,p. 101), in order to ensure a strong correlation, items should load with absolute values of greater than .44. In this case, all 13 items were loaded above .44 with increased loadings becoming more powerful in determining the factor (Acton & Miller 2009).

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Table 6.7: Factor Analysis output, Pattern Matrix.

Factor 1 2 V1 Reliable .799 V2 Trustworthy .782 V3 Generous .764 V4 Elegant .759 V5 Efficient .751 V6 Organised .732 V7 Stylish .701 V8 Attractive .699 V9 Creative .670 V10 Masculine/feminine .659 V11 Positive Attitude .640 .162 V12 Weight .882 V13 Height .781

Note: Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring. Rotation Method: Direct Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization. a. Rotation converged in 3 iterations.

The results of the analysis suggested that all items within each factor were correlated. At this point, the correlated items could be grouped into individual factors and named to represent conceptually distinct factors. One factor was labelled according to human personality traits: Factor 1 – ‘Personality’. Factor 2 contained variables that referred to physical appearance and hence was labelled ‘Physical Attributes’.

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Cronbach’s Alpha was used to test the internal consistency of the scale created from the Factor Analysis. An alpha coefficient value of ≥ 0.70 is considered a ‘satisfactory level’ (Bryman 2008). In this test, a highly satisfactory alpha level was achieved, ranging from .820 to .923 for Physical Attributes and Personality factors. Furthermore, a normality test was performed using

Skewness and Kurtosis with the results of √β1 = -.039 for Personality and √β1 = .196 for Physical Attributes, indicating that a normal and unbiased distribution was attained. Table 6.8 outlines the descriptive statistics of the Factor Analysis.

Table 6.8: Factor Analysis output, Descriptive Statistics.

Factors N Min Max Mean Std. Cronbach’s Skewness Kurtosis Deviation Alpha

Physical Attributes 1078 1.00 12.00 4.19 2.504 .820 .196 -.856 Height + Weight

Personality 1078 1.18 9.00 5.09 1.618 .923 -.039 -.342 Reliable + Trustworthy + Generous + Efficient + Organised + Stylish + Attractive + Creative + Masculine/feminine + Positive Attitude +Elegant

Valid N (listwise) 1078

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6.4 Analysis: Univariate (ANOVA)

The next step was to test the two independent variables by using a Univariate ANOVA. This involved two within-subjects variables and one between-subject factor. The within-subjects factors were motorcycle-scooter (Yamaha or Modenas) and model gender (male or female). The between-subjects factors were the model nationality (Asian and Caucasian). Three independent variables of motorcycle, model gender, and model nationality were tested with five dependent variables which included three items that were excluded earlier in order to produce a simple Factor Analysis structure.

As such the five dependent variables were Personality and Physical Attributes, together with Age, Education, and Parents’ Annual Income. Table 6.9 presents the significant effects for within-subject factors and between-subject factors extracted from the Univariate ANOVA. Plots appearing later illustrate these effects.

Table 6.9: Univariate ANOVA results, Significant Effects.

Scale Effect Personality Physical Age Education Parents’ Annual Attribute Income Motorcycle .056 Model gender .000 .000 .001 .003 .006 Model nationality .000 .000 .024 Motorcycle x .059 .011 Model gender

Model gender x .019 Model nationality

Motorcycle x .027 Model nationality

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6.5 Univariate ANOVA result

6.5.1 Factor 1: Personality

Univariate ANOVA with motorcycle-scooters (Yamaha, Modenas) as within-subjects factors and model gender (male, female) and model nationality (Asian, Caucasian) as between-subject factors revealed a Personality effect for model gender, F(1, 1089) = 16.513, p < .000, ηp2 .015. There was also an interaction between motorcycle and model nationality, F(2, 1089) = 4.933, p < .027, ηp2 .005.

As indicated in Figure 6.6, participants regarded the Caucasian models more favourably with the Yamaha than with the Modenas. There is a slight reversal of effects for the Asian models whereby they were more favourable with the Modenas.

Figure 6.6: Repeated Measures output for Personality (Motorcycle x Model nationality).

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Figure 6.7 reveals that the participants’ regarded the female models more favourably than the male models.

Figure 6.7: Repeated Measures output for Personality (Model gender).

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6.5.2 Factor 2: Physical Attributes

For Physical Attributes there were significant effects due to model gender F(1, 1089) = 60.785, p < .000, ηp2 .053 and model nationality, F(1, 1089) = 21.595, p < .000, ηp2 .019.

Figure 6.8 reveals that the participants regarded the male models as taller and heavier than the female models.

Figure 6.8: Repeated Measures output for Physical Attributes (Model gender).

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Figure 6.9 reveals that the participants perceived the Caucasian models as taller and heavier.

Figure 6.9: Repeated Measures output for Physical Attributes (Model nationality).

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6.5.3 Age

For Age there were significant effects for motorcycle, F(1, 1089) = 3.647, p < .056, ηp2 .003; model gender F(1, 1089) = 10.945, p < .001, ηp2 .010, and model nationality, F(1, 1089) =

15.067, p < .000, ηp2 .014.

Figure 6.10 reveals that the participants regarded the models as looking older with the Yamaha, and by implication, younger with the Modenas.

Figure 6.10: Repeated Measures output for Age (Motorcycle).

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Figure 6.11 reveals that the participants regarded the male models as looking younger than the female models.

Figure 6.11: Repeated Measures output for Age (Model gender).

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As indicated in Figure 6.12, participants regarded the Caucasian models as looking older than the Asian models.

Figure 6.12: Repeated Measures output for Age (Model nationality).

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6.5.4 Education

For Education there was a significant effect for model gender, F(1, 1089) = 8.869, p < .003, ηp2 .008, and a significant interaction between motorcycle and model gender, F(2, 1089) = 3.585, p < .059, ηp2 .003.

Figure 6.13 reveals that the participants’ regarded the female models with the Modenas as more educated than the male models, while they perceived the male models as more educated with the Yamaha.

Figure 6.13: Repeated Measures output for Education (Motorcycle x Model gender).

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6.5.5 Parents’ Annual Income

For Parents’ Annual Income there were two main effects for model gender, F(1, 1089) = 7.551, p < .006, ηp2 .007, and model nationality, F(1, 1089) = 5.137, p < .024, ηp2 .005. These were qualified by interactions between motorcycle and model gender, F(2, 1089) = 6.480, p < .011, ηp2 .006, and between model gender and model nationality, F(2, 1089) = 5.545, p < .019, ηp2 .005.

Figure 6.14 reveals that the participants regarded the female models as having higher parental incomes with the Modenas, while they perceived the male models as having higher with the Yamaha.

Figure 6.14: Repeated Measures output for Parents’ Annual Income (Motorcycle x Model gender).

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Figure 6.15 reveals that the participants regarded both the Asian models and the Caucasian female as having higher parental income. The exception was the Caucasian male who was seen as having a significantly lower parental income.

Figure 6.15: Repeated Measures output for Parents’ Annual Income (Model gender x Model Nationality).

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6.6 An Analysis of Model Gender Separately

A strong model gender effect emerges in the study. An interesting feature of this result is that there were more effects due to model gender than to motorcycle and model nationality. For this reason, and to unravel this gender effect, it was decided to run the analysis again separately for each model gender. In order to clarify this, individual analyses were conducted separately for the male and female models.

A Univariate ANOVA test was performed with motorcycle (Yamaha, Modenas) as the within- subject factor, and model gender (male, female) and model nationality (Asian, Caucasian) as between-subject factors. Participants’ age and gender were excluded in this test. Table 6.15 outlines the significant effects extracted from the Univariate ANOVA.

Table 6.10: Univariate ANOVA results, Significant Effects.

Scale Model Image Personality Physical Age Education Parents’ Attribute Annual Income Motorcycle x Asian Male

Motorcycle x .057 Asian Female

Motorcycle x .006 Caucasian Male

Motorcycle x .026 Caucasian Female

Note: Excluding participants age + gender

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6.6.1 Factor 1: Personality

A Univariate ANOVA with motorcycle (Yamaha, Modenas) as the within-subjects factor and model gender (female) and model nationality (Caucasian) as between-subject factors revealed an effect between motorcycle and Caucasian female, F(1, 252) = 5.036, p < .026, ηp2 .020.

Figure 6.16 reveals that the participants regarded the Caucasian female more favourably with the Yamaha than the Modenas.

Figure 6.16: Repeated Measures output for Personality (Motorcycle x Caucasian female).

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6.6.2 Factor 2: Physical Attribute

The results reveal an interaction between motorcycle and Asian female, F(1, 288) = 3.643, p < .057, ηp2 .013.

Figure 6.17 reveals that the participants regarded the Asian female as looking taller and heavier with the Yamaha than with the Modenas.

Figure 6.17: Repeated Measures output for Physical Attributes (Motorcycle x Asian female).

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6.6.3 Parents’ Annual Income

The results reveal an effects for motorcycle and Caucasian male, F(1, 288) = 7.549, p < .006, ηp2 .026.

Figure 6.18 reveals that the participants perceived the Caucasian male as having higher parental income with the Yamaha than with the Modenas.

Figure 6.18: Repeated Measures output for Parents’ Annual Income (Motorcycle x Caucasian male).

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6.7 Discussion

The results of this survey indicate that the Room Effect can be applied to products, in this case motorcycles. With the larger sample size of 1078 participants from 108 countries, and stimuli redesign based on the results from the pilot survey, the intention of this actual survey was to verify the effect with a larger sample, and to test for possible gender and nationality differences. The results reveal highly significant differences for some of the measures used, with indications of strong gender differences and some nationality effects.

On the basis of the results, it would be reasonable to extend the concept of the Room Effect into the Product Effect. Given its empirical verification, we can have some confidence that association with a product involves transference of product qualities to the person associated with it – as it does with the Room Effect.

The results indicate that the Motorcycle Effect was more pronounced for the female models, reflecting a gender effect. A surprising feature of the results is how little impact the motorcycle had upon perceptions of the male models. In the final analyses where male and female models were analysed separately, there was a statistically significant motorcycle effect for the female models. They were rated more favourably than the male models for Personality and Physical Attributes. The result also shows that the female models were rated more favourably when appearing with the Yamaha than with the Modenas. These findings are supported by the research of Baker and Churchill (1977), which indicated that automobile advertisements using female models resulted in the car design being perceived as more appealing, lively, youthful, and better designed. Their work also concluded that the physical attractiveness of the model was positively related to the evaluation of the product, such that a more attractive model would result in the car being rated more favourably (Smith & Engel 1968).

However, it should be noted that in this present research the sample size consists of 70% males, which may give further insights into a gender effect. As the majority of participants were male, this may indicate that the female models were evaluated more favourably than the male models by ‘opposite sex’ evaluation (Baker & Churchill 1977). This is supported by research indicating that an advertisement paired with an attractive, opposite-sex model provides positive reinforcement, and results in the viewer reacting more favourably to the

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product being evaluated (Baker & Churchill 1977). The ‘opposite sex’ evaluation is a possible explanation for the corresponding results of this study.

The results in this final analysis also demonstrate a nationality effect, which was more pronounced for the Caucasian models. They were perceived more favourably and as having higher parental income than the Asian models when analysed separately. In addition, the results revealed that the Caucasian males when paired with the Yamaha were perceived as looking wealthier than when paired with the Modenas, reflecting a Motorcycle Effect. It is difficult to determine what caused this effect. One possible explanation comes from the research of Khoo and Karan (2007), which indicated that Caucasian model faces have the highest representation in magazine advertisements of electronic and print media. Therefore, as Caucasian model faces are exposed through these media displays, then participants tend to favour them simply because they are more familiar. This therefore suggests a ‘mere exposure’ effect whereby familiarity confers desirable traits (Bornstein & D'Agostino 1992). Previous studies have confirmed the existence of this effect also known as the ‘familiarity principle’ or ‘affect referral’ (Colman, Sluckin & Hargreaves 1981 ; Coupey, Irwin & Payne 1998). The results also indicate how little impact the motorcycle had upon perceptions of the Asian models.

6.8 Summary

The results of this survey indicated that the Room Effect method can be applied to products, with indications of strong gender and some nationality effects. The results confirm that the presence of the motorcycle can affect how people are perceived, and that a Product Effect exists in a similar way to the Room Effect.

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Chapter 7

Conclusions and Implications

7.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the aims and findings, as well as the limitations of this research. The chapter finalises the discussion and explanation of findings made throughout this research and investigates possible links to broader areas of research. This chapter then concludes the research by proposing recommendations and implications for future research.

The argument that traditional market research methods are less effective in generating motorcycle industry sales in Malaysia was advanced at earlier stage of this research. In response to this, the research found it is necessary for a motorcycle companies to explore and develop new market research methods, which can investigate customer satisfaction by understanding people’s perceptions of the design of their products. A literature review demonstrated that Malaysian motorcycle makers might need to draw upon different market research method as alternatives in order to compete in the market. An efficient market research method should improve product sales by providing necessary information for product development.

Adapting a combination of manipulation of visual images with the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits, in supporting the ‘Room Effect’ method, served the possible purposes and effectiveness of this method. As suggested, the combination of various methods can be used profitably and can be especially effective in the examination of many social topics (Babbie 1990 ; Moisander & Valtonen 2006). The Five-Factor Model of Personality traits has been proven to be effective in testing human personality and is believed to be the best representation of trait structure. The application provides the added advantages that it has

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been tested and proven to be effective in cross-cultural research. For the study of product personality study, this application is recommended for its relevance to products and brands research (Aaker 1997 ; Govers & Mugge 2004).

The method selected for investigation in this research was the Room Effect (Canter, West & Wools 1974). The fundamental research question was ‘is there a Product Effect? In other words, does the product confer its own qualities to its owner. The secondary questions were ‘is there a gender effect?’ and ‘is there a nationality effect?’ In other words, does the effect work equally for men and women, and for different nationalities? An exploratory pilot study was conducted to investigate these questions using a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches. The qualitative approach consisted of a Motorcycle Positioning Task and the quantitative approach used the Room Effect method. Based on the results, the Room Effect method was established as the actual survey method for this research. This particular task using this method was to investigate whether there is a Product Effect. That is, can a product affect the way a person is perceived when they are associated with that product. The research provided strong support for the existence of a Product Effect, similar to the Room Effect. This was designated a Motorcycle Effect in this research, and establishes a possible new market research method for the motorcycle industry. This method could also find application in the automotive industry generally, and to a wide range of consumer products.

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7.2 Summary of Findings

As indicated above, the main finding is that a Product Effect exists. In the context of the motorcycles tested, the Modenas performed less well. Effectively, the attributes it conferred on its owners were less favourable. With regards to nationality differences, the evidence presented in this research supported the Five-Factor Model of Personality traits for the pilot study, but not for the actual survey. In the actual survey the cultural effect did not appear in the final analyses. It was not possible to investigate the data further because the nationality of participants could not be identified by the software used. It is known, however, that 50% of the participants were from three countries, Australia, India, and the United States of America, while the remaining 50% were from many other countries. The results in the final analysis did demonstrate some nationality effects, which were more pronounced for the Caucasian models. The results also indicate how little impact the motorcycle had upon perceptions of the Asian models.

A surprising feature of the results is how little impact the motorcycle had upon perceptions of the male models. The results indicate that the Motorcycle Effect was more pronounced for the female models, reflecting a gender effect. The evidence presented in the earlier test suggested that the female models were more positively perceived than the male models. This is consistent with the research of Baker and Churchill (1977). It indicated that automobile advertisements using female models resulted in car designs being perceived as more appealing, lively, youthful, and better designed (Baker & Churchill 1977). As motorcycle- scooters were used in the present study, it is possible that this category of motorcycle is more associated with females than males. By implication, the Harley Davidson appears to be more associated with males than females. If so, then we would expect a greater effect of the Harley Davidson on perceptions of males. This would be a natural extension of the research into the domain of gender differences.

While responses to the Yamaha were generally more positive than to the Modenas, nonetheless there were also positive responses to the Modenas. For instance, participants regarded the models as looking younger and more educated with the Modenas than with the Yamaha. Such differentiators provide specific information for designers. While this information does not indicate precisely which features of each motorcycle convey the effects, it does tell

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the designer that such features exist. Knowing that a motorcycle conveys youth, the designer may well seek to design in features that convey greater age, if the target market consisted of an older demographic.

The problem for the designer is magnified when export markets are part of the design brief. While the home market may be reasonably well understood, foreign markets pose major problems. How do the Yamaha and Modenas appear to natives of India, South Korea and France? Can we safely assume that they are perceived similarly? It would be dangerous to do so, and potentially costly. Methods such as the Room Effect offer opportunities to investigate such markets; and the information obtained can be used to guide designers.

An advantage of using this method on the Internet is that a large sample of potential users can be tested. Furthermore, by gathering demographic information on the respondents, patterns of responses can be attributed to specific characteristics. For example, gender, nationality and age differences can be ascertained from the responses. This would facilitate the targeting of the product within the market, and also inform design development work. Naturally, this method is not limited to the automotive field. It could find application in a wide range of consumer products and household goods.

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7.3 Limitations and Further Research

This research benefited greatly from the use of the Internet as the means to conduct the surveys and from survey software which was developed in-house. This technique allowed an international audience to be reached at a relatively low cost, offering flexibility, and anonymity to participants. However, despite these advantages, there was a relatively poor response rate and difficulty in determining the nationality of participants. Despite involving participants from over 108 countries, it was not possible to identify the specific country or region for each participant. The data obtained could only provide the number of participants per country. This was a limitation of the survey software used, which was new and consumed considerable time to develop. In addition, the ethics restrictions were a limitation for this study as an application for an Internet Protocol address (IP address) had to be approved before beginning the survey. Future research should utilize the Internet Protocol address (IP address) information of participants, which can identify participants’ locations. This further information can be used to investigate cultural similarities and differences. While the stimuli employed were highly controlled and realistic, further research could refine the stimuli. For example, positioning the model on the motorcycle would enhance ownership and therefore realism.

A notable feature of the research was the failure of the Five Factor Model of Personality (FFMP) to emerge as a differentiator during the large Internet survey. As respondents from many nationalities participated, this result may well reflect an ‘averaging out’ of differences, resulting in a neutral mean. Future investigation could profit from testing individual national groups to ascertain if the FFMP acts as a differentiator within groups. It is possible that the traits associated with factors within the FFMP differ according to culture.

It should be acknowledged that the Room Effect method is over 50 years old. Surprisingly, after its initial application in environmental psychology, it has been overlooked. An obvious area of application would be in the field of product design; however, empirical research in product design has only a recent history. It is for this reason, presumably, that it has been neglected. It is hoped that the present study, via publications leading from it, will bring it to the attention of the design research community, and give it a fresh lease of life.

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In conclusion, given the empirical verification of the method from the results, the study confirms that association with a product involves transference of product qualities to the person associated with it – as it does with the Room Effect. This research concludes therefore that it would be reasonable to extend the concept of the Room Effect into the Product Effect. Aside from the specific findings above, investigations of the Product Effect could be extended to other designed products with the potential to generate new knowledge.

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Appendices:

Change of Thesis Title

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Ethics Clearances Final Report

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171

Ethics Clearances

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173

Keith Wilkins 14/02/2009 4:20 pm

To: Dr Simon Jackson for Prof Allan Whitfield et al, Design

Dear Simon

SUHREC Project 0708/180

Customer Emotional Needs in Motorcycle and Car Design: a Cross Cultural Perspective

Prof A Whitfield, Design, Dr Simon Jackson, Mr Azhari Md Hashim and Mr Raja Ahmad Azmeer Raja Ahmad Effendi.

Approved Duration Extended to 01/09/2009

I refer to your email of 10 February 2009 requesting an extension of clearance. There being no change to the protocol as approved to date, I am authorised to grant the request in line with standard on-going ethics clearance conditions previously communicated and reprinted below.

Please contact me if you have any queries about on-going ethics clearance. The SUHREC project number should be quoted in communication.

Best wishes for the extended project.

Yours sincerely

Keith Wilkins Secretary, SUHREC

******************************************* Keith Wilkins Research Ethics Officer Swinburne Research (H68) Swinburne University of Technology P O Box 218 HAWTHORN VIC 3122 Tel +61 3 9214 5218 Fax +61 3 9214 5267

174

Keith Wilkins 24/09/2008 3:47 pm To: Dr Simon Jackson for Prof Allan Whitfield et al, Design

Dear Simon

SUHREC Project 0708/180

Customer Emotional Needs in Motorcycle and Car Design: a Cross Cultural Perspective

Prof A Whitfield, Design, Dr Simon Jackson, Mr Azhari Md Hashim, and Mr Raja Ahmad Azmeer Raja Ahmad Effendi.

Approved Duration: 23/04/2008 To 01/03/2009 [On-line Participation Added September 2008]

I refer to your request, as emailed on 22 September 2008, to conduct an on-line arm of the above approved project via the Faculty of Design website.

The request was put to delegates of SUHREC for consideration and found to be consistent with the existing approved protocol. I am please therefore to confirm that, as submitted to date, the modified/expanded project can proceed in line with standard on-going ethics clearance conditions previously communicated and reprinted below. Please note however that the online version should not require or retain significant system, log-in or other identifiers in relation to individuals who so participate.

Please contact me if you have any queries about on-going ethics clearance. The SUHREC project number should be quoted in communication.

Best wishes to the research team for the continuing project.

Yours sincerely

Keith Wilkins Secretary, SUHREC

175

Keith Wilkins 23/04/2008 4:50 pm

To: Prof Allan Whitfield/Dr Simon Jackson, Design Dear Allan and Simon SUHREC Project 0708/180

Customer Emotional Needs in Motorcycle and Car Design: a Cross Cultural Perspective

Prof A Whitfield, Design, Dr Simon Jackson, Mr Azhari Md Hashim and Mr Raja Ahmad Azmeer Raja Ahmad Effendi.

Approved Duration: 23/04/2008 To 01/03/2009

I refer to the ethical review of the above project protocol undertaken by Swinburne's Human Research Ethics Committee (SUHREC). Your responses to the review, as emailed on 15 April 2008 with a further revised consent statement emailed on 22 April 2004, were put to a delegate of SUHREC for consideration. I am pleased to advise that approval for the project to proceed has been given as submitted to date in line with standard on-going ethics clearance conditions here outlined. However, please note that evidence of authority to undertake human research activity in Malaysia is needed before such activity commences. - All human research activity undertaken under Swinburne auspices must conform to Swinburne and external regulatory standards, including the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research and with respect to secure data use, retention and disposal. - The named Swinburne Chief Investigator/Supervisor remains responsible for any personnel appointed to or associated with the project being made aware of ethics clearance conditions, including research and consent procedures or instruments approved. Any change in chief investigator/supervisor requires timely notification and SUHREC endorsement. - The above project has been approved as submitted for ethical review by or on behalf of SUHREC. Amendments to approved procedures or instruments ordinarily require prior ethical appraisal/ clearance. SUHREC must be notified immediately or as soon as possible thereafter of (a) any serious or unexpected adverse effects on participants and any redress measures; (b) proposed changes in protocols; and (c) unforeseen events which might affect continued ethical acceptability of the project. - At a minimum, an annual report on the progress of the project is required as well as at the conclusion (or abandonment) of the project. - A duly authorised external or internal audit of the project may be undertaken at any time. Please contact me if you have any queries about on-going ethics clearance. The SUHREC project number should be quoted in communication. Best wishes for the project. Yours sincerely

Keith Wilkins Secretary, SUHREC *******************************************

176

SUHREC Projects 0708/180 2008/102 & 2009/019

Ethics Clearance for Modification Request

Keith Wilkins 23/11/2009 5:24 PM

Dear Simon

SUHREC Projects 0708/180, 2008/102 & 2009/019

The modification requested, as per your emails of 10 and 11 November 2009 and further revision as per your email sent at 5.06 pm today with attachments, re inclusion of a lottery for participation in one of the three projects named, has been approved and can be used. Standard on-going ethics clearance conditions pertain as previously communicated to you in the respective email clearances.

As per my email today sent at 4.10 pm, the project durations will be extended to 31 March 2010 unless already approved beyond this date.

Best wishes for the continuing projects.

Yours sincerely

Keith

177

SUHREC Projects 0708/180 2008/102 & 2009/019

Simon Jackson 23/11/2009 5:06 PM

Dear Keith,

I seek Modification to SUHREC Projects 0708/018, 2008/102 & 2009/019.

As an incentive to encourage more participation in our surveys, i seek permission to offer an ipod as a prize.

The following caption will appear at the end of the informed consent forms for each of the 3 SUHREC Projects:

"To thank you for your time and effort we are offering those participating in one of three research projects, including this one, the chance to win a 16MB iPod Nano valued at $249. Should you wish to enter the draw, please click on this link to another page which outlines further information on the prize draw and requests your contact details. You need to enter into the draw by [27 February 2010] and the winner chosen at random. The winner will be notified on 1 March 2010. Please note that entry into the draw is quire separate and is not linked to your anonymous responses to the on-line questionnaire."

I have read the Victorian Commission for Gambling Regulation "Trade Promotion Lottery Information & Conditions" document and understand that for prizes under AUD$ 250 I do NOT have to publically name the winner.

Kind regards,

Simon Jackson, PhD Senior Lecturer Head, Design Society and Culture

Swinburne Design Swinburne University of Technology 144 High Street, Prahran, VIC 3181 Melbourne, Australia

Telephone +61 3 9214 6878

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Dear Allan and Azhari Hashim

SUHREC Project 0708/180

Customer Emotional Needs in Motorcycle and Car Design: a Cross Cultural Perspective

Prof A Whitfield, Design, Dr Simon Jackson, Mr Azhari Md Hashim and Mr Raja Ahmad Azmeer Raja Ahmad Effendi.

Approved Duration: 23/04/2008 To 01/03/2009 I acknowledge receipt of the forwarded EPU email which one of my Malay-speaking colleagues has translated as being evidence of authority to undertake the above project in Malaysia. This enables me to confirm on-going ethics clearance for the project as per standard conditions outlined in my email of 23 April 2008 (reprinted below).

Best wishes for the project.

Yours sincerely Keith Wilkins Secretary, SUHREC azhari hashim 20/05/2008 2:04 pm

Hi, attached here is the approval statement of an email from Economic Planning Unit EPU, Malaysia for conducting research in Malaysia.

The title of the research is 'Customer Emotional Needs in Motorcycle and Car Design: A Cross Culture Perspective'. This email is in Malay language and this is the translation for it:

Your application has been approved on 22nd April and the letter of approval has been sent to your address as state in your application form (at Kedah, Malaysia). Thanks.

Azhari Hashim, PhD researcher student, Faculty of Design, Swinburne Univ. of Technology

To: [email protected] From: [email protected] Subject: Re: Pertanyaan kelulusan membuat penyelidikan Date: Thu, 15 May 2008 15:19:21 +0800

En. Azhari Hashim, Dimaklumkan permohonan En. telah diluluskan pada 22 April dan surat kelulusan telah dihantar ke alamat seperti tertulis di dalam borang permohonan iaitu alamat di (Kedah, Malaysia).

Sekian terima kasih. ORIDB

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Pilot Survey Questionnaires (Australian)

Swinburne University of Technology

Faculty of Design

Project Consent Information Statement

Customer Emotional Needs in Motorcycle Design: a Cross Cultural Perspective

Dear participant,

You are invited to participate in a research project conducted in the Faculty of Design, Swinburne University of Technology. The Principal Investigator is Professor Allan Whitfield. The Associate Investigator is Dr. Simon Jackson. Both are full-time staff members of the Faculty of Design.

The project is called “Customer Emotional Needs in Motorcycle: a Cross Cultural Perspective” and is a questionnaire for 1st Year Faculty of Design Film and Television Students at Swinburne University and students at the Universiti Teknologi (UiTM University), Kedah, Malaysia.

Successive Malaysian governments have pursued a vision of achieving ‘industrialized country’ status by 2020. Within this, the transport industry has played a major role, receiving considerable internal investment and acting as a flagship for national ambition. An important sector of this industry comprises motorcycle manufacturers in Asian region, the main one being Modenas. As international competition increases, these companies risk a reduction in their share of the home market and curtailment of their export ambitions. The former is due to free trade tariff reductions, and the latter is due to China entering this particular market segment. The problem is not one of technical performance; rather, it appears to be one of styling of motorbikes. The research will be cross-cultural involving surveys of Malaysians and Australians, and will test for possible differences due to nationally and gender. It is intend that the research will have practical application within the automotive industries and make an academic contribution within the field of experimental aesthetics.

Privacy protection is of paramount concern. No participant names will be recorded on the questionnaire. The data will be analyzed and represented in tables, charts and text for publishing by the researchers in articles.

Every participant is free to withdraw consent and to discontinue participation in the study at any time.

180

Swinburne University of Technology

Faculty of Design

Consent form

Project Title: Customer Emotional Needs in Motorcycle: a Cross Cultural Perspective

Principal Investigator(s): The Principal Investigator is Professor Allan Whitfield. The Associate Investigator is Dr. Simon Jackson. Student Investigator(s): Azhari Md Hashim.

1. I consent to participate in the project named above. I have been provided a copy of the project information statement and this consent form and any questions I have asked have been answered to my satisfaction.

2. Please circle your response to the following:

. I agree to complete questionnaires asking me about motorbikes . Yes / No 3. I acknowledge that:

(a) the possible side effects have been explained to me to my satisfaction; (b) my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw from the project at any time without explanation; (c) the project is for the purpose of research and not for profit; (d) any personal or health information about me which is gathered in the course of and as the result of my participating in this project will be (i) collected and retained for the purpose of this project and (ii) accessed and analysed by the researcher(s) for the purpose of conducting this project; (e) my anonymity is preserved and I will not be identified in publications or otherwise without my express written consent. This project has been approved by or on behalf of Swinburne’s Human Research Ethics Committee (SUHREC) in line with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research. If you have any concerns or complaints about the conduct of this project, you can contact: Research Ethics Officer, Swinburne Research (H68), Swinburne University of Technology, P O Box 218, HAWTHORN VIC 3122. Tel (03) 92145218 or +61 3 92145218 or [email protected]

181

By completing this survey you are allowing us to use this information for our research.

This survey is anonymous and no record will be made of your identity.

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INTRODUCTION

This research is carried out by Azhari Md Hashim, a doctoral student at the National Institute for Design Research, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia. Your cooperation is appreciated.

INSTRUCTIONS

1. Please complete all of the questions in the order in which they occur:

EITHER: Please circle appropriate answers

e.g. Gender

a) Male b) Female

OR Write your answer in where necessary

E.g. your age

30 years

OR Many questions involve 9 point rating scales. The extremes are located at each end of the scale (left negative – right positive). Please circle the number that best expresses your opinion. (Circle one box only).

e.g. He looks stylish.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

In example a) the circle 9 indicates that you agree that the person appears stylish.

In example b) the circle 6 indicates that you slightly agree that the person appears stylish.

2. Please read each question carefully and treat each response separately despite any apparent repetition.

3. If you have any problem understanding or completing the questions please ask the administrator for help.

Thank you for your cooperation.

Your answers to the questions will be treated in confidence.

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SECTION 1: About Yourself

Please answer the following:

1. Your Age

_____ years.

2. Your Gender

a) Male b) Female

184

In the above picture, a man is with his scooter. Can you please give your impression of him by answering the questions below.

1. How tall do you think he is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. How heavy do you think he is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. How old do you think he is?

_____ years.

4. What level of education did he achieve?

Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to Year 9 year 12 Technical & further Degree Post Graduate Education (TAFE)

5. What do you think his parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. He looks like he has a positive attitude to life.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

7. He is creative.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

185

8. He looks friendly.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

9. He looks unstable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

10. He looks masculine.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

11. He looks trustworthy.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

12. He looks anxious.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

13. He is elegant.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

14. He looks sporty.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

186

15. He looks stylish.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

16. He looks open to new ideas.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

17. He is attractive.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

18. He appears generous.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

19. He looks reliable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

20. He looks efficient.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

21. He looks organized.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

187

22. He appears kind.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

23. He looks vulnerable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

I appreciate your time and cooperation. Please check to make sure that you have not skipped any questions inadvertently. Thank you.

188

In the above picture, a man is with his scooter. Can you please give your impression of him by answering the questions below.

1. How tall do you think he is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. How heavy do you think he is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. How old do you think he is?

_____ years.

4. What level of education did he achieve?

Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to Year 9 year 12 Technical & further Degree Post Graduate Education (TAFE)

5. What do you think his parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. He looks like he has a positive attitude to life.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

7. He is creative.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

189

8. He looks friendly.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

9. He looks unstable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

10. He looks masculine.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

11. He looks trustworthy.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

12. He looks anxious.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

13. He is elegant.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

14. He looks sporty.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

190

15. He looks stylish.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

16. He looks open to new ideas.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

17. He is attractive.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

18. He appears generous.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

19. He looks reliable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

20. He looks efficient.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

21. He looks organized.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

191

22. He appears kind.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

23. He looks vulnerable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

I appreciate your time and cooperation. Please check to make sure that you have not skipped any questions inadvertently. Thank you.

192

In the above picture, a woman is with her scooter. Can you please give your impression of her by answering the questions below.

1. How tall do you think she is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. How heavy do you think she is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. How old do you think she is?

_____ years.

4. What level of education did she achieve?

Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to Year 9 year 12 Technical & further Degree Post Graduate Education (TAFE)

5. What do you think her parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. She looks like she has a positive attitude to life.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

7. She is creative.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

193

8. She looks friendly.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

9. She looks unstable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

10. She looks feminine.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

11. She looks trustworthy.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

12. She looks anxious.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

13. She is elegant.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

14. She looks sporty.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

194

15. She looks stylish.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

16. She looks open to new ideas.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

17. She is attractive.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

18. She appears generous.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

19. She looks reliable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

20. She looks efficient.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

21. She looks organized.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

195

22. She appears kind.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

23. She looks vulnerable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

I appreciate your time and cooperation. Please check to make sure that you have not skipped any questions inadvertently. Thank you.

196

In the above picture, a woman is with her scooter. Can you please give your impression of her by answering the questions below.

1. How tall do you think she is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. How heavy do you think she is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. How old do you think she is?

_____ years.

4. What level of education did she achieve?

Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to Year 9 year 12 Technical & further Degree Post Graduate Education (TAFE)

5. What do you think her parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. She looks like she has a positive attitude to life.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

7. She is creative.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

197

8. She looks friendly.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

9. She looks unstable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

10. She looks feminine.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

11. She looks trustworthy.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

12. She looks anxious.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

13. She is elegant.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

14. She looks sporty.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

198

15. She looks stylish.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

16. She looks open to new ideas.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

17. She is attractive.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

18. She appears generous.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

19. She looks reliable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

20. She looks efficient.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

21. She looks organized.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

199

22. She appears kind.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

23. She looks vulnerable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

I appreciate your time and cooperation. Please check to make sure that you have not skipped any questions inadvertently. Thank you.

200

Pilot Survey Questionnaires (Malaysian)

Swinburne University of Technology Faculty of Design

Permohonan Persetujuan Bagi Mendapatkan Informasi Projek

Kehendak Pengguna Dari Segi Emosi Di dalam Rekabentuk Motosikal: Dari Perspektif Dua Budaya

Anda dijemput untuk mengambil bahagian didalam kajian projek yang dijalankan oleh Fakulti Rekabentuk, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia. Penyelidik utama ialah Professor Allan Whitfield sementara penyelidik bersama ialah Dr. Simon Jackson. Kedua mereka adalah ahli staf Fakulti Rekabentuk di Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia.

Tajuk projek ini “Kehendak Pengguna Dari Segi Emosi Di dalam Rekabentuk Motosikal: Dari Perspektif Dua Budaya”. Responden kaji selidik adalah pelajar TAhun Satu FAkulti Rekabentuk jurusan Rekabentuk Filem dan Televisyen di Swinburne University dan pelajar di Universiti Teknologi MARA Kedah, Kampus Sungai Petani, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia.

Pada hari ini, kerajaan Malaysia telah merangka visi untuk menjadi sebuah Negara industri menjelang tahun 2020. Industri Automotif dianggap penting dalam memainkan peranan utama di mana kerajaan telah membuat pelaburan secara besar-besaran untuk sektor tersebut. Secara khususnya, industri pembuatan motosikal iaitu Modenas. Jenama ini terbentuk hasil daripada rekabentuk berkonsepkan cirri-ciri rekabentuk Malaysia. Berdasarkan persaingan sengit di peringkat pasaran antarabangsa, industri ini dijangka akan menghadapi risiko dari segi kekurangan jualan di pasaran tempatan serta eksport ke luar Negara. Ini adalah disebabkan oleh penurunan kadar cukai dan tariff yang akan dikenakan terhadap motosikal import. Kemasukan produk-produk automotif dari Negara China juga telah memberi saingan hebat dari segi rekabentuk dan harga. Tambahan pula, didalam industri pembuatan, kekurangan dari segi gaya rekabentuk yang menarik adalah diantara penyebab utama keatas masalah ini. Oleh itu, kajian ini merangkumi kajiselidik budaya di antara pengguna Malaysia dan Australia ke atas produk Modenas. Kajian ini juga akan menguji perbezaan persepsi berdasarkan kerakyatan dan jantina kedua Negara tersebut. Sehubungan dengan ini, kajian akan dijalankan secara aplikasi parktikal di sekitar industri automotif dan akan menyumbang k earah akademik, khususnya di dalam bidang eksperimen estetik.

Tinjauan ini dianggap sulit dan nama responden tidak akan direkodkan di dalam borang tinjauan. Segala data akan dianalisa dan dibentangkan dalam bentuk daftar fakta atau angka, carta atau teks untuk penerbitan oleh penyelidik didalam artikel. Setiap responden berhak untuk menarik diri daripada mengisi boring kajiselidik ketika tinjauan dijalankan sekiranya wereka tidak bersetuju untuk menjawab sebarang soalan di atas sebab-sebab yang tertentu.

Untuk maklumat lanjut, sila hubungi Professor Allan Whitfield The National Institute for Design Research The Faculty of Design Building PA 144 High Street Prahran VIC 3181, Australia Tel: +61 3 9214 6882

Projek ini telah diprilaku sah atau diwakili oleh “Swinburne’s Human Research Ethics Committee (SUHREC)” bersama “National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research”. Jika ada sebarang hal yang berkaitan dengan seseorang atau aduan mengenai cara tinjauan ini dijalankan, anda boleh hubungi: Research Ethics Officer, Swinburne Research (H68), Swinburne University of Technology, P O Box 218, HAWTHORN VIC 3122. Tel (03) 92145218 or +61 3 92145218 or [email protected]

201

Swinburne University of Technology Faculty of Design

Borang Persetujuan

Tajuk Projek: Kehendak Pengguna Dari Segi Emosi Di dalam Rekabentuk Motosikal: Dari Perspektif Dua Budaya.

Penyelidik Utama: Penyelidik utama ialah Profesor Allan Whitfield. Penyelidik bersama ialah Dr. Simon Jackson. Penyelidik (Pelajar): Azhari Md Hashim

1. Saya bersetuju untuk mengambil bahagian di dalam projek berdasarkan tajuk di atas. Saya telah diberi salinan mengenai informasi projek dan borang persetujuan dan segala jawapan adalah berdasarkan di atas persetujuan saya. 2. Bulatkan jawapan anda seperti berikut:  Saya bersetuju untuk melengkapkan borang kajiselidik mengenai motosikal  Ya / Tidak 3. Saya sedar bahawa; a) kebarangkalian adanya kesan sampingan telah diterangkan berdasarkan persetujuan saya. b) penyertaan saya adalah secara sukarela dan saya berhak untuk menarik diri daripada mengisi borang kajiselidik ketika tinjauan dijalankan di atas sebab-sebab yang tertentu. c) projek ini adalah untuk tujuan penyelidikan dan bukan untuk meraih sebarang keuntungan; d) segala maklumat peribadi dan kesihatan yang menunjukkan penyertaan saya di dalam projek ini akan di (i) kumpul dan disimpan bagi tujuan projek ini dan (ii) dianalisa oleh penyelidik bagi tujuan untuk menjalankan projek ini. e) identiti saya tidak akan direkodkan di dalam penerbitan melainkan mendapat keizinan daripada saya iaitu dalam bentuk surat persetujuan. Dengan menandatangani dokumen ini saya bersetuju untuk menyertai projek ini.

Nama Peserta: ......

Tandatangan dan Tarikh: ......

Nama Saksi (jika perlu): ......

Tandatangan dan Tarikh: ......

Projek ini telah diprilaku sah atau diwakili oleh ‘Swinburne’s Human Research Ethics Committee’ (SUHREC) bersama dengan ‘National Statement On Ethical Conduct In Human Research’. Jika ada sebarang hal yang berkaitan dengan seseorang atau aduan mengenai cara tinjauan ini dijalankan, anda boleh hubungi: Research Ethics Officer, Swinburne Research (H68), Swinburne University of Technology, P O Box 218, HAWTHORN VIC 3122. Tel (03) 92145218 atau +61 3 92145218 atau [email protected]

202

Dengan mengisi borang tinjauan ini anda membantu kami mengumpul maklumat untuk kajian.

(By completing this survey you are allowing us to use this information for our research).

Tinjauan ini adalah dianggap rahsia dan identiti anda tidak akan direkodkan

(This survey is anonymous and no record will be made of your identity).

203

PENGENALAN / INTRODUCTION

Kajian ini dijalankan oleh Azhari Md Hashim, pelajar di peringkat ijazah kedoktoran di National Institute for Design Research, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia. Sila lengkapkan tinjauan ini. Kerjasama anda amatlah dihargai.

(This research is carried out by Azhari Md Hashim, a doctoral student at the National Institute for Design Research, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia. Your cooperation is appreciated).

INSTRUCTIONS

1. Sila lengkapkan semua soalan mengikut susunan: (Please complete all of the questions in the order in which they occur):

SAMADA (EITHER): Sila bulatkan jawapan yang sesuai. (Please circle appropriate answers)

Contoh: Jantina (e.g. Gender)

b) Lelaki (Male) b) Perempuan (Female)

ATAU (OR) Tulis jawapan ditempat kosong. (Write your answer in where necessary)

Contoh: Umur (e.g. your age)

31 Tahun (years)

ATAU (OR) Kebanyakan soalan menggunakan kadar skala mengikut 9 nilai. Penyataan yang tertinggi terletak dihujung setiap skala (kiri negative – kanan positif) Sila bulatkan nombor yang sesuai mengikut pandangan anda (Sila bulatkan satu nombor sahaja).

Many questions involve 9 point rating scales. The extremes are located at each end of the scale (left negative – right positive). Please circle the number that best expresses your opinion. (Circle one box only).

Contoh: Dia kelihatan bergaya. (e.g. He looks stylish).

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

Sebagai contoh a) Jawapan bulatan 9 menunjukkan anda setuju bahawa orang tersebut kelihatan bergaya. In example a) the circle 9 indicates that you agree that the person appears stylish.

Sebagai contoh a) Jawapan bulatan 6 menunjukkan anda tidak setuju bahawa orang tersebut kelihatan bergaya. In example b) the circle 6 indicates that you slightly agree that the person appears stylish.

204

2. Sila baca soalan dengan teliti dan setiap jawapan hendaklah berbeza dan tidak berulang. (Please read each question carefully and treat each response separately despite any apparent repetition).

3. Jika anda menghadapi masalah untuk memahami atau melengkapkan soalan, sila ajukan soalan kepada pegawai yang bertugas. (If you have any problem understanding or completing the questions please ask the administrator for help).

Terima kasih diatas kerjasama anda (Thank you for your cooperation).

Segala jawapan anda didalam kaji selidik ini adalah sulit (Your answers to the questions will be treated in confidence).

205

BAHAGIAN 1: Latarbelakang anda (SECTION 1: About Yourself)

Sila jawab soalan berikut: (Please answer the following)

1. Umur anda (Your Age)

_____ tahun (years)

2. Jantina anda (Your Gender)

a) Lelaki (Male) b) Perempuan (Female)

206

Merujuk gambar diatas, seorang lelaki bersama skuter. Sila berikan gambaran anda terhadap lelaki tersebut dengan menjawab soalan-soalan dibawah. (In the above picture, a man is with his scooter. Can you please give your impression of him by answering the questions below)

1. Pada pendapat anda berapakah tinggi lelaki ini? (cm) How tall do you think he is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. Pada pendapat anda berapakah berat lelaki ini? (kg) How heavy do you think he is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. Pada pendapat anda berapakah umur lelaki ini? How old do you think he is?

_____ tahun (years)

4. Pada pendapat anda apakah tahap pencapaian akademik lelaki ini. What level of education did he achieve?

Tahap SPM Tahap STPM Tahap Diploma Tahap Ijazah Tahap Ijazah Lanjutan

5. Pada pendapat anda berapakah pendapatan tahunan keluarga lelaki ini? What do you think his parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. Lelaki ini kelihatan mempunyai sikap positif dalam hidup. He looks like he has a positive attitude to life.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

207

7. Lelaki ini adalah seorang yang kreatif. He is creative.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

8. Lelaki ini kelihatan peramah. He looks friendly.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

9. Lelaki ini kelihatan tidak stabil. He looks unstable.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

10. Lelaki ini bersifat maskulin. He looks masculine.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

11. Lelaki ini kelihatan seperti boleh dipercayai. He looks trustworthy.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

12. Lelaki ini kelihatan cemas. He looks anxious.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

208

13. Lelaki ini kelihatan anggun. He is elegant.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

14. Lelaki ini kelihatan ranggi. He looks sporty.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

15. Lelaki ini kelihatan bergaya. He looks stylish.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

16. Lelaki ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang boleh menerima idea-idea baru. He looks open to new ideas.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

17. Lelaki ini seorang yang menarik. He is attractive.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

18. Lelaki ini kelihatan pemurah. He appears generous.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

209

19. Lelaki ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang bertanggungjawab. He looks reliable.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

20. Lelaki ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang cekap. He looks efficient.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

21. Lelaki ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang teratur. He looks organized.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

22. Lelaki ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang baik hati. He appears kind.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

23. Lelaki ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang mudah tersinggung. He looks vulnerable.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

Kerjasama anda amat saya hargai. Sila pastikan anda telah menjawab semua soalan di dalam borang tinjauan ini. Terima kasih. I appreciate your time and cooperation. Please check to make sure that you have not skipped any questions inadvertently. Thank you.

210

1. Pada pendapat anda berapakah tinggi lelaki ini? (cm) How tall do you think he is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. Pada pendapat anda berapakah berat lelaki ini? (kg) How heavy do you think he is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. Pada pendapat anda berapakah umur lelaki ini? How old do you think he is?

_____ tahun (years)

4. Pada pendapat anda apakah tahap pencapaian akademik lelaki ini. What level of education did he achieve?

Tahap SPM Tahap STPM Tahap Diploma Tahap Ijazah Tahap Ijazah Lanjutan

5. Pada pendapat anda berapakah pendapatan tahunan keluarga lelaki ini? What do you think his parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. Lelaki ini kelihatan mempunyai sikap positif dalam hidup. He looks like he has a positive attitude to life.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

211

7. Lelaki ini adalah seorang yang kreatif. He is creative.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

8. Lelaki ini kelihatan peramah. He looks friendly.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

9. Lelaki ini kelihatan tidak stabil. He looks unstable.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

10. Lelaki ini bersifat maskulin. He looks masculine.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

11. Lelaki ini kelihatan seperti boleh dipercayai. He looks trustworthy.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

12. Lelaki ini kelihatan cemas. He looks anxious.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

212

13. Lelaki ini kelihatan anggun. He is elegant.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

14. Lelaki ini kelihatan ranggi. He looks sporty.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

15. Lelaki ini kelihatan bergaya. He looks stylish.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

16. Lelaki ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang boleh menerima idea-idea baru. He looks open to new ideas.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

17. Lelaki ini seorang yang menarik. He is attractive.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

18. Lelaki ini kelihatan pemurah. He appears generous.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

213

19. Lelaki ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang bertanggungjawab. He looks reliable.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

20. Lelaki ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang cekap. He looks efficient.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

21. Lelaki ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang teratur. He looks organized.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

22. Lelaki ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang baik hati. He appears kind.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

23. Lelaki ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang mudah tersinggung. He looks vulnerable.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

214

Merujuk gambar diatas, seorang perempuan bersama skuter. Sila berikan gambaran anda terhadap perempuan tersebut dengan menjawab soalan-soalan dibawah. (In the above picture, a woman is with his scooter. Can you please give your impression of her by answering the questions below)

1. Pada pendapat anda berapakah tinggi perempuan ini? (cm) How tall do you think she is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. Pada pendapat anda berapakah berat perempuan ini? (kg) How heavy do you think she is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. Pada pendapat anda berapakah umur perempuan ini? How old do you think she is?

_____ tahun (years)

4. Pada pendapat anda apakah tahap pencapaian akademik perempuan ini. What level of education did she achieve?

Tahap SPM Tahap STPM Tahap Diploma Tahap Ijazah Tahap Ijazah Lanjutan

5. Pada pendapat anda berapakah pendapatan tahunan keluarga perempuan ini? What do you think her parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. Perempuan ini kelihatan mempunyai sikap positif dalam hidup. She looks like she has a positive attitude to life.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

215

7. Perempuan ini adalah seorang yang kreatif. She is creative.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

8. Perempuan ini kelihatan peramah. He looks friendly.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

9. Perempuan ini kelihatan tidak stabil. She looks unstable.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

10. Perempuan ini bersifat feminin. She looks feminine.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

11. Perempuan ini kelihatan seperti boleh dipercayai. She looks trustworthy.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

12. Perempuan ini kelihatan cemas. She looks anxious.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

216

13. Perempuan ini kelihatan anggun. She is elegant.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

14. Perempuan ini kelihatan ranggi. He looks sporty.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

15. Perempuan ini kelihatan bergaya. She looks stylish.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

16. Perempuan ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang boleh menerima idea-idea baru. She looks open to new ideas.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

17. Perempuan ini seorang yang menarik. She is attractive.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

18. Perempuan ini kelihatan pemurah. She appears generous.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

217

19. Perempuan ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang bertanggungjawab. She looks reliable.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

20. Perempuan ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang cekap. She looks efficient.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

21. Perempuan ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang teratur. She looks organised.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

22. Perempuan ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang baik hati. She appears kind.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

23. Perempuan ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang mudah tersinggung. She looks vulnerable.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

218

1. Pada pendapat anda berapakah tinggi perempuan ini? (cm) How tall do you think she is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. Pada pendapat anda berapakah berat perempuan ini? (kg) How heavy do you think she is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. Pada pendapat anda berapakah umur perempuan ini? How old do you think she is?

_____ tahun (years)

4. Pada pendapat anda apakah tahap pencapaian akademik perempuan ini. What level of education did she achieve?

Tahap SPM Tahap STPM Tahap Diploma Tahap Ijazah Tahap Ijazah Lanjutan

5. Pada pendapat anda berapakah pendapatan tahunan keluarga perempuan ini? What do you think her parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. Perempuan ini kelihatan mempunyai sikap positif dalam hidup. She looks like she has a positive attitude to life.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

219

7. Perempuan ini adalah seorang yang kreatif. She is creative.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

8. Perempuan ini kelihatan peramah. She looks friendly.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

9. Perempuan ini kelihatan tidak stabil. She looks unstable.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

10. Perempuan ini bersifat feminin. She looks feminine.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

11. Perempuan ini kelihatan seperti boleh dipercayai. She looks trustworthy.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

12. Perempuan ini kelihatan cemas. She looks anxious.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

220

13. Perempuan ini kelihatan anggun. She is elegant.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

14. Perempuan ini kelihatan ranggi. He looks sporty.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

15. Perempuan ini kelihatan bergaya. She looks stylish.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

16. Perempuan ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang boleh menerima idea-idea baru. She looks open to new ideas.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

17. Perempuan ini seorang yang menarik. She is attractive.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

18. Perempuan ini kelihatan pemurah. She appears generous.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

221

19. Perempuan ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang bertanggungjawab. She looks reliable.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

20. Perempuan ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang cekap. She looks efficient.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

21. Perempuan ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang teratur. She looks organised.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

22. Perempuan ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang baik hati. She appears kind.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

23. Perempuan ini kelihatan seperti seorang yang mudah tersinggung. She looks vulnerable.

Tidak setuju 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Setuju Disagree Agree

222

Ethics Clearance for Online Questionnaires

Ethics Clearance:

You are invited to participate in a survey conducted by a Swinburne Research student about the perception of motorcycle design. Feel free to answer a few quick questions while your tutorial downloads.

Research Student: Doctorate, Azhari Md Hashim Research Supervisors: Prof Allan Whitfield and Dr Simon Jackson

Project Title: The project is called “Customer Emotional Needs in Motorcycle: a Cross Cultural Perspective”

If you are 18 years or over you are invited to participate in this study

If you would like to participate, please complete this questionnaire. You will be shown randomized images of a male and female model, who are shown with motorcycle design. You will be asked to perceive personality traits and demographic aspects of the models. The affect that different motorcycle design has on the differences and similarities in how males and females perceive each other and members of the same gender will be focused on.

Privacy protection is of paramount concern. You will only need to include your gender and birth date on the questionnaire but no participant names will be recorded on the questionnaire, so you will remain anonymous.

The data will be analyzed and represented in tables, charts and text as part of a thesis that fulfils the assessment requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) and may be published in academic journals.

Every participant is free to discontinue participation in the questionnaire at any time.

Your completion and submission of the questionnaire constitutes consent. Completion of only part of the questionnaire also constitutes your consent to use the individual questions you have answered.

223

For further enquiries contact Professor Allan Whitfield Deputy Dean Research The National Institute for Design Research The Faculty of Design Building PA 144 High Street PRAHRAN. VIC 3181. AUSTRALIA Phone: +61 3 9214 6882

This project has been approved by or on behalf of Swinburne’s Human Research Ethics Committee (SUHREC) in line with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research. If you have any concerns or complaints about the conduct of this project, you can contact: Research Ethics Officer, Swinburne Research (H68), Swinburne University of Technology, P O Box 218, HAWTHORN VIC 3122. Tel (03) 92145218 or +61 3 92145218 or [email protected]

Thank you for your interest in this study.

Azhari Md Hashim, Allan Whitfield and Simon Jackson

I agree to the above terms I do not agree to the above terms

224

Online Questionnaires

1. How tall do you think he is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. How heavy do you think he is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. How old do you think he is?

_____ years.

4. What level of education did he achieve?

Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to Year 9 year 12 Technical & further Degree Post Graduate Education (TAFE)

5. What do you think his parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. He looks like he has a positive attitude to life.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree 225

7. He is creative.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

8. He looks masculine.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

9. He looks trustworthy.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

10. He is elegant.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

11. He looks stylish.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

12. He is attractive.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

13. He appears generous.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

14. He looks reliable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

15. He looks efficient.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

16. He looks organised.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

226

1. How tall do you think he is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. How heavy do you think he is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. How old do you think he is?

_____ years.

4. What level of education did he achieve?

Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to Year 9 year 12 Technical & further Degree Post Graduate Education (TAFE)

5. What do you think his parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. He looks like he has a positive attitude to life.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

227

7. He is creative.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

8. He looks masculine.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

9. He looks trustworthy.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

10. He is elegant.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

11. He looks stylish.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

12. He is attractive.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

13. He appears generous.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

14. He looks reliable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

15. He looks efficient.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

16. He looks organised.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

228

1. How tall do you think he is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. How heavy do you think he is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. How old do you think he is?

_____ years.

4. What level of education did he achieve?

Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to Year 9 year 12 Technical & further Degree Post Graduate Education (TAFE)

5. What do you think his parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. He looks like he has a positive attitude to life.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

229

7. He is creative.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

8. He looks masculine.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

9. He looks trustworthy.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

10. He is elegant.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

11. He looks stylish.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

12. He is attractive.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

13. He appears generous.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

14. He looks reliable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

15. He looks efficient.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

16. He looks organised.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

230

1. How tall do you think he is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. How heavy do you think he is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. How old do you think he is?

_____ years.

4. What level of education did he achieve?

Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to Year 9 year 12 Technical & further Degree Post Graduate Education (TAFE)

5. What do you think his parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. He looks like he has a positive attitude to life.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

231

7. He is creative.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

8. He looks masculine.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

9. He looks trustworthy.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

10. He is elegant.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

11. He looks stylish.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

12. He is attractive.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

13. He appears generous.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

14. He looks reliable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

15. He looks efficient.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

16. He looks organised.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

232

1. How tall do you think she is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. How heavy do you think she is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. How old do you think she is?

_____ years.

4. What level of education did she achieve?

Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to Year 9 year 12 Technical & further Degree Post Graduate Education (TAFE)

5. What do you think her parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. She looks like she has a positive attitude to life.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

233

7. She is creative.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

8. She looks feminine.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

9. She looks trustworthy.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

10. She is elegant.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

11. She looks stylish.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

12. She is attractive.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

13. She appears generous.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

14. She looks reliable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

15. She looks efficient.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

16. She looks organised.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

234

1. How tall do you think she is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. How heavy do you think she is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. How old do you think she is?

_____ years.

4. What level of education did she achieve?

Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to Year 9 year 12 Technical & further Degree Post Graduate Education (TAFE)

5. What do you think her parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. She looks like she has a positive attitude to life.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

235

7. She is creative.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

8. She looks feminine.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

9. She looks trustworthy.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

10. She is elegant.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

11. She looks stylish.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

12. She is attractive.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

13. She appears generous.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

14. She looks reliable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

15. She looks efficient.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

16. She looks organised.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

236

1. How tall do you think she is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. How heavy do you think she is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. How old do you think she is?

_____ years.

4. What level of education did she achieve?

Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to Year 9 year 12 Technical & further Degree Post Graduate Education (TAFE)

5. What do you think her parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. She looks like she has a positive attitude to life.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

237

7. She is creative.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

8. She looks feminine.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

9. She looks trustworthy.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

10. She is elegant.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

11. She looks stylish.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

12. She is attractive.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

13. She appears generous.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

14. She looks reliable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

15. She looks efficient.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

16. She looks organised.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

238

1. How tall do you think she is? (In cm)

140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

2. How heavy do you think she is? (In kg)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

3. How old do you think she is?

_____ years.

4. What level of education did she achieve?

Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to Year 9 year 12 Technical & further Degree Post Graduate Education (TAFE)

5. What do you think her parent’s annual income will be?

20k 30k 40k 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k 100k

6. She looks like she has a positive attitude to life.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

239

7. She is creative.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

8. She looks feminine.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

9. She looks trustworthy.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

10. She is elegant.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

11. She looks stylish.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

12. She is attractive.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

13. She appears generous.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

14. She looks reliable.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

15. She looks efficient.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

16. She looks organised.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Agree

240

Publications Arising From This Thesis

1. Author of a conference proceeding entitled: ‘Multi Dimensional Scaling: An interactive method for establishing perceptions of the appearance of products’ Conference name: Cumulus Conference 38º South: Hemispheric Shifts across Learning, Teaching and Research Conference location: Melbourne, Australia Date: 12-14 November 2009

2. Co-author of a conference proceeding entitled: ‘The Product Effect: A new technique for automotive market research’ Conference name: Cumulus Conference 38º South: Hemispheric Shifts across Learning, Teaching and Research Conference location: Melbourne, Australia Date: 12-14 November 2009

3. Author of a conference proceeding entitled: ‘Designer roles in research perceptions of product appearances’ Conference name: Conference on Arts, Social Sciences & Technology 2010 Conference location: Penang, Malaysia Date: 24-25 February 2010

241