Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Metodi Hadji-Janev Mitko Bogdanoski Dimitar Bogatinov
www.kas.de Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Metodi Hadji-Janev Mitko Bogdanoski Dimitar Bogatinov Impressum
Title: Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Publishers: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, Office in North Macedonia Cyber security, Corporate security and Crisis management Initiative – Skopje
Authors: Metodi Hadji-Janev Mitko Bogdanoski Dimitar Bogatinov
Coordination: Norbert Beckmann-Dierkes Daniela Popovska
Proofreading: Perica Sardzoski
Design: Dejan Kuzmanovski
The publication can be downloaded for free at: https://www.kas.de/en/web/mazedonien/
Note: The viewpoints expressed in this publication do not represent the positions of the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, but are personal views of the authors. Contents
Executive summary 5
1. Research framework 7
1.1. Understanding the problem 8 1.2. Our argument 9 1.3. Working definitions 11
2. The impact of information communication technologies and 16 social media on Macedonian youth
2.1. General perspectives on why youth is more prone to ICT 17 and social media and how these technologies and applica- tions affect their social activism
3. From the opportunity to disruption, how ICT and social media 19 applications may become a threat to the Youth in North Macedonia
3.1. Negative mental and emotional effects that ICT and social media may have on Macedonian youth 21 3.2. The negative effects of mis-, dis-, and mal-information spread across the ICT and social media and their impact on Macedonian youth 24 3.2.1. General views about mis-, dis-, and mal-infor mation spread across ICT and social media 24 3.2.2. The impact of mis-, dis-, and mal-information via ICT and social media on Macedonian youth 26 3.2.3. From mis-, dis- and mal-information and manipulation to online radicalization 27
4. What lies beneath the negative impact of ICT and social media on 31 Macedonian youth and why mis-, dis-, and mal-information is a growing trend? 5. Assessment of the strategic, legislative and relevant stakeholders’ 33 readiness to address the threat streaming from ICT and social application to Macedonian youth
6. Improving Macedonian Youth’s online literacy in the context of safety 40 and security
Conclusion 43
Annex-1: Surveys Review 45 Annex-2: Where to seek help and report online harassment, mis, dis mal-information, and online radicalization 66 References 67 List of acronyms
AAAMS - Agency for Audio and Audiovisual Media Services AI - artificial intelligence BIRN - Balkan Investigative Reporting Network ICT - Information and communication technologies IL – Information literacy IT - information technology MIL - Media and information literacy MIOA - Minister of Information Society and administration ML - Medial literacy MOSE – Ministry of Science and Education OSAC - Overseas Security Advisory Council, Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Executive summary
The ongoing digital transformation is changing the Following global trends, North Macedonia has also way we live faster than we think. Connecting digital focused on citizens' literacy. These efforts, however, and smart things into a system of systems generally are not quite clear and it seems that they lack a called the Internet of things-(IoT) blends the online conceptual framework. Two arguments confirm this world with the real one. Modern information and observation. First, there is no normative definition of communication technologies-ICT and social media what constitutes MIL. Second, there are no definitions applications bring a lot of benefits, improve our way or explanations from where one could see the of living and everything we do, open new horizons government’s views (position) of what is media literacy and opportunities. Youth almost instantly adopts the (ML) or what is information literacy (IL) independently. newest gadgets and unlike their parents are keen on Consequently, there are no signs that echo the utilizing ICT and social application in their everyday ongoing trend and guidance provided by UNESCO routine. Nevertheless, the ever-growing adoption and the EU to fuse the ML and IL into MIL. Moreover, of social networks, instant messages, and mobile despite some efforts to tackle and promote media communication leaves the door open to more subtle and digital, online literacy among Macedonian youth, attacks - both of a technological and psychological we cannot speak of a coherent and holistic approach nature. led by the Government in this direction.
Today it is widely accepted that ICT and social media Striving, among others, for greater online security, could exploit the youth and affect them emotionally Cyber Security, Crisis Management and Corporate and psychologically. The convergence of the online security initiative-C3I and Konrad Adenauer Stiftung and physical world is real and ongoing. This includes – North Macedonia, have joint forces and initiated the emotional, social, economic, and political effects a research study to address the quest for media on our society and youth in particular. Consequently, and information literacy improvement among the different government sectors, local authorities, Macedonian youth. Our study included desc and field but also families are immersed in a transformative research and analysis. process that requires a different skillset in governing, crafting values, and raising a family. The study, among others, has analyzed current trends of using ICT and social media applications To address these emerging challenges the UN, by Macedonian youth and compared this with the Council of Europe, the EU, as well as other regional global trends. We investigated how ICT and social and international organizations, but also many states, media affect Macedonian youth and provided some have decided to invest in promoting media and conclusions explaining the reasons for such outcomes. information literacy - (MIL) among youth. Improving To test our findings and recommendations we have MIL allows societies to mitigate negative effects while organized a webinar (summaries are provided in preserving positive aspects of using ICT and social Annex 1). The webinar included representatives from media applications. Promoting media and information all relevant stakeholders important in promoting literacy - (MIL) enhance the knowledge-driven, media and information literacy among Macedonian inclusive, pluralistic, democratic, and open societies youth and enhanced our argument and conclusions. and limit negative residual effects from ICT and social We found that although ICT and social media media applications. applications have opened new opportunities for
5 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Macedonian youth, they have also reshaped some of environment. Hence, Macedonian families and the traditional constructs of communications and with Government (through the school authorities) efforts to that, they affect the way of how values and traditions introduce their own values to Macedonian youth are are being developed accordingly. highly contested.
ICT and social media ecosystems have changed and Today, mental and emotional effects from ICT and are still changing the “game”, and the “playing field” via social media, but also mis-, dis, and mal-information, Macedonian cyberspace. Through different devices including criminal activities, political activism, and and IoT children and youth are directly accessible spread of violent extremism and hate speech are not at any time of day by peers, corporations, and even unknown for Macedonian youth. We have witnessed extremist/(or government proxies) recruiters and that the spread of mis-, dis-, and mal-information predators. Our combined field and desc research and other forms of dubious or false information showed that there are 53% active social media can and are misleading Macedonian youth many users in North Macedonia. In 2019 there were 2.24 of whom will become or already are registered million cell phones, which was about 107% of the voters that make decisions. Moreover, we have also population. Interestingly, the number of social media witnessed that ICT and social media applications users in North Macedonia has increased by 55 000 have become an innovative way for extremists or (+5.3%) between April 2019 and January 2020. Youth state proxies to recruit, radicalize and cause cascade between 14-30 years is the most dominant actors effects that undermine our democratic governance, in Macedonian cyberspace using social media via citizens' safety, and national security. While debates different ICT. According to the Government officials, and researches have thus far focused on political, while “in Europe, over 70% of children and young economic, and psychological factors of these negative people had at least one social media account in 2019, effects, there is a growing interest that remains during the same period almost 75% of the population unaddressed in North Macedonia to also focus on in North Macedonia aged 15-19, had a profile on social human vulnerability to online threats identified as networks”. Our study also showed that the majority of shortfalls in digital/information literacy. those who use social media access to their accounts from smartphones. Macedonian youth need strong literacy skills to participate constructively in a pluralistic democracy These results explain why instant messaging, virtual facing complex domestic, regional, and global networking on social media applications, ability to challenges. In addition, relevant stakeholders need instantly share content via web-camera and remotely the capacity to sustain youth in this endeavor. The to engage in real-time interaction with significant best way to accomplish this is to utilize the UNESCO others, just as it happens with traditional face-to-face suggestion to develop a strategy that will address interaction drive youth to migrate to social media and the issue by converging the approach of ML and IL online communication. Social media platforms thus into MIL. Therefore, we have used this approach in compensate for the genuine need for socialization in suggesting a valuable contextual framework that real life. At the same time, the ability of individuals and can enhance our youth in seeking and exploiting entities to circumvent parental or school authorities' opportunities by using ICT and social media oversight in the user-content shaping environment applications while remaining safe from negative is constantly evolving. Without really understanding residual effects that will continue to evolve. Moreover, the consequences youth could either participate this study represents a small step in raising the directly in harassment activities or support these voice for coherent and tangible efforts designed to activities by sharing different content. Hence, without build relevant stakeholders’ capacities to improve proper media and information literacy Macedonian Macedonian MIL. youth is immersed in a highly user-content shaping
6 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Research framework
7 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Research framework
1.1. Understanding the problem
The ongoing digital transformation is an irreversible Macedonian citizens, groups, and the whole nation process that accelerates the convergence of the across different sectors of society. Consequently, online and physical world. As elsewhere information different government sectors are immersed in a and communication technologies – (ICT) and social transformative process that requires a different media applications changed the way people in North skillset in governing ICT and social media applications’ Macedonia access information, share information, exploitation. interact and communicate, accomplish daily routines, seek solutions and conduct business. This The importance of addressing threats to youth (and consequently affects peoples’ perception, habits, to the overall society in general) has been widely approach, opinion (for daily communal and social recognized across the political elites and government issues on a local, national, regional, and global of the Republic of North Macedonia. However, despite level, but also in a political context) commodity this widely expressed recognition, it seems that there and influence actions and reactions. Hence, the are no concrete coherent, and systematic actions in transformative process in the world we leave is real addressing these challenges.1 On the other hand, and ongoing. several investigative reports, studies, and op-eds recently have already pointed out that ICT and social Different constructs between the two worlds – cyber media applications pose a virality of opportunities for and physical (for example, anonymity), nevertheless, malicious actors to exploit vulnerable populations in pose some regulatory and consequential (emotional, general and Macedonian youth in specific. social, economic, and political) effects in our national physical world. The velocity and the volume of Understanding these challenges, the UN,2 Council information and interaction exchange, along with the of Europe,3 the EU,4 as well as other regional and different (intrinsic) online-based futures (will also be international organizations, but also many states, elaborated later) may and usually cause both positive have put serious efforts to mitigate negative and negative effects. These residual effects affect effects from ICT and social media applications.
1 The former ruling political elite (former government) and the 2 See for example, Recommendations addressed to UNESCO current government at least during PR events have expressed Adopted by the Vienna Conference „Educating for the Media 1 The former ruling political elite (former government) and the current government at least during PR events have expressed promising promising awareness about the growing and evolving threat and the Digital Age“, 1999, Available at: http://www.nordicom. awareness about the growing and evolving threat vectors to the Macedonian youth via ICT and social media applications. For example, vectors to the Macedonian youth via ICT and social media gu.se/en/clearinghouse/recommendations-addressed-unes- the work on the issue by the former Government please see: Government of the Republic of North Maceodnia, (2012), “Government to applications. For example, the work on the issue by the former co-mediaeducation launch project against internet abuse of children”, available at: https://vlada.mk/node/4148?ln=en-gb; But, also see: Government of the Government please see: Government of the Republic of North 3 Parliamentary Assembly, (June 27, 2000), “Assembly debate, Republic of North Maceodnia, (2019), “Proposed Plan for Resolute Action against the Spreading of Disinformation”, available at: https:// Maceodnia, (2012), “Government to launch project against Report of the Committee on Culture and Education”, Recom- vlada.mk/node/4148?ln=en-gb internet abuse of children”, available at: https://vlada.mk/ mendation 1466 (2000), Council of Europe, available at: http:// 2 See for example, Recommendations addressed to UNESCO Adopted by the Vienna Conference „Educating for the Media and the node/4148?ln=en-gb; But, also see: Government of the Repub- www.assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-en. Digital Age“, 1999, Available at: http://www.nordicom.gu.se/en/clearinghouse/recommendations-addressed-unesco-mediaeducation lic of North Maceodnia, (2019), “Proposed Plan for Resolute asp?fileid=16811&lang=en 3 Parliamentary Assembly, (June 27, 2000), “Assembly debate, Report of the Committee on Culture and Education”, Recommendation Action against the Spreading of Disinformation”, available at: 4 The Council of Europe, (2016), “European Ministerial Confer- 1466 (2000), Council of Europe, available at: http://www.assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-en.asp?fileid=16811&lang=en https://vlada.mk/node/4148?ln=en-gb ences on Mass Media Policy and Council of Europe Confer- 4 The Council of Europe, (2016), “European Ministerial Conferences on Mass Media Policy and Council of Europe Conferences of Ministers ences of Ministers responsible for Media and New Communication Services”, Strasbourg, available at: https://rm.coe.int/16806461fb
8 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
These tailored efforts, however, are crafted under are not quite clear and it seems that they lack a frameworks that allow governments to preserve conceptual framework. Two arguments confirm this and stimulate positive aspects of ICT and social observation. First, there is no normative definition media. Thus, focusing and investing in promoting of what constitutes MIL. Second, there are no media and information literacy - (MIL) to enhance definitions or explanations from where one could the knowledge-driven, inclusive, pluralistic, see the government’s views (position) of what is democratic, and open societies, have become a media literacy (ML)6 or what is information literacy norm across the EU.5 (IL) independently.7 Consequently, there are no signs that echo the ongoing trend and guidance Following global trends, North Macedonia has also provided by UNESCO and the EU to fuse the ML focused on citizens' literacy. These efforts, however, and IL into MIL.8
5 Recommendations addressed to UNESCO Adopted by the Vienna Conference „Educating for the Media and the Digital Age“, 1999, Available at: http://www.nordicom.gu.se/en/clearinghouse/recommendations-addressed-unesco-mediaeducation Also see for example: Hobbs Renee, (1998), “The seven great debates in the media literacy movement”, Journal of Communication, available at: https://on- linelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1998.tb02734.x; Also see Johnston, B., & Webber, S. (2003) 61.2. See Our European argument Commission, (November 29, 2019), “Media literacy and safe use of new media, Republic of North Macedonia”, Eacea National Policies Platform, 7 Some countries have already followed EU guidance on ML and have developed certain policies. See for example, Tanriverdi Belgin, Apak Özlem, (2010), “Analysis of Primary School Curriculum of Turkey, Finland, and Ireland in Terms of Media Literacy Education’, avail- Negativeable at: effects https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ889203.pdf that ICT and social media applications challenges, for which many are unprepared. can8 have See for on example youth the have result caught, from the various project sponsored governments by the EU andWithout led by UNESCO. really See:understanding UNESCO, (May 27, the 2014) consequences ), “First European Media and Information Literacy Forum”, available at: https://en.unesco.org/events/first-european-media-and-information-literacy-forum and academic communities’ attention. This is youth could either participate directly in understandable, giving that smartphones and social harassment activities or support these activities by media ecosystems have changed the “game”, and sharing different content. The spread of mis-, dis-, the “playing field”. Now, through devices, children and mal-information and other forms of dubious and youth are directly accessible at any time of or false information are misleading voters-a fear day by peers, corporations, and even extremist/(or that has inspired government actions to address government proxies) recruiters and predators.9 The the problem in many countries.10 Moreover, ICT ability of individuals and entities to circumvent and social media applications have become an parental or school authorities' oversight is innovative way for extremists or state proxies constantly evolving. Families seeking to introduce to recruit, radicalize, and cause cascade effects their own values to their children are facing new that undermine democratic governance, citizens'
9 Media Literacy Now, (January, 2020), “U.S. Media Literacy Policy Report 2020”, the report is available at: https://medialiteracynow. org/u-s-media-literacy-policy-report-2020/ 10 Jackson Chris, (September 5, 2018), “Fake news, filter bubbles, post-truth and trust: A study across 27 countries”, Ipsos, available at: https://www.ipsos.com/en-us/news-polls/Fake-News-Study.
5 Recommendations addressed to UNESCO Adopted by the 8 See for example the result from the project sponsored by the Vienna Conference „Educating for the Media and the Digital EU and led by UNESCO. See: UNESCO, (May 27, 2014) ), “First Age“, 1999, Available at: http://www.nordicom.gu.se/en/ European Media and Information Literacy Forum”, available clearinghouse/recommendations-addressed-unesco-medi- at: https://en.unesco.org/events/first-european-media-and-in- aeducation Also see for example: Hobbs Renee, (1998), “The formation-literacy-forum seven great debates in the media literacy movement”, Journal 9 Media Literacy Now, (January, 2020), “U.S. Media Literacy of Communication, available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley. Policy Report 2020”, the report is available at: https://medialit- com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1998.tb02734.x; Also see eracynow.org/u-s-media-literacy-policy-report-2020/ Johnston, B., & Webber, S. (2003) 10 Jackson Chris, (September 5, 2018), “Fake news, filter bubbles, 6 See European Commission, (November 29, 2019), “Media post-truth and trust: A study across 27 countries”, Ipsos, literacy and safe use of new media, Republic of North Mace- available at: https://www.ipsos.com/en-us/news-polls/Fake- donia”, Eacea National Policies Platform, News-Study. 7 Some countries have already followed EU guidance on ML and have developed certain policies. See for example, Tanri- verdi Belgin, Apak Özlem, (2010), “Analysis of Primary School Curriculum of Turkey, Finland, and Ireland in Terms of Media Literacy Education’, available at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/full- text/EJ889203.pdf
9 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
safety, and national security.11 While debates and emerged but also fused with other similar terms. researches have thus far focused on political, Online harassment, disinformation campaigns, economic, and psychological factors of these and online radicalization are three areas that have negative effects, there is growing interest to also a converging starting point (require user literacy focus on human vulnerability to online threats to comprehend malicious information and online identified as shortfalls in digital media literacy.12 attempts via ICT and social media) and diverging negative effects (ranging from emotional and mental To effectively counter negative effects and preserve health problems to building cognitive perceptions and the positive aspects that ICT and social media positions and taking political actions including extreme applications have on the youth the Government behavior and violence). These growing threats that should focus on improving media and information already affect Macedonian youth via ICT and social (digital, online) literacy. The reasoning behind (as media applications so far have not been addressed we will also see later) stems from the fact that MIL in a coherent and holistic manner. Online harassing usefully captures the skills and competencies needed activities (cyberbullying, sexual harassment, or online/ to successfully navigate a fragmented and complex cyberstalking, etc.) are not defined and specifically information ecosystem.13 regulated. Mis-, dis-, and mal-information are also not specifically incriminated and there are no accepted The common assumption of this approach, therefore, (at national level) definitions about these terms. is that those with greater MIL tend to consume The same goes for online radicalization - there is no false or dubious stories in a more critical manner, nationally accepted definition and the Government mitigating the influence of negative effects on society. efforts to address the issue are not clear. All of these As the practice shows, even under ideal conditions, areas are under development and there is only official most people struggle to reliably evaluate the quality recognition of the problem. of information they encounter online because they lack the skills and contextual knowledge required Before we address the emerging threats that exploit to effectively distinguish between high and low- Macedonian youth’s vulnerability it is worth providing quality news content. Hence, investing in MIL is an some working definitions. This will provide a working ongoing trend that urges Macedonian authorities to framework for the research and findings that follow. take concrete actions. Our focus as we have already We also expect that these definitions will not only help indicated is to address the part of the MIL efforts that the reader to understand the findings and claims but need attention, i.e. negative impacts of ICT and social will also contribute to helping Government authorities media applications that exploit youth’s vulnerabilities. to establish a more systematic approach in addressing emerging challenges from ICT and social applications MIL is a developing area where many new terms that have a negative impact on Macedonian youth.
11 See more in: N. Grinberg, K. Joseph, L. Friedland, B. 13 Eshet-Alkalai Yoarm, (2004), “Digital literacy: A conceptual Swire-Thompson, D. Lazer, (2019), “Fake news on Twitter framework for survival skills in the digital era”, Journal of Edu- during the 2016 US presidential election”, Science, pp. 363, cational Multimedia Hypermedia, 13, pp. 93–106, available at: 374–378; https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/4793/ 12 See for example: Melki Jad, (2017), “Media, Youth, & Radical- ization: The Role Of Media & Digital Literacy In Countering Violent Extremism”, Lebanese American University, available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336533271_ 11 THE_ROLE_OF_MEDIA_DIGITAL_LITERACY_IN_COUNTERSee more in: N. Grinberg, K. Joseph, L. Friedland, B. Swire-Th- ompson, D. Lazer, (2019), “Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 US presi- dentialING_VIOLENT_EXTREMISM/link/5da4d6b045851553ff91f88d/ election”, Science, pp. 363, 374–378; 12 downloadSee for example: Melki Jad, (2017), “Media, Youth, & Radicalization: The Role Of Media & Digital Literacy In Countering Violent Extrem- ism”, Lebanese American University, available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336533271_THE_ROLE_OF_MEDIA_DIGI- TAL_LITERACY_IN_COUNTERING_VIOLENT_EXTREMISM/link/5da4d6b045851553ff91f88d/download 13 Eshet-Alkalai Yoarm, (2004), “Digital literacy: A conceptual framework for survival skills in the digital era”, Journal of Educational Multime- dia Hypermedia, 13, pp. 93–106, available at: https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/4793/
10 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
1.3. Working definitions
Information and communications technology - is exchanging data with other devices and systems an extensional term for information technology (IT) over the Internet.18 The definition of the Internet that stresses the role of unified communications.14The of things has evolved due to the convergence of abbreviation also refers to the integration of multiple technologies, real-time analytics, machine telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless learning, commodity sensors, and embedded signals) and computers, as well as necessary systems. There are a number of serious concerns enterprise software, middleware, storage, and about dangers in the growth of IoT, especially audiovisual systems, that enable users to access, in the areas of privacy and security, and store, transmit, and manipulate information.15 consequently, industry and governmental moves to address these concerns have begun including Social media applications - Every web-based- the development of international standards. application that supports information publishing and sharing (text, video, audio, photo), the Youth - The term refers to a group of young building of personal profiles, connecting to a people usually between 14-30, or 16-35 years community, and searching within the community old. The EU youth strategy does not include is considered as a social media application.16 an official definition of the specific period in life when a person is considered to be ‘young’. Social media - is a computer-based technology The understanding of which age groups are that facilitates the sharing of ideas, thoughts, considered to be ‘young people’ varies from one and information through the building of virtual Member State to another, and from one period in networks and communities. By design, social time and one socioeconomic context to the other. media is internet-based and gives users quick As an instrument for implementing the EU youth electronic communication of content. Content strategy, the Erasmus+ programme targets young includes personal information, documents, videos, people between 13 and 30.19 The dashboard of and photos. Users engage with social media via EU youth indicators (Eurostat, n.d.) operates with computer, tablet, or smartphone via web-based three 5-year categories where possible, covering software or web application, often utilizing it for the age range 15-30. The USAID office in North messaging.17 Macedonia, on the other hand, considers that the youth refers to young people aged 15-17 years The Internet of things (IoT) - describes the old.20 When using the term, we will refer to the network of physical objects—“things”—that are young people from North Macedonia aged 16-30 embedded with sensors, software, and other years old. technologies for the purpose of connecting and
14 Murray, James (December 18, 2011), "Cloud network architecture and ICT - Modern Network Architecture”, TechTarget, available at: 14 https://web.archive.org/web/20170920133800/http://itknowledgeex Murray, James (December 18, 2011), “Cloud network archi- 18change.techtarget.com/modern-network-architecture/cloud-net Rouse Margaret, (2019), “internet of things (IoT)”, IOT Agend- a, work-architecture-and-ict/tecture and ICT - Modern Network Architecture”, TechTarget, available at: https://internetofthingsagenda.techtarget.com/ 15 availableFOLDOC, at: (September https://web.archive.org/web/20170920133800/ 19, 2008), “Information and communication technologydefinition/Internet-of-Things-IoT from”, available at: https://foldoc.org/Informa- tion+and+Communication+Technologyhttp://itknowledgeexchange.techtarget.com/modern-net - 19 Theben Alexandra, Porcu Federica, Peña-López Ismael, 16 work-architecture/cloud-network-architecture-and-ict/IGI Global, “What is Social Media Application”, available at: https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/social-media-development-uVillanueva Lupiáñez Francisco, (2018), “Study on the Impactsage-chal of - 15 lenges-and-opportunities/43791 FOLDOC, (September 19, 2008), “Information and communica- the Internet and Social Media on Youth Participation and Youth 17 tionDollarhide technology Maya from”, & Drury available Amy, (September at: https://foldoc.org/Informa 6, 2020), “Social Medi- a Definition”,Work”, Investopedia, European Commission, available at: available https://www.investop at: https://op.europa.edia.com/ terms/s/social-media.asption+and+Communication+Technology eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/b7fbaf6c-5e36-11e8- 1816 RouseIGI Global, Margaret, “What is(2019), Social "internet Media Application”, of things (IoT)", available IOT Agend at: a, available at:ab9c-01aa75ed71a1 https://internetofthingsagenda.techtarget.com/definition/ Internet-of-Things-IoThttps://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/social-media-develop - 20 USAID, (September 30, 2020), “YOUTH EMPLOYABILITY SKILLS 19 ment-usage-challenges-and-opportunities/43791Theben Alexandra, Porcu Federica, Peña-López Ismael, Villanueva Lupiáñez(YES) Francisco, NETWORK:, (2018), available “Study at: on https://www.usaid.gov/mace the Impact of the Internet and- 17 Social Dollarhide Media Maya on Youth & Drury Participation Amy, (September and Youth 6, 2020), Work”, “Social European Commission,donia/fact-sheets/youth-employability-skills-yes-network#:~: available at: https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/- publication/b7fbaf6c-5e36-11e8-ab9c-01aa75ed71a1Media Definition”, Investopedia, available at: https://www. text=The%20program%20targets%20students%20in,and%20 20 investopedia.com/terms/s/social-media.aspUSAID, (September 30, 2020), “YOUTH EMPLOYABILITY SKILLS (YES) NETWORK:,the%20City%20of%20Skopje. available at: https://www.usaid.gov/macedonia/fact- sheets/youth-employability-skills-yes-network#:~:text=The%20program%20targets%20students%20in,and%20the%20City%20of%20 Skopje.
11 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Literacy – “Literacy is the ability to identify, the individual is able to critically analyze the understand, interpret, create, communicate, and content or information he or she encounters. compute, using printed and written materials Media literacy extends beyond the confines of associated with a varying context. Literacy involves information literacy to address, for example, the a continuum of learning in enabling individuals representation of social and ethnic groups, and to achieve his or her goals, develop his or her viewpoints and opinions expressed in media, knowledge and potential to participate fully in including those that people engage with for community and wider society” 21 entertainment. In other words, while the concept of information literacy focuses on the information Media Literacy (ML) - Media literacy examines user as an autonomous decision-maker, the ways in which the media environment citizen and learner, media literacy examines facilitates, shapes, enables, and, in some cases, the ways in which the media environment constrains engagement with information and the facilitates, shapes, enables, and, in some cases, communication process.22 constrains engagement with information and the communication process, be it for intentional or Information Literacy (IL) - Information Literacy indirect learning, social participation or simply for focuses on the purposes of engaging with information entertainment. and the process of becoming informed. It is strongly associated with the concepts of learning to learn and There are three crucial common denominators making decisions through its emphasis on defining between media literacy and information literacy: needs and problems, relevant information, and using it critically and responsibly/ethically. Thus, information › the cross-cutting role that ICTs play in both con- literacy is acknowledged as a dynamic thinking cepts, blurring the lines between the two; process and a set of competencies that is not totally › both concepts emphasize the need for the critical dependent on the presence of particular information evaluation of information and media content; and systems and technologies, but which is greatly › both concepts underscore the need for ethical influenced by these.23 use of information.25
Media and Information Literacy – (MIL) considers Internet safety or "e-safety" - includes knowing all forms of media and other information providers about one’s Internet privacy and how one’s behaviors such as libraries, archives, museums, and the Internet can support a healthy interaction with the use of the irrespective of technologies used. This term has been Internet.26 promoted by UNESCO as an attempt to converge ML and IL into one concept. Information Literacy and Social media addiction - social media addiction Media Literacy are traditionally seen as separate and or social media overuse, is a proposed form of distinct fields. UNESCO’s strategy brings together psychological or behavioral dependence on social these two fields as a combined set of competencies media platforms, also known as Internet addiction (knowledge, skills, and attitude) necessary for life disorder, and other forms of digital media and work today.24 Just as in information literacy, overuse.27
21 UNESCOUNESCO (2005),(2005), AspectsAspects ofof LiteracyLiteracy Assessment:Assessment: TopicsTopics andand issues 24from the,Ibid UNESCO Expert Meeting. 1012 June, 2003. Paris, France: issuesUNESCO, from available the, UNESCO at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0 Expert Meeting. 1012 June, 2003. 00014012525 Ibid, p.48 22 Paris,UNESCO, France: (2013), UNESCO, Media available and Information at: https://unesdoc.unesco. Literacy: Policy and Strategy26 Guidelines”, Common p.48, sense available education, at: http://www.unesco.org/ne “Internet safety”, availablew/en/ at: org/ark:/48223/pf0000140125communication-and-information/resources/publications-and-communication-materials/publications/full-list/media-and-information-lhttps://www.commonsense.org/education/digital-citizenship/it- 22 eracy-policy-and-strategy-guidelines/ UNESCO, (2013), Media and Information Literacy: Policy and internet-safety 23 StrategyIbid, p. 47 Guidelines”, p.48, available at: http://www.unesco. 27 Hogan, Marjorie; Strasburger, Victor C. (12 April 2018). “Social 24 org/new/en/communication-and-information/resources/pubIbid - Media and New Technology: A Primer”. Clinical Pediatrics. 57 25 lications-and-communication-materials/publications/full-list/Ibid, p.48 (10): 1204–1215, available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/ 26 media-and-information-literacy-policy-and-strategy-guidelines/Common sense education, “Internet safety”, available at: https://www.commonsense.org/education/digital-citizenship/internet-sadoi/10.1177/0009922818769424 fety 2327 Hogan,Ibid, p. 47Marjorie; Strasburger, Victor C. (12 April 2018). "Social Media and New Technology: A Primer". Clinical Pediatrics. 57 (10): 1204–1215, available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0009922818769424
12 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Social comparison - refers to the tendency of infrastructures, telecommunications networks, and using other people as sources of information to computer processing systems.32 Others consider determine how we are doing relative to others (ability cyberspace to be just a notional environment in comparison), or how we should behave, think, and which communication over computer networks feel (opinion comparison).28 These comparisons occurs.33 provide us with information about our own as well as other people’s abilities, social standing, and Cyberbullying - is bullying via the Internet or other performance, allowing us to navigate the social ICT, involving offensive or malicious messages, world smoothly. e-mails, chat room or message board comments or, even more extreme, websites built with Virtual identity - refers to the development of harmful intent towards an individual or certain one's integrated self in online environments; a group of people.34 Cyberbullies also use mobile construct that may differ from real-life identity.29 phones to take embarrassing pictures of others or send hurtful SMS or MMS messages. The Online predators - are individuals who commit World Health Organization recognizes bullying child sexual abuse that begins or takes place on behavior as “the intentional use of physical the Internet.30 and psychological force or power, threatening or actual, against oneself, another person, or Online harassment - involves directing derogatory against a group or community that either result or offensive comments at targeted individuals in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, repeatedly. It may come in the following forms: death, psychological harm, mal-development, or cyberbullying, cyberstalking, trolling, or spreading deprivation”. 35 hate.31 Cyberstalking - is the use of the Internet or other Cyberspace - is a concept describing a widespread, electronic means to stalk or harass an individual, interconnected digital technology. The term entered or a group. 36 the popular culture from science fiction and the arts but is now used by technology strategists, Trolling - is the act of causing problems on the security professionals, government, military, and Internet by starting arguments or upsetting people, industry leaders and entrepreneurs to describe by posting inflammatory, extraneous, or off-topic the domain of the global technology environment, messages in an online community such as a commonly defined as standing for the global newsgroup.37 network of interdependent information technology
28 Festinger Leon, (1954), “A theory of social comparison process- 33 Strate Lance, (1999), “The varieties of cyberspace: Problems in 28 Festingeres Hum Relations”, Leon, (1954), 7, pp. “A 117-140,theory of available social comparison at: https://journa processels.s Hum Relations”,definition 7, andpp. 117-140,delimitation”, available Western at: https://journal Journal of Communicas.sagepub.- sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/001872675400700202com/doi/10.1177/001872675400700202 tion. 63 (3): 382–83, available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/ 29 Yee Nick and Bailenson Jeremy, (2007), “The Proteus effect: The effect of transformeddoi/abs/10.1080/10570319909374648 self-representation on behavior”, Human Commu- nication Research, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 271-290, available at: http://web.stanford.edu/~bailenso/papers/proteus%20effect.pdf effect of transformed self-representation on behavior”, Human 34 The Council of Europe, (2017), Ch-5, 30 Williams, Pete (February 3, 2006), "MySpace, Facebook attract online predators", NBC News, available at: https://www.nbcnews.com/id/ Communication Research, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 271-290, available 35 World Health Organization, (2002), “World report on violence wbna11165576 at: http://web.stanford.edu/~bailenso/papers/proteus%20 and health: summary”, Geneva, available at: https://www.who. 31 The Council of Europe, (2017), “Internet Literacy Handbook”, Ch-5, available at: https://rm.coe.int/internet-literacy-hand- effect.pdf int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/sum- book/1680766c85 30 Williams, Pete (February 3, 2006), “MySpace, Facebook attract mary_en.pdf 32 "Cyberspace”, Definition of cyberspace in US English by Oxford Dictionaries, available at: https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/cyber- online predators”, NBC News, available at: https://www.nbc- 36 “Cyberstalking”, Oxford University Press space news.com/id/wbna11165576 37 “Definition of troll”, Collins English Dictionary, available at: 33 Strate Lance, (1999), "The varieties of cyberspace: Problems in definition and delimitation", Western Journal of Communication. 63 (3): 31 The Council of Europe, (2017), “Internet Literacy Handbook”, https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/troll Ch-5,382–83, available available at: at:https://rm.coe.int/internet-literacy-hand https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.10- 80/10570319909374648 34 book/1680766c85The Council of Europe, (2017), Ch-5, 3235 World“Cyberspace”, Health Organization,Definition of cyberspace (2002), “World in US report English on byviolence Oxford an d health: summary”, Geneva, available at: https://www.who.int/violence_ Dictionaries,injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/summary_en.pdf available at: https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/ 36 “Cyberstalking",cyberspace Oxford University Press 37 "Definition of troll", Collins English Dictionary, available at: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/troll
13 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Fake News - in the most general form is untrue shared to cause harm, often by moving information information presented as news.38 Nevertheless, designed to stay private into the public sphere.42 despite it has been widely used, there is a growing number of institutions, including Governments Clickbait - a form of false advertisement, that refrain from using this term. In October uses hyperlink text or a thumbnail link that is 2018, the British government decided that the designed to attract attention and to entice users term "fake news" will no longer be used in official to follow that link and read, view, or listen to the documents because it is "a poorly-defined and linked piece of online content, with a defining misleading term that conflates a variety of false characteristic of being deceptive, typically information, from genuine error through to sensationalized or misleading. Put simply, it is a foreign interference in democratic processes." headline that tempts the reader to click on the link This followed a recommendation by the House to the story. But the name is used pejoratively to of Commons' Digital, Culture, Media and Sport describe headlines that are sensationalized, turn Committee to avoid the term. 39 Some studies out to be adverts, or are simply misleading. 43 suggest that “it is woefully inadequate to describe the complex phenomena of information pollution”.40 Radicalization – there is no universally accepted According to these views, “The term has also begun definition of radicalization. For the purpose of to be appropriated by politicians around the world this document, in simple terms, radicalization is to describe news organizations whose coverage identified as the application of ideas, beliefs, or they find disagreeable. In this way, it’s becoming a goals that should trigger an action to drastically mechanism by which the powerful can clamp down change what is considered normal and every upon, restrict, undermine, and circumvent the free day. In the Macedonian dictionary, radicalization press.41 is described as: "Applying root, decisive measures in resolving issues"44 (with accomplishing a We believe that it is important to make a goal). Radicalism as a noun signifies a political view.45 distinction between three different types: mis-, dis-, and mal-information. In this line we accept Online radicalization – therefore, refers to the same the suggestion made by Wardle and Derakhshan process that is ongoing and conducted via ICT and and the dimensions of harm and falseness, we social media applications. describe the differences between these three types of information: Radicalization generally involves recruitment - (selection and acquisition) and indoctrination. Mis-information is when false information is shared, Therefore, we would say that those who radicalize but no harm is meant. try to select/attract an individual (that is recruiting), Dis-information is when false information is so he/she affiliatesthat ( is indoctrination) with the knowingly shared to cause harm. need for some change or solving some problem. The Mal-information is when genuine information is methods and ways of recruiting are usually
38 Higdon Nolan, (August 15, 2020), "The Anatomy of Fake News: A Critical News Literacy Education", University of California Press, avail- able at: https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520347878/the-anatomy-of-fake-news 39 Murphy Margi, (October 23, 2018), "Government bans phrase 'fake news'", available at: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technolo- 38 gy/2018/10/22/government-bans-phrase-fake-news/Higdon Nolan, (August 15, 2020), “The Anatomy of Fake 42 Ibid 40 News:Wardle A ClaireCritical & News Derakhshan Literacy Hossein, Education”, supported University by: ofBurns Anne & 43Dias Nic,Frampton (2017), Ben, “Information (September Disorder: 14, 2015), “Clickbait - the changing TowardCalifornia an Interdisciplinary Press, available Framework at: https://www.ucpress.edu/ for Research and Policy making”, Councilface of of Europe, online p.journalism”, 5 BBC, available at: https://www.bbc. 41 Ibidbook/9780520347878/the-anatomy-of-fake-news com/news/uk-wales-34213693 4239 IbidMurphy Margi, (October 23, 2018), “Government bans phrase 44 Digital dictionary of the Macedonian language, “radi- 43 Frampton‘fake news’”, Ben, available (September at: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technol 14, 2015), "Clickbait - the changing- face of onlinecalism” journalism", http://www.makedonski.info/show/%D1%80% BBC, available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/ uk-wales-34213693ogy/2018/10/22/government-bans-phrase-fake-news/ D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B- 4440 Digital Wardle dictionary Claire & Derakhshan of the Macedonian Hossein, language, supported “radicalism” by: Burns http://www.makedonski.info/show/%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0B%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC/%D0%BC %BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC/%D0%BCAnne & Dias Nic, (2017), “Information Disorder: Toward an 45 Дигитален речник на македонскиот јазик, 45 ДигиталенInterdisciplinary речник Framework на македонскиот for Research јазик, and „радикализам“ Policy making”, http://ww w.makedonski.info/show/%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%„радикализам“ http://www.makedonski.info/show/%D1% D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC/%D0%BCCouncil of Europe, p. 5 80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B- 41Ibid. Ibid B%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC/%D0%BC
14 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
through conversations and persuasion, telling, and › Political nature (i.e. changing the social system teaching. Changing or resolving certain issues can - rather than a democratic system, as currently be manifested through a change in belief, change in place, elections should be abolished and to in behavior, or a change in the means for resolving take the form of dictatorship) - In the effort issues – the use of violence. Behavior that seeks to change the social system, violent meth- change (deep fundamental changes of things ods or violence against those who think differ- considered normal) is called radical. Radicalization can ently are directed. originate from: › Social nature – (i.e. sports fans that join support groups when they would like to cause a change › Political nature (i.e. changing the social structure - make other supporters and fans of the sports - rather than the democratic system as we now cheer for the same club and against all others have, to abolish elections and have a dictator- who do not, violence is promoted). ship). › Religious nature (when members of a particular › Social nature (i.e. when members of sport fan religion want to impose a change that will make clubs seek to make a change or achieve a goal - to their religion dominant), and against believers make (persuade) other sports fans support their in other religions, violence is promoted. club. › Religious nature (i.e. when members of a par- Violent radicalization is often associated with religious ticular religion want to impose a change that will fundamentalism, hate speech, violent extremism, and/ make their religion dominant). or acts of terrorism.
Religious fundamentalism - is an approach Radicalization can promote behavior that tends to to promote and practice religion. Almost every make the change without violence and/or through religion has a fundamental part. The practice of violence.46 Making changes peacefully, through fundamentalism can but does not necessarily lead to debate and tolerance for differences, without hate violent radicalization. speech or violence is not prohibited. Hate speech - is either a spoken or written attitude Any action promoting a change of the generally intended to humiliate, disturb, create fear or incite accepted situation-through violence is violence against one or more persons because of their prohibited. We must fight against radicalization personal characteristics or affiliation to a particular that promotes violent extremism and terrorism group or community. This speech is directed against together. When the discussions arise in regards to those who are seen as different.47 The radicalization radicalization, which promotes violent extremism process can often contain hate speech. and terrorism, we will refer to this as violent radicalization. Violent extremism - is when an individual/group expresses a belief that supports or incite violence Keeping in mind the previously stated and/or take acts of violence to achieve a goal examples, violent radicalization can be of: (social, ideological, religious, or political).48
46 Schmid, A. P. (2013-03-27). “Radicalisation, De-Radicalisation, 48 See more in UNESCO’s Manual on violent extremism UNESCO Counter-Radicalisation: A Conceptual Discussion and Literature (2016), “A Teacher’s Guide on the Prevention оf Violent Extrem- Review”. The International Center for Counter-Terrorism – The ism” http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002446/244676e. 46 Schmid, A. P. (2013-03-27). "Radicalisation, De-Radicalisation, Counter-Radicalisation: A Conceptual Discussion and Literature Review". Hague (ICCT). pdf, or in the Instruction issued by the Australian Government, The International Center for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague (ICCT). 47 More on hate speech can be found in the Recommendation N. (2020), “Living Safe Together”, available at: https://www.living- 47 More on hate speech can be found in the Recommendation N. (97) 20 of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on hate (97) 20 of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe safetogether.gov.au/ and https://www.livingsafetogether.gov. speech from 1997, available at: http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/media/doc/cm/rec%281997%29020&expmem_EN.asp on hate speech from 1997, available at: http://www.coe.int/t/ au/get-the-facts/Pages/default.aspx 48 See more in UNESCO’s Manual on violent extremism UNESCO (2016), “A Teacher’s Guide on the Prevention оf Violent Extremism” dghl/standardsetting/media/doc/cm/rec%281997%29020&ex- http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002446/244676e.pdf, or in the Instruction issued by the Australian Government, (2020), “Living pmem_EN.asp Safe Together”, available at: https://www.livingsafetogether.gov.au/ and https://www.livingsafetogether.gov.au/get-the-facts/Pages/ default.aspx
15 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
The impact of information communication technologies and social media on Macedonian youth
16 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
The impact of information communication technologies and social media on Macedonian youth
Modern Information and communication technologies 2019 and January 2020. Though the age group – ICT and social media applications have become an was not specified our research indicates that integral part of our lives. The convergence of cyber- youth between 14-30 years is the most dominant and physical space has been easy and maybe most actors in Macedonian cyberspace using social efficiently utilized by Macedonian youth. According to media via different ICT. For example, according the data portal’s information (compiled from different to the former Minister of Information Society credible sources and lastly updated January 2020), the and administration-MIOA, while “in Europe, Republic of North Macedonia has 58% urbanization, over 70% of children and young people had at 81% of the populace uses the internet. There are least one social media account in 2019, during 53% active social media users, and a fantastic 2.24 the same period almost 75% of the population million cell phones, which is about 107% of the in North Macedonia aged 15-19, had a profile population.49The same portal indicates that the on social networks.50 The majority of those who number of social media users in North Macedonia use social media access to their accounts from has increased by 55 000 (+5.3%) between April smartphones.51
49 Data from DataReportal, (February 18, 2020), “Digital 2020: North Macedonia”, by Simon Kemp, available at: https://datareportal.com/ reports/digital-2020-north-macedonia 50 Ministry of Internatl Affairs, (October 16, 2019), “Spasovski, Mancevski and Ademi, part of the event Traveling Classroom” (Origi- nal: “Спасовски, Манчевски и Адеми дел од настанот „Патувачка училница“: Само со хоризонтален пристап ќе се зајакнат 2.1.капацитетите General и perspectivesсвесноста за сајбер безбедност on why од најмалаyouth возрас is moreт”), available prone at: https://mvr.gov.mk/vest/10216?fbclid=I to ICT and social media- andwAR3OghzMlJB9-s90iHlS2bvWqqUlRTf1m-wNV7jffD_Ni7m6WxPvYh3-z8Y how these technologies and applications affect their social activism 51 Data from DataReportal, (February 18, 2020), “Digital 2020: North Macedonia”, by Simon Kemp, available at: https://datareportal.com/ reports/digital-2020-north-macedonia
Numerous independent studies conclude that young novel approaches allow young people to implement/ people tend to be more adaptive to new technologies replicate offline activities through new media.52 and that this ability complies with young people’s Others have observed that the use of the internet, needs. That is to use social platforms and to engage in and social networks, in particular, stems from real-time interaction with significant others, just as it their usual and adjoining social circles outside happens with traditional face-to-face interaction. Using their families - their friends and peers. 53 Hence,
52 McKerlich, R., Ives, C. & McGreal, R. (2013), The Effect of Social Network Sites on Adolescents’ Social and Academic Development: Current Theories and Controversies, International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 90–103 53 Sánchez-Navarro, J. & Aranda, D. (2012), “Messenger and social network sites as tools for sociability, leisure and informal learning for Spanish young people”, European Journal of Communication, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp.67–75, available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/ abs/10.1177/0267323111432411 49 Data from DataReportal, (February 18, 2020), “Digital 2020: 51 Data from DataReportal, (February 18, 2020), “Digital 2020: North Macedonia”, by Simon Kemp, available at: https://datare- North Macedonia”, by Simon Kemp, available at: https://datare- portal.com/reports/digital-2020-north-macedonia portal.com/reports/digital-2020-north-macedonia 50 Ministry of Internatl Affairs, (October 16, 2019), “Spasovski, 52 McKerlich, R., Ives, C. & McGreal, R. (2013), The Effect of Social Mancevski and Ademi, part of the event Traveling Classroom” Network Sites on Adolescents’ Social and Academic Devel- (Original: “Спасовски, Манчевски и Адеми дел од настанот opment: Current Theories and Controversies, International „Патувачка училница“: Само со хоризонтален пристап ќе Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, Vol. 14, No. се зајакнат капацитетите и свесноста за сајбер безбедност 4, pp. 90–103 од најмала возраст”), available at: https://mvr.gov.mk/ 53 Sánchez-Navarro, J. & Aranda, D. (2012), “Messenger and social vest/10216?fbclid=IwAR3OghzMlJB9-s90iHlS2bvWqqUlRT- network sites as tools for sociability, leisure and informal learn- f1m-wNV7jffD_Ni7m6WxPvYh3-z8Y ing for Spanish young people”, European Journal of Communi- cation, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp.67–75, available at: https://journals. sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0267323111432411
17 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
the high level of integration of these technologies into did not reflect the traditional- physical relations and youth’s daily life is an online extension of their offline postures. It produced new socio-demographic traits life. Instant messaging, virtual networking on social emanating from the specific purpose for which the media applications, ability to instantly share content ICT and social applications were created. Among via web-camera and remotely to engage in real-time others, searching for information and obtaining interaction with significant others, just as it happens knowledge about specific topics have changed. with traditional face-to-face interaction drive youth to migrate to social media and online communication. ICT and social media to a certain degree wiped out Social media platforms thus compensate for the traditional family capital-enhancing activities such genuine need for socialization in real life.54 as searching for information, shaping perceptions, incorporating values and pricing traditions while The social media applications and the internet’s advancing knowledge.56 Parents usually lagging in magnetism for youth also come from anonymity web-based skills are not the traditional opinion- and easy access that overcome some of the makers for youth or source for an answer.57 social barriers in real life. Anonymity is especially Instead, youth is alone in exploring the user- a handful of marginalized groups. These groups generated environment. The problem with this, for various reasons are isolated from social and however, is that online participation and content cultural interactions outside their circles. Easy access creation require a more extensive skill set than on top of it offers almost unlimited choices. For mere consumptive internet uses.58 example, expanding horizons in terms of where to be and where to go. Furthermore, the analysts who Social networking in general reflects the idea emphasize the positive aspects of connectivity build of the internet, which is communication in a on the argument that traditional conceptions of the user-friendly environment. This, nevertheless, digital divide in terms of access may no longer be unintentionally blends social networking with viable because youth is able to connect and participate user-generated content. Many applications, such in online social communities.55 as Facebook, Flickr, Blogger, or YouTube are built on these premises. While surfing requires Although ICT and social media applications have only consumption, online communication and opened new opportunities, they have also reshaped content creation require political knowledge and some of the traditional constructs of communications participation.59This elevates the challenge to a and with that, the values and traditions developed whole new level giving that the youth is not just accordingly. The cyber construct that has emerged collecting information alone but participate in a from horizontal (rather than vertical family-based) highly influential complex environment. relations and equal opportunities in the virtual world
54 McKerlich, Ives & McGreal, (2013) 55 Ahn June, (2011), “Digital Divides and Social Network Sites: Which Students Participate in Social Media?”, Journal of Educational Comput- ing Research, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp.147–163, available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2190/EC.45.2.b 56 Hargittai Eszter & Walejko Gina, (2008), “The participation divide: Content creation and sharing in the digital age”, Information, Commu- nication & Society, pp. 239–256, available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13691180801946150 57 Hoffmann, C.P., Lutz, C. & Meckel, M. (2015), “Content creation on the Internet: a social cognitive perspective on the participation 54 divide”,McKerlich, Information, Ives & McGreal, Communication (2013) & Society, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 696–716,58 Hargittai available Eszter at: https://www.alexandria.unisg.ch/2386 & Walejko Gina, (2008), 46/ 5558 Ahn Hargittai June, (2011),Eszter &“Digital Walejko Divides Gina, and(2008), Social Network Sites: 59 Östman Johan (2012), “Information, expression, participa- 59 WhichÖstman Students Johan (2012), Participate “Information, in Social Media?”,expression, Journal participation: of Educa- How involvementtion: How in user-generatedinvolvement in user-generatedcontent relates tocontent democratic relates to tionalengagement Comput among young people”, New Media & Society, Vol. 14, No. 6, pp.1004–1021,democratic engagement available at: among https://journals.sagepub.com/ young people”, New Media & 56 doi/10.1177/1461444812438212Hargittai Eszter & Walejko Gina, (2008), “The participa- Society, Vol. 14, No. 6, pp.1004–1021, available at: https://jour- tion divide: Content creation and sharing in the digi- nals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1461444812438212 tal age”, Information, Communication & Society, pp. 239–256, available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ abs/10.1080/13691180801946150 57 Hoffmann, C.P., Lutz, C. & Meckel, M. (2015), “Content creation on the Internet: a social cognitive perspective on the partici- pation divide”, Information, Communication & Society, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 696–716, available at: https://www.alexandria.unisg. ch/238646/
18 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
From the opportunity to disruption, how ICT and social media applications may become a threat to the Youth in North Macedonia
19 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
From the opportunity to disruption, how ICT and social media applications may become a threat to the Youth in North Macedonia
Despite the original idea of communication and in this line arises from the fact that the ongoing socialization ICT and social media applications digital transformations have not just changed have become venues for civic and political the channels to access information, but also the engagement including protests, and other nature of the information itself. Today information contextual forums.60 In these regards, the EU has different forms of presentation, a more commissions concluded that various forms of graphic component, and is usually accompanied political participation and social engagement by strong symbolic content. This affects the way based on the internet and social media challenge of receiving it (comfortably and practically in real- the view of young people’s disenchantment.61 time), processing it (putting in the background Thanks to the interconnectivity Macedonian reflection and the spectacular impact), the youth may experience lifestyle, values, and self- effects on the recipient (reactive, with a strong expression, consume and participate in social and sentimental load), on how to transmit it, and political activism, boycotts, political comedy, self- redistribute it.64 organizing protests, and discussing politics online. This access to a large range of information and Moreover, another important characteristic of a political conversation extends far beyond their social media platform that might have unintended parents, teachers and geographically close peers, effects on youth for good and bad is inclusiveness. and potential participation.62 The opportunity to be included, and the sense of belonging to a community alike, usually Social network sites have become an important stimulate participation.65 The changed construct open channel for communication about political where communication takes place (considering action and have been thus associated with the anonymity as well) between individuals and mobilization of other newcomers.63 The problem groups allows dialogue to be democratized,
60 To compare Macedonian youth with EU trends see for example (Freelon, Wells & Bennett (2013). 61 European Commission (2015), Council Resolution on encouraging political participation of young people in democratic life in Europe (2015/C 417/02), Official Journal of the European Union, Retrieved 13 September 2017, from http://eur-ex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/ TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:42015Y1215(02)&from=EN 62 Middaugh Ellen, Bowyer Benjamin, Kahne Joseph (June 24, 2016), “U Suk?! Participatory Media and Youth Experiences With Political Discourse”, Youth & Society, Vol. 49, No. 7, pp. 902-922, available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0044118X16655246 6063 To Clark, compare L.S. (2015), Macedonian “Participants youth onwith the EU Margins: trends see#BlackLives for exampleMatter and63 theClark, Role L.S. That (2015), Shared “Participants Artefacts of on Engagement the Margins: Played #BlackLivesMa Among t- (Freelon,Minoritized Wells Political & Bennett Newcomers (2013). on Snapchat, Facebook, and Twitter”, Internationalter and the Journal Role That of Communication, Shared Artefacts Vol. of Engagement 10, pp. 235– 253,Played 61 availableEuropean at: Commission https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/135 (2015), Council Resolution on encourag-4856520933747Among Minoritized Political Newcomers on Snapchat, Face- 64 ingÁlvaro political A & Rubioparticipation R, (2016), of “ICTyoung in politicalpeople in participation democratic oflife young in people”,book, Instituto and de Twitter”, la Juventud, International available Journal at: https:/ of Communication,/issuu.com/injuve/ Europedocs/tic_participacionpolitica (2015/C 417/02), Official Journal of the European Union, Vol. 10, pp. 235–253, available at: https://journals.sagepub. 65 RetrievedDumitrica 13 Delia. September (October 2017, 30, 2014), from http://eur-ex.europa.eu/le“Imagining engagement: Yo- uth, socialcom/doi/full/10.1177/1354856520933747 media, and electoral processes”, Convergence: The galcontent/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:42015Y1215(02)&from=ENInternational Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, Vol.64 22, No.Álvaro 1, pp. A &35-53, Rubio available R, (2016), at: “ICT https://journals.sagep in political participationub.com/ of 62 doi/10.1177/1354856514553899Middaugh Ellen, Bowyer Benjamin, Kahne Joseph (June 24, young people”, Instituto de la Juventud, available at: https:// 2016), “U Suk?! Participatory Media and Youth Experiences issuu.com/injuve/docs/tic_participacionpolitica With Political Discourse”, Youth & Society, Vol. 49, No. 7, pp. 65 Dumitrica Delia. (October 30, 2014), “Imagining engagement: 902-922, available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/ Youth, social media, and electoral processes”, Convergence: abs/10.1177/0044118X16655246 The International Journal of Research into New Media Tech- nologies, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 35-53, available at: https://journals. sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1354856514553899
20 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
usually without control and lose accountability.66 Experts and academics have largely addressed the In this articulation, social media appears as both disruptive effects of the internet and social media. the tool that produces engagement and the space Mental and emotional effects from ICT and social where this engagement unfolds. Put in the context media, but also mis-, dis-, and mal-information, of content shaping social platforms become a including criminal activities, political activism, and perfect platform to influence information and spread of violent extremism and hate speech are produce cascade effects. The technology and not unknown for Macedonian youth. Therefore, connectivity along with the accustomed behavior we will briefly address some of these residual of sharing for influence or other reasons allow negative effects separately. information (good and bad) to be multiplied exponentially.67
66 García-Galera María-Carmen, Del-Hoyo-Hurtado Mercedes & Fernández-Muñoz Cristóbal, (June, 2014), “Engaged Youth in the Internet, The role of social networks in Social Active Participation”, Comunicar, Vol. 22, No. 43, pp. 35–43, available at: https://www.mendeley. com/catalogue/5ffb3593-2092-3b2b-b2bc-dee24870346c/ 3.1.67 Tang Negative Grey & Lee Francesmental L.F., (2013), and “Facebook emotional Use and Politi effectscal Participation: that The ICT Impact and of Exposure social to Sharedmedia Political may Information, have Connections with Public Political Actors, and Network Structural Heterogeneity”, Social Science Computer Review, Vol. 31, No. 6, pp. on Macedonian763–773, available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.youth 1177/0894439313490625?journalCode=ssce
The negative mental and emotional effects growing number of studies try to provide some that ICT and social media may have on the reasoning whether or not extensive use of ICT Macedonian youth has only lately caught wider and social media increased depression among the attention. Though there are some good analyses youth.69 Additional surveys of US adolescents, for provided by social and health workers, including example, show that teen depressive symptoms communication experts and academics these and suicide rates increased between 2010 and addresses are sporadic and without a systematic 2015, especially among females. Researchers approach (research or a study).68 noted that the increase in social media and overall screen use between those years could Experts agree that negative mental and emotional account for these changes.70 A 2015 CNN study effects from ICT and social media may cause or of 13-year-old teenagers and social media found be produced by cyber harassment activities (ex. that participants who checked Facebook or other Cyberbullying), negative self-image and body networking sites between 50 and 100 times image, social media addiction, and less time spent a day were 37 % more distressed than those doing healthy, real-world activities. In this line, a who checked just a few times a day. Those who
68 A good example of these effects may represent a story supported by the EU, and presented on the Modern technologies web portal, discussing the modern technologies’ effects on the youth. Please see: Modern Technologies MK, (November 18, 2019), “Parents must learn how to protect their children from overuse of the internet” (original: Современи технологии МК, (Ноември 18, 2020), „Родителите мора да научат како да ги заштитат децата од прекумерна употреба на интернет“), available at: https://sovre- menitehnologii.mk/ekspertite-za-internetot/ 6669 García-GaleraBaker A David María-Carmen, & Algorta Perez Del-Hoyo-Hurtado Guillermo, (October Mercedes 12, 2016), “The Relationship2019), “ParentsBetween mustOnline learn Social how Networking to protect andtheir Depressio children fromn: A &Systematic Fernández-Muñoz Review of Cristóbal, Quantitative (June, Studies”, 2014), Cyberpsychol“Engaged Youth Behav. Soc. Netw.overuse 2016 Nov,of the 19(11), internet” pp. (original:638-648 Современи технологии МК, 70 Jeanin the M. Internet, Twenge, The Thomas role of E. social Joiner, networks Megan L. in Rogers, Social Active Gabrielle N. Martin, (November(Ноември 18,14, 2020),2017), „Родителите“Increases in Depressiveмора да научат Symptoms како да, ги Participation”,Suicide-Related Comunicar, Outcomes, Vol. and 22, Suicide No. 43, Rates pp. 35–43,Among availabl U.S. Adolescee nts Afterзаштитат 2010 and децата Links одto Increasedпрекумерна New употреба Media Screen на интернет“), Time”, at:available https://www.mendeley.com/catalogue/5ffb3593-2092-3b2b- at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2167702617723376?journalCode=cpxaavailable at: https://sovremenitehnologii.mk/ekspertite-za-in - b2bc-dee24870346c/ ternetot/ 67 Tang Grey & Lee Frances L.F., (2013), “Facebook Use and Po- 69 Baker A David & Algorta Perez Guillermo, (October 12, 2016), litical Participation: The Impact of Exposure to Shared Political “The Relationship Between Online Social Networking and Information, Connections with Public Political Actors, and Depression: A Systematic Review of Quantitative Studies”, Network Structural Heterogeneity”, Social Science Computer Cyberpsychol Behav. Soc. Netw. 2016 Nov, 19(11), pp. 638-648 Review, Vol. 31, No. 6, pp. 763–773, available at: https://jour- 70 Jean M. Twenge, Thomas E. Joiner, Megan L. Rogers, Gabrielle nals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0894439313490625?jour- N. Martin, (November 14, 2017), “Increases in Depressive nalCode=ssce Symptoms, Suicide-Related Outcomes, and Suicide Rates 68 A good example of these effects may represent a story sup- Among U.S. Adolescents After 2010 and Links to Increased New ported by the EU, and presented on the Modern technologies Media Screen Time”, available at: https://journals.sagepub. web portal, discussing the modern technologies’ effects on the com/doi/abs/10.1177/2167702617723376?journalCode=cpxa youth. Please see: Modern Technologies MK, (November 18,
21 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
checked more than 100 times a day were 47 % context self-presentation and self-disclosure— more distressed on average.71 sharing their opinions, beliefs, and preferences, including nudity may result in consequential Domestic experts seem to agree with these negative effects. Online predators (which will be findings. The Psychiatric professor at the addressed below) but also peer friends (sharing national University Psychiatric clinic elaborated content for fun) can usually unintentionally cause on how ICT and social media such as Facebook, significant harm and emotional pain in many Twitter, LinkedIn, Instagram, etc. are responsible different ways.75 This is especially important for negative health effects chief among is an since youth is curious and eager to social drama addiction, which later results in other health without really comprehending the negative problems.72 A neuropsychologist Tina Vaskov effects that their action could cause. For example, asserted that addiction to ICT and social media the above-mentioned Pew Research Center’s causes a state of “Cognition” which distracts report found that some 45 % of teens say they children from physical social engagement.73 feel overwhelmed by all the drama on social media. And about the same number say that Another way how ICT and social media may they often or sometimes unfriend or unfollow undermine Macedonian youth’s health which is others on social media. In fact, 52 percent say that worth mentioning is the effect of social comparison. cyberbullying directed at them or others were Spending more time on social media youth tend their reason for unfriending. Such online bullying to compare themselves by observing the lives and is a significant negative effect of social media on images of their peers. For example, this includes teenagers.76 looking at profiles on which peers post about their healthy habits, fun social events, or accomplishments. Cyberbullying and similar online harassment According to the 2018 Pew Research Center report activities are other important effects that require on the effect of social media on teenagers, 43 % of greater attention in North Macedonia.77 There are teenagers say they feel pressure to only post content several various platforms in which cyberbullying, on social media that makes them look good to others. and online sexual harassment can occur with Furthermore, 26% of teens say these sites make them youth shifting to new technologies faster than feel worse about their own life.74 ever. According to Newport academy study cyberbullying methods may include: Posting An additional similar effect causing negative comments about a teen online that are cruel, outcomes that ICT and social media can have on hurtful, or embarrassing; Posting an embarrassing Macedonian youth is creating a virtual identity. picture or video of a teenager; Starting rumors While this effect not always may have a negative about a teen online that damage their reputation;
71 Hadad Chuck, (October 13, 2015), “Why some 13-year-olds check social media 100 times a day”, CNN Health, available at: https://edition. cnn.com/2015/10/05/health/being-13-teens-social-media-study/index.html 72 Modern Technologies MK, (November 18, 2019), 73 Ibid 74 Anderson Monica And Jiang Jingjing, (November 29, 2018), “Teens’ Social Media Habits and Experiences”, Pew Research Center, available 71 at:Hadad https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/11/28/teens-socia Chuck, (October 13, 2015), “Why some 13-year-olds l-media-habits-and-experiences/75 Williams, Pete (February 3, 2006) 75 Williams,check social Pete media (February 100 times 3, 2006) a day”, CNN Health, available at: 76 Anderson Monica And Jiang Jingjing, (November 29, 2018), 76 Andersonhttps://edition.cnn.com/2015/10/05/health/being-13-teens-so Monica And Jiang Jingjing, (November 29, 2018), - 77 Ministry of Internatl Affairs, (October 16, 2019), 77 Ministrycial-media-study/index.html of Internatl Affairs, (October 16, 2019), 72 Modern Technologies MK, (November 18, 2019), 73 Ibid 74 Anderson Monica And Jiang Jingjing, (November 29, 2018), “Teens’ Social Media Habits and Experiences”, Pew Research Center, available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/inter- net/2018/11/28/teens-social-media-habits-and-experiences/
22 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Ask nasty questions that are designed to hurt Two recent cases that have shaken the their feelings; Posting hateful slurs or comments Macedonian public involving sexual content about a teen’s race, religion, or ethnicity online; sharing activities of Macedonian youth from Threatening online to hurt a teen or encouraging smaller cities are worth mentioning in this context them to do self-harm or to kill themselves; as well. One unfortunate case is the so-called Posing as someone else online to solicit personal “Public room” – a “Telegram” chat group with more or false information about a teenager, or even than 7400 members, which was used to share impersonating a teenager online; Doxing (an explicit photos and videos from young girls.80 abbreviated form of the word “documents”)— The "Public room" was closed and all members online harassment in which a teen’s personal were deleted after the group administrator - a information is made public, including addresses, teenager with a codenamed “Medo” reported social security numbers, credit cards, and phone himself to the police, and two girls reported the numbers (this can also lead to identity theft).78 case. The members of the group demanded nude The same study provides some incentives photos of girls and demanded photos of girls about the places where cyberbullying occurs with specific names and surnames. The Ministry among teens may include the following: Social of Interior, Department for Computer Crime and media platforms like TikTok, Facebook, Twitter, Digital Forensics identified all of the users and Instagram, Snapchat, and YOLO (a question-and- their telephone numbers in order to determine answer app that teens cyberbullies use to shame the other persons who had administrative and embarrass vulnerable adolescents, by asking and moderating roles. One other similar case hurtful questions about them; Text messaging on involving videos and photos with explicit content cell phones and other devices, including both one- with girls and women from the municipality on-one messages and group messaging; Gaming Gevgelija and the surrounding area. The nude forums or during online video game playing, content and pictures were shared via “Viber” where teens play gaming characters in multiplayer and “Messenger”.81 Usually, after discovery, formats; Instant messages delivered via social these groups are closed, but only for a while media messaging features, smartphone apps, and when new ones are created. Also, there are a other messaging services; Anonymous messaging lot of fake profiles that are used for blackmails, apps and sites like “Kik”, “Sarahah”, and “Askfm”, impersonations, and similar activities. These and which allow for messages and feedback without other similar events can have a negative mental identifying the source; Temporary messaging and and health impact on victims. picture apps like “Telegram” and “Snapchat”; etc.. 79
78 All seen in: Newport Academy, (March, 2020), “How to Recog- 81 Independent (July 8, 2020), “ Pornographic videos and photos nize Teen Cyberbullying”, available at: https://www.newport- with girls and women from Gevgelia county shared via academy.com/resources/restoring-families/teen-cyberbullying/ Viber and Messenger”, (Original: Независен ( Јули 8, 2020), 79 Ibid „Порнографски видеа и фотографии со девојки и жени од 80 Jordanovska Meri, (January 26, 2020), “Pornographic group Гевгелиско препраќани на Вибер, Месинџер“), available at: “Public room “ is closed, The members are opening the new https://nezavisen.mk/pornografski-videa-i-fotografii-so-devoj- One”, A1On, (Original „Порнографската група„Јавна СОба“ ki-i-zheni-od-gevgelisko-preprakjani-na-viber-mesindzher/ е затворена, членовите отвораат нова“ А1Он), available at: 78 https://a1on.mk/macedonia/pornografskata-grupa-javna-soAll seen in: Newport Academy, (March, 2020), “How to Recognize- Teen Cyberbullying”, available at: https://www.newportacademy.com/ ba-e-zatvorena-chlenovite-otvoraat-nova/resources/restoring-families/teen-cyberbullying/ 79 Ibid 80 Jordanovska Meri, (January 26, 2020), “Pornographic group “Public room “ is closed, The members are opening the new One”, A1On, (Original „Порнографската група„Јавна СОба“ е затворена, членовите отвораат нова“ А1Он), available at: https://a1on.mk/macedo- nia/pornografskata-grupa-javna-soba-e-zatvorena-chlenovite-otvoraat-nova/ 81 Independent (July 8, 2020), “ Pornographic videos and photos with girls and women from Gevgelia county shared via Viber and Mes- senger”, (Original: Независен ( Јули 8, 2020), „Порнографски видеа и фотографии со девојки и жени од Гевгелиско препраќани на Вибер, Месинџер“), available at: https://nezavisen.mk/pornografski-videa-i-fotografii-so-devojki-i-zheni-od-gevgelisko-preprakja- ni-na-viber-mesindzher/
23 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
3.2. The negative effects of mis-, dis-, and mal-information spread across the ICT and social media and their impact on Macedonian youth
3.2.1. General views about mis-, dis-, and mal-information spread across ICT and social media
The traditional news model based on professionalism, The psychological effects of mis-, dis-, and mal- ethical and trained journalists, using and citing information are maybe best to explain in the American credible sources with the follow-up fact-check before Psychological Association study.84 According to publication are gone. Deliberately design mis-, dis-, this study, two-thirds of Americans are stressed and mal-information from amusing us to confusing out about the future of the country, and the us have caused worldwide negative effects.82 While constant consumption of news was pinpointed disinformation (purposeful manipulation) dates as a major contributor. In an Op-Ed published in back to Adam and Eve what is new is the ability the Washington Post, therapist Steven Stosny, of its dissemination (the 24/7 news cycle and our Ph.D., asserted that …“For many people, continual access to it). The convergence of physical and alerts from news sources, blogs and social media, cyberspace allows disinformation as a tool of and alternative facts feel like missile explosions in a persuasion and weapon of influence to reached siege without end”.85 A lot of negative feelings like new heights. While the access to news from, anxiety, hopelessness, despair, sadness is fueled mainstream media channels and social media to by being tuned in to the 24-hour news cycle. Thus, radio and podcasts is easy, it is also easier than as Stosny observed with so much misinformation ever for producers of these news or information/ being posted as truth, we are in an even more disinformation to reach us (at any hour of the entrenched era of “headline stress disorder,” day or night on any one of our many Internet- where “breaking news is breaking us”. 86 connected devices - the internet of things-IoT such as smartphone, tablet, laptop, smartwatch, Alexa, Mis-, dis-, and mal-information can also have major Siri and more). societal impacts because in general, information shapes our worldview. We make important decisions These negative effects have particularly been based on the information we have. We form an amplified with the trend of digital transformation idea about people or a situation by obtaining and the ability to use machines behind spreading information. So, if the information we saw on the mis-, dis-, and mal-information. Today, it’s fairly Web is invented, false, exaggerated, or distorted, easy for conspiracy theories and rumors to spread we won’t make good decisions. The spread of anti- through channels that are multifold, messages that vaccination misinformation on social media, (and are continuous, and an environment that often its implications for public health and the global fight overlooks contradictory information.83 As a result, against COVID-19) is a textbook example of how social media platforms have proved to be fertile ground misinformation can have serious real-world effects, for inflammatory disinformation that has an emotional, particularly while we tackle the virus.87 Recently, social, economic, and political impact on society. conspiracy theories relating to the supposedly
82 See for example: Shu Catherine, (January 7, 2020), “ Why the 85 Stosny Steven, (February 6, 2017), “He once called it ‘election world must pay attention to the fight against disinformation stress disorder.’ Now the therapist says we’re suffering from and fake news in Taiwan”, Techrunch, available at: https://tech- this”, The Washington Post, available at: https://www.washing- crunch.com/2020/01/07/why-the-world-must-pay-attention-to- tonpost.com/news/inspired-life/wp/2017/02/06/suffering-from- the-fight-against-disinformation-and-fake-news-in-taiwan/ headline-stress-disorder-since-trumps-win-youre-definitely- 83 Erdelyi M. Karina, (2019), “The Psychological Impact of Informa- not-alone/ tion Warfare & Fake News”, PSYCOM, available at: https://www. 86 Ibid psycom.net/iwar.1.html 87 SCL, (August 10, 2020), “The real-world effects of ‘fake news’ – 82 See for example: Shu Catherine, (January 7, 2020), “ Why the world must pay attention to the fight against disinformation and fake news 84 American Psychological Association, (February 15, 2017), and how to quantify them”, SCL ORG, available at: https://www. in Taiwan”, Techrunch, available at: https://techcrunch.com/2020/01/07/why-the-world-must-pay-attention-to-the-fight-against-disinfor- “Many Americans Stressed about Future of Our Nation, New scl.org/articles/12022-the-real-world-effects-of-fake-news-and- mation-and-fake-news-in-taiwan/ APA Stress in America, Survey Reveals”, available at: https:// how-to-quantify-them 83 Erdelyi M. Karina, (2019), “The Psychological Impact of Information Warfare & Fake News”, PSYCOM, available at: https://www.psycom. www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2017/02/stressed-nation net/iwar.1.html 84 American Psychological Association, (February 15, 2017), “Many Americans Stressed about Future of Our Nation, New APA Stress in America, Survey Reveals”, available at: https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2017/02/stressed-nation 85 Stosny Steven, (February 6, 2017), “He once called it ‘election stress disorder.’ Now the therapist says we’re suffering from this”, The 24 Washington Post, available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/inspired-life/wp/2017/02/06/suffering-from-headline-stress-dis- order-since-trumps-win-youre-definitely-not-alone/ 86 Ibid 87 SCL, (August 10, 2020), “The real-world effects of ‘fake news’ – and how to quantify them”, SCL ORG, available at: https://www.scl.org/ articles/12022-the-real-world-effects-of-fake-news-and-how-to-quantify-them Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
harmful health effects of the 5G cellular network the “soft targets”.92 Hence, social media has technology, including a link to the COVID-19 “become a battlefield where information itself pandemic have flooded the internet and social is weaponized”.93 The anonymity allows one to media. These mis-, dis-, and mal-information whatever he/she/they want and be whomever had caused serious impact and caused violent he/she/they want. The advent of the Internet behavior against social order but also with opened a new arsenal of tools that can be used economic effects. for manipulation including online hacking, aliases, bots, unattributed websites filled with In fact, the persuasion tactics using the internet fabricated content, social media avatars posting and social media have become big business. fake news. Moreover, in a liberalized World While these tactics are employed for profit by empowered individuals and groups specialized corporate or enterprises, they can also provoke in national security matters, previously working a reaction that will have economic effects. One for governments, are offering their services for such example is the arson attacks on cell phone commercial and national security purposes as towers across Europe and the USA.88 The cascade well.94 Living in a highly-connected world, it doesn’t effects, nevertheless, may also have cause long take much to tip over into instability or even term effects, by, perhaps, slowing or preventing chaos. economic growth. Namely, the casual effect of cell phone technology on economic growth is well Building on the ability to provoke emotional documented.89 A similar relationship may apply effect, thus, state and non-state actors are to the more modern 5G standard and the storm purposefully manipulating information to of conspiracy theories proliferated through social elicit feelings of anger or suspicion against the media and the internet.90 Government and its policies. This often can cause an inflammatory reaction and motivates Politically, however, the disinformation and people (mostly youth) to take violent actions to modern-day fake news have been well developed “make things write”, but also can cause anxiety, under the concept of deception. In fact, in his and even depression by distorting our thinking.95 famous work, The Art of War, Sun Tzu in Rule 18 As a result, across the world, we are seeing wrote that “All warfare is based on deception”.91 youth being radicalized and anger performing While waging a war is usually considered to be extreme actions. People have lost trust in their a military business and is implied that it should governments and the overall social order, without be run by people in uniform, the modern-day really understanding the content that motivates conflict defies this logic. Both state and non-state them against, but with the ability to undermine actors, in fact, are exploiting modern technologies democratic order, stability, and prosperity. including the internet and social media to achieve These global trends have a significant effect on their strategic ends by exploiting Macedonian youth.
88 BBC,BBC, (June(June 8,8, 2020),2020), “Coronavirus:“Coronavirus: ManMan jailedjailed forfor 5G5G phonephone mast arson attack”,Dictionaries available Online, at: https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-en “Soft target”, available at: https://www.- mastgland-merseyside-52966950 arson attack”, available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/ lexico.com/en/definition/soft_target; or see: Forest James J.F., 89 uk-england-merseyside-52966950See, for example, Eastwood David , (March 10, 2005), “Calling across the Divide”,(2006), “Homeland The Economist, Security: available Protecting at: https://www.ec America’s Targets”,onomist. 89 com/finance-and-economics/2005/03/10/calling-across-the-divideSee, for example, Eastwood David , (March 10, 2005), “Calling Greenwood, p.36 90 acrossAndrews the M. Divide”, Travis, The (May Economist, 1, 2020), “available Why dangerous at: https://www. conspiracy theories93 aboutSee for the example: virus spread Singer so P.W., fast —Brooking and how ET. they (2018), can “Like be st War:opped, economist.com/finance-and-economics/2005/03/10/calling-The Washington Post, available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/05/01/5g-conspiracy-theory-coronavirus-misinThe Weaponization of Social Media”, Eamon Dolan/Houghton- across-the-divideformation/ Mifflin Harcourt, New York 9091 AndrewsTzu Sun, M.“The Travis, Art of (May War”, 1, text 2020), as written“ Why dangerous by Sun Tzu conspiracy in the translation 94 of EntousLionel Giles, Adam first & Farrow published Ronan, in 1910 (February 11, 2019), “Private 92 theoriesThe term about “soft thetargets" virus usually spread refers so fast to — civilian and how sites they where can unarmed peopleMossad congregate for Hire, in Inside large annumbers, effort to but influence not just American the places elec the- becivilians stopped, themselves The Washington to. See for Post, example available Oxford at: https://www. Dictionaries Online, "Soft tions,target", starting available with at: one https://www.lexico.com/en/de small-town race”, The New Yorker,finition/ avail- washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/05/01/5g-conspirasoft_target; or see: Forest James J.F., (2006), “Homeland Secur- ity: Protectingable America's at: https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/02/18/ Targets”, Greenwood, p.36 93 cy-theory-coronavirus-misinformation/See for example: Singer P.W., Brooking ET. (2018), “Like War: The Weaponizationprivate-mossad-for-hire of Social Media”, Eamon Dolan/Houghton Mifflin 91 Harcourt,Tzu Sun, “The New Art York of War”, text as written by Sun Tzu in the 95 The American Psychiatric Association, (May 7, 2018), “Baby 94 translationEntous Adam of Lionel & Farrow Giles, Ronan, first published (February in 11, 1910 2019), “Private Mossad for Hire,Boomers Inside Report an effort Greatest to influence Increase American in Anxiety”, elections, New York, starting 92 with The termone small-town “soft targets” race”, usually The refersNew Yorker, to civilian available sites where at: https: //www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/02/18/private-mossad-for-hireavailable at: www.psychiatry.org/newsroom/news-releases/ 95 unarmedThe American people Psychiatric congregate Association, in large numbers, (May 7, 2018), but not “Baby just Boomers Reportamericans-say-they-are-more-anxious-than-a-year-ago-baby- Greatest Increase in Anxiety”, New York, available at: www. thepsychiatry.org/newsroom/news-releases/americans-say-they-are-more-anxious-than-a-year-ago-baby-boomers-report-greatest-in places the civilians themselves to. See for example Oxford boomers-report-greatest-increase-in-anxiety - crease-in-anxiety
25 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
3.2.2. The impact of mis-, dis-, and mal-information via ICT and social media on Macedonian youth
Small developing countries like the Republic of North Macedonians, thousands of kilometers away from Macedonia are not immune to global trends of mis-, the US, were making money out of fake news dis-, and mal-information. Although general trends of about the American elections, almost effortless mis-, dis-, and mal-information are easily recognizable and at almost no cost comparing the big electronic via the internet and social media in North Macedonia, and TV Media. This practice, however, has evolved as elsewhere the effects are specific to the culture and and has been upgraded since then. Adjusting to internal social dynamics. the “clickbait trends” not just individuals but also enterprises chasing opportunities have utilized The information described by Macedonian society’s the practice of fabricating news and producing usage of ICT and participation in social media disinformation.100 An investigative report communications resonates that society is widely published by BIRN explained how an advertising exposed to the global trends of disinformation. While company from North Macedonia, allegedly forced mis-, dis-, and mal-information have the same effects by COVID-19 created an economic crisis, chased as elsewhere (addressed above), the debate about the opportunity to enter the disinformation the effects of disinformation has largely focused campaign business.101 Hence, networks of fake social on the political context. To a certain degree, this is media pages, involving young Macedonians, have understandable given that the Republic of North become the biggest culprit streaming the global web Macedonia was in the disinformation focus twice in from North Macedonia. recent years both as a victim but also as a source – producer of mis-, dis-, and mal-information. Even Unlike the real journalism, that follows the though disinformation as a method - tactic was information, an event, or a trend, the new normal looming large via Macedonian cyberspace and have (under which mis-, dis-, and mal-information operate) been responsible for online radicalization,96 the US is to create the information. As a result, almost election in 2016,97 the 2018 Referendum98 and the elsewhere the proliferation of unverified information, Worldwide pandemic caused by COVID-1999 have full of sensationalism, without the owner of the turned the World’s attention into the country. information (we are not sure who makes the news anymore) has become an attractive opportunity. The The trend of producing fake news discovered BIRN report has also revealed how young journalists back in late 2016 and elaborated in 2017 reviled have turned into mis-, dis-, and mal-information to the world the asymmetry behind the mis-, dis- producers practicing “Clickbait journalism as a career , and mal-information via social media. Young option”.102 According to the testimony of a young
96 Hadji-Janev Metodi & Bogdanoski Mitko, (2015), “The Terrorist 99 Dukic Simeon, (November 2, 2020), “COVID-19 Disinforma- Threat to the Critical Information Infrastructure in South East tion: Implications For Polarisation In Kumanovo”, available at: Europe”, Future Access Enablers for Ubiquitous and Intelligent https://strongcitiesnetwork.org/en/covid-19-disinformation-im- Infrastructures, Springer, available at: https://www.springer- plications-for-polarisation-in-kumanovo/ professional.de/en/the-terrorist-threat-to-the-critical-informa- 100 See for example how this trend is developing: Hennessey tion-infrastructure-/6885392 Jason, (April 22, 2020), “ 12 Surprising Examples of Clickbait 9796 Hadji-JanevSee for example: Metodi Subramanian & Bogdanoski Samanth, Mitko, (2015), (February “The 15, Terrorist 2017), “Threat to theHeadlines Critical ThatInformation Work”, SearchInfrastructure Engine Journal,in South available East Europe”, at: InsideFuture The Access Macedonian Enablers forFake-News Ubiquitous Complex, and Intelligent The Macedonian Infrastructures, Springer,https://www.searchenginejournal.com/12-surprising-exam available at: https://www.springerprofessional.de/en/- Teensthe-terrorist-threat-to-the-critical-information-infrastructure-/6885392 Who Mastered Fake News”, Wired, available at: https:// ples-of-clickbait-headlines-that-work/362688/#close 97 www.wired.com/2017/02/veles-macedonia-fake-news/See for example: Subramanian Samanth, (February 15, 2017), “ Inside101 The Cvetkovska Macedonian Saska, Fake-News (November Complex, 2, 2020), The “Macedonian Trump and COVID-19Teens 98 Who Crosby Mastered Alan, (September Fake News”, 24, Wired, 2018), available “ Macedonia’s at: https://www.wired ‘Fake News’ .com/2017/02/veles-macedonia-fake-news/Fuel North Macedonia’s Clickbait Boom”, Balkan Insight, 98 ExportsCrosby Alan,Now For(September Domestic 24, Consumption”, 2018), “ Macedonia's Radio Free 'Fake Europe, News' Exports Nowavailable For Domestic at: https://balkaninsight.com/2020/11/02/trump-and- Consumption”, Radio Free Europe, available availableat: https://www.rferl.org/a/macedonia-s-fake-news-exports-now-f at: https://www.rferl.org/a/macedonia-s-fake-news- or-domestic-consumption/29507388.htmlcovid-19-fuel-north-macedonias-clickbait-boom/ 99 exports-now-for-domestic-consumption/29507388.htmlDukic Simeon, (November 2, 2020), “COVID-19 Disinformation: Implications102 Ibid For Polarisation In Kumanovo”, available at: https://strongci- tiesnetwork.org/en/covid-19-disinformation-implications-for-polarisation-in-kumanovo/103 Ibid 100 See for example how this trend is developing: Hennessey Jason, (April104 22, Ibid 2020), “ 12 Surprising Examples of Clickbait Headlines That Work”, Search Engine Journal, available at: https://www.searchenginejournal.com/12-surprising-examples-of-clickbait-head- lines-that-work/362688/#close 101 Cvetkovska Saska, (November 2, 2020), “ Trump and COVID-19 Fuel North Macedonia’s Clickbait Boom”, Balkan Insight, available at: https://balkaninsight.com/2020/11/02/trump-and-covid-19-fuel-north-macedonias-clickbait-boom/ 26 102 Ibid Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Macedonian journalist Lila Karjlieva, she and context this morally questionable practice coworkers received sources on a daily bases, becomes a national security concern.106 mostly Serbian tabloids like “Kurir”, “Informer”, “Blic” and others, with a task to camouflage the On a conference dedicated to tackling hybrid content’s source spiced it with clickbait headlines threats, the Minister of defense, Radmila and post it on the Macedonian website.103She Shekerinska Jankovska underlined that the claimed, that they “had a quota, like 50 articles in ”hybrid threats are present through the influence an eight-hour period”, which “was so easy”.104 Even of information with black propaganda”, which though this may look like a legitimate business weakens the state logistics in important political the harmful influence of disinformation spread processes and denigrating the institutions”.107 is beyond just the purely economic and ethical This recognition and the call for unity, however, dilemmas. did not prevent the alleged influence against public opinion and the negative results on the Much of the underlying social media infrastructure referendum that followed. Namely, during his promoting disinformation in North Macedonia is visit before the referendum in 2018, then the US free or at least inexpensive, and therefore easy to defense secretary James Mattis, publicly called set up anonymously. The problem, however, is Russian officials for meddling in North Macedonia, three folded. First, to run a web portal one needs among others by stimulating disinformation. money. To pay for the clickbait, regardless of According to The New York Times, referring the cheap labor, one needs money too. Second, to Russians, Mattis underlined that “they have the source of the money is usually opaque, transferred money and they’re also conducting possibly fake advertising which raises the alarm broader influence campaigns”.108 and concerns of economic fraud.105 It instigates economic crime allegations and money laundering Another looming concern with online mis-, dis-, or other illegal activities behind. Aside from and mal-information in North Macedonia is violent consumers' deception and influence (allegedly radicalization that leads to extremism among the economic crime) put in the political/geopolitical youth.
3.2.3. From mis-, dis- and mal-information and manipulation to online radicalization
The EU-supported research study under the project different forum groups, malicious actors exploit “Passage4prevent: use of education to prevent youth youth online illiteracy and create lucrative content to online radicalization”, in which C3I authors were purposefully manipulate the audience and produce involved, found that mis-, dis-, and mal-information intended impact. The study also found that video are the main methods to attract, manipulate and materials and gaming, along with the disinformation- radicalize youth in North Macedonia. Using social promoting web portals generally funded from outside media, but also web pages and chat rooms on the country making disinformation, semi-truths, or
105 See for example: The U.S. Embassy in North Macedo- http://www.mod.gov.mk/?mainnews=ministerkata-sekerins- 103 nia,Ibid (March 9, 2020), “Remarks of Ambassador Byrnes at ka-od-megunarodnata-konferencija-rabotime-zaedno-pro- 104 “TheIbid Harmful Influence of Disinformation“, available at: tiv-hibridnite-zakani-demokratijata-meguetnickite-odnosi-i- 105 https://mk.usembassy.gov/remarks-of-ambassador-bySee for example: The U.S. Embassy in North Macedonia,- (March 9, 2020),clenstvoto-vo-nato-i-eu-ja-jaknat-dr&lang=en “Remarks of Ambassador Byrnes at “The Harmful Influence of Disinformation“,rnes-at-the-harmful-influence-of-disinformation/ available at: https://mk.usembassy.gov/remarks-of-ambassador-byrnes-at-the-harmful-influence-of-disinformation 108 Santora Marc & Barnes E. Julian, (September 16, 2018), “In / 106 SeeSee forfor example:example: the Balkans, Russia and the West Fight a Disinformation-Age 107 MinistryMinistry ofof Defence,Defence, (September(September 12,12, 2018),2018), “Minister“Minister ShekShekerins- ka from theBattle”, International The New Conference York Times, “We available are working at: https://www.nytimes. together against hybriderinska threats”: from the Democracy, International interethnic Conference relations “We are and working membershi p in NATOcom/2018/09/16/world/europe/macedonia-referendum-rus and the EU are strengthening the country in dealing with - hybridtogether threats”, against available hybrid threats”: at: http://www.mod.gov.mk/?mainnews=ministerkata-sekerinska-od-megunarodnata-konferencija-rabo Democracy, interethnic sia-nato.html - time-zaedno-protiv-hibridnite-zakani-demokratijata-meguetnickitrelations and membership in NATO and the EU are strength- e-odnosi-i-clenstvoto-vo-nato-i-eu-ja-jaknat-dr&lang=en 108 eningSantora the Marc country & Barnes in dealing E. Julian, with (Septemberhybrid threats”, 16, 2018),available “In at:the Balkans, Russia and the West Fight a Disinformation-Age Battle”, The New York Times, available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/16/world/europe/macedonia-referendum-russia-nato.html
27 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
biased information look reliable and credible.109 so that he/she/they can affiliate (i.e. is/are being indoctrinated) with the need for some fundamental While in recent years the attention in the Republic change or solving some problem by using violent of North Macedonia has been fixated primarily means (methods). The indoctrination process often on militant Salafism and foreign fighters, new occurs through conversations (chats), persuasion, forms of extremism via the internet and modern influence, affection, or teaching organized in closed technologies have (re-)emerged. They include or isolated forums. Indoctrination’s end-state is to non-violent Salafism, ethnonational movements, purposely cause the effect of strife for change by all and a neo-anti-Western right, mostly inspired means necessary (including violence where the victim/ by malignant foreign influences. Though these target is convinced that such methods are acceptable). individuals and groups in North Macedonia The strife to change could be to change a belief, may have different agendas and objectives behavior, or a change in the means (methods) for underlying conditions including geopolitical resolving issues – resort to using violence. context as we saw during the last referendum may foster the effect of “cumulative extremism,” The online violent radicalization usually begins with or “reciprocal radicalization,” (where modern selection. Selection could be targeted and organized, technology and internet play facilitating role).110 or it could be spontaneous i.e. self-selection when The potential, independently or in concert, to disrupt one is being selected through his/her own behavior. and even prevent some of the promising stabilizing Abusing modern technologies and accustomed desired processes (EU integration) should not be social behavior (i.e. being comfortable to use modern underestimated and require a proper approach. communication technologies and applications as conventional communication in the physical world),111 The process of online violent radicalization via malicious individuals and groups have migrated Macedonian cyberspace, as elsewhere, varies. Giving online and have utilized certain methods to that this process is a person (target)-tailored it may accomplish their goals. There are several ways follow specific patterns and dynamics or it can be how malicious groups and individuals can collect sporadic and unique. Although there is no default personal data from Macedonian citizens via the model of how online radicalization occurs, experts net. This may include: and academics agree that violent radicalization usually follows a specific pattern. This can also be applied to Personal profile on any social applications violent online radicalization in The Republic of North platform Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube) Macedonia. and any other platform for communication and videos. The approach to collect this amount of Like the offline, online violent radicalization, as data could be either by exploiting weak online elsewhere through the internet and social media profile protection or as simple as a random occur through recruitment and indoctrination. During friendship request on Facebook. Different the recruitment process those who radicalize try to methods to identify prey may include certain select/attract and isolate an individual (or a group) hashtags on a social media post, etc.
109 The Policy recommendations and the study itself has passed Balkans”, Research Report, Berghof Foundation, available at: the last reading prove procedures from the EU and Hedayah https://www.berghof-foundation.org/fileadmin/redaktion/ 109 The Policy recommendations and the study itself has passed the last reading prove procedures from the EU and Hedayah as sup- as supporters of the research and will be published soon. Publications/Other_Resources/WB_PVE/CTR_PVE_WesternBal- porters of the research and will be published soon. The research/recommedantions were part of the Project “Passage4prevent: use of The research/recommedantions were part of the Project kans_Research_Report.pdf education to prevent youth online radicalization”, sponsored under the EU Strive for development programme. “Passage4prevent: use of education to prevent youth online 111 See for example: Postmes Tom & Brunsting Suzanne, (2002), 110 Morina Engjellushe, Austin Beatrix, Roetman Jan Tim & Dudouet Véronique, (2019), “Community Perspectives on radicalization”, sponsored under the EU Strive for development “Collective action in the age of the Internet: Mass-communica- Preventing Violent Extremism, Lessons learned from the Western Balkans”, Research Report, Berghof Foundation, available at: https://www. programme. tion and online mobilization”, Social Science Computer Review, berghof-foundation.org/fileadmin/redaktion/Publications/Other_Resources/WB_PVE/CTR_PVE_WesternBalkans_Research_Report.pdf 110 Morina Engjellushe, Austin Beatrix, Roetman Jan Tim & 20, 290-301, available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/ 111 See for example: Postmes Tom & Brunsting Suzanne, (2002), “Collective action in the age of the Internet: Mass-communi- Dudouet Véronique, (2019), “Community Perspectives on Pre- doi/10.1177/089443930202000306 cation and online mobilization”, Social Science Computer Review, 20, 290-301, available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/ venting Violent Extremism, Lessons learned from the Western doi/10.1177/089443930202000306
28 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Collecting information through web pages and in a specially designed chat room from one player to chat forums. Very often people with malicious another and as such create the perfect opportunity intentions have well-organized websites that are for predators. For example, hiding behind a game attractive and filled with content intended for character to generate a discussion within the form certain groups.112 Information on these websites of hate speech, which in turn can easily get used as could be true, partly true, and completely a form of aggression against groups/individuals false.113 Websites or chat forums may or may from the physical world.116 Some studies claim that not be linked to the content that is the ultimate video games can stimulate violence among youth.117 goal. These sites often feature content that is According to some statistics, young people in our prepared in advance to test the potential victim.114 country prefer to play online, and 38% use the The collectors know how to measure individual internet to play and download games, which is reactions to certain content and to form a strategy well above the European average of 34%.118 for approaching the identified target based on that. Understanding the above-mentioned points with reference to the selection process, once Collecting information by watching video predators have located the target, those content. Like with the other techniques for behavior who abuse social media communication monitoring, online predators for victims suitable for (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Snapchat, violent radicalization can exploit a person’s browsing YouTube, etc.) and the internet, move to the next history for data collection. Most platforms have phase of recruitment-approach and isolation. appropriate algorithms - programs that select what are you seeing on them. Videos have views, as well Recruiters usually are skillful in estimating as the ability to see who's watching them. One can when it is the right time to approach the selected be very easily spotted if he/she watches videos that target and how to establish communication. Initial have content intended for violent radicalization/self- communications are usually sporadic and well- radicalization. Even though well indented some social intentioned. The goal at this stage is to develop applications’ futures are user-friendly. For example, or encourage different affiliations and gain YouTube has developed guidelines on how to design a confidence.119 Very often that affiliation can be video based on the profile/habits of desired viewers or general, to a movement or group that needs to followers. It is very easy for predators to replicate this build a common motto and develop the same method to achieve their goal.115 objective. This means that "person" and "the group-or the future team" online can establish Games. Games are another way predators can special relations due to allegedly similar interests, access personal information. Modern video games habits, experiences, views, opinions, and attitudes. and downloaded gaming apps allow communication
112 Weimann Gabriel, (2015) “Terrorism in Cyberspace: The 116 Selepak, Andrew, (2010), “Skinhead Super Mario Brothers: An Next Generation”, New York, NY: Columbia University Press/ Examination of Racist and Violent Games on White Suprem- 112 Washington,Weimann Gabriel, DC: Woodrow (2015) “Terrorism Wilson Center in Cyberspace: Press, ISBN: 978-0- The Next Generation”,acist New Web York, Sites” NY: Journal Columbia of Criminal University Justice Press/Washington, & Popular Culture, DC: 231704496.Woodrow Wilson Center Press, ISBN: 978-0-231704496. 17(1), 1-47, available at: https://www.semanticscholar.org/ 113 SeveralSeveral independentindependent researchersresearchers confirmconfirm this,this, seesee forfor examexample:- Brachmanpaper/Skinhead-Super-Mario-Brothers%3A-An-Examina Jarret and Levine Alex, (April 13, 2011), “The World of Holy- ple:Warcraft”, Brachman Foreign Jarret Policy, and availableLevine Alex, at: http://foreignpolicy.c(April 13, 2011), “The om/2011/04/13/the-world-ofholy-warcraft/;tion-of-on-Selepak/581e60a66b63bd58853d9cffb9304fb or see: Behr Ines Von, Reding- WorldAnaïs, Edwardsof Holy Warcraft”, Charlie & Foreign Gribbon Policy, Luke, available(2013); or: at: Sageman http:// Martin, (2008),81f25314e “Leaderless Jihad”, University of Pennsylvania Press 114 foreignpolicy.com/2011/04/13/the-world-ofholy-warcraft/;Busher Joel (2015), “What part do social networks play in radi or calisation?”,117 HasanRadicalisationResearch, Youssef, Bègue Laurent, available Scharkow at: http://www. Michael,radicalisation & Bushman- see:research.org/debate/busher-social-networks/ Behr Ines Von, Reding Anaïs, Edwards Charlie & Gribbon J. Brad (2013), “The more you play, the more aggressive you 115 Luke,See more (2013); at or:YouTube Sageman Creator Martin, Academy, (2008), accessed“Leaderless at: Jihad”,https://creatoracademy.youtube.com/page/lesson/discoverability-analytics become: A long-term experimental study of cumulative violent 116 UniversitySelepak, Andrew, of Pennsylvania (2010), “Skinhead Press Super Mario Brothers: An Examinationvideo of Racist game and effects Violent on hostile Games expectations on White Supremacist and aggressive Web 114 Sites”Busher Journal Joel (2015), of Criminal “What Justice part do & social Popular networks Culture, play 17(1), in rad1-47,- available at:behavior, https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Skinhea Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,d-Su 49(2),- icalisation?”,per-Mario-Brothers%3A-An-Examination-of-on-Selepak/581e60a66b63 RadicalisationResearch, available at: http://www. bd58853d9cffb9304fb81f25314e224-227, available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ 117 radicalisationresearch.org/debate/busher-social-networks/Hasan Youssef, Bègue Laurent, Scharkow Michael, & Bushman J. Brad (2013),article/abs/pii/S0022103112002259 “The more you play, the more aggressive you become: 115 ASee long-term more at experimentalYouTube Creator study Academy, of cumulative accessed violent at: https://video game effects118 Игорon hostile Петровски, expectations (Јуни 29,and 2018), aggressive „Младите behavior, и интернетот“, Journal of creatoracademy.youtube.com/page/lesson/discoverability-anExperimental Social Psychology, 49(2), 224-227, available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S00221031- Капитал 12002259 118 alyticsИгор Петровски, (Јуни 29, 2018), „Младите и интернетот“, Капитал119 Weimann Gabriel, (2015) 119 Weimann Gabriel, (2015)
29 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Much of these allegedly similarities are preset process through the isolation to indoctrination. It can and tailored based on the profiling process. be a lengthy process, but it can also happen quickly. More often, during this period well-organized This process is done through manipulation - the belief representatives of malicious groups present that something that needs to be changed must be themselves as members who share similar views done, even forcibly. Manipulation aims to produce with you, and thus latently invest in confidence distortion and abuse of beliefs, political ideologies, in “the room” – (chat room). The ultimate goal at and ethnic and cultural differences (attracting simple this stage is to create a bond. For this purpose, global views that divide the world into "us versus they create closed chat-rooms. This is when the them"), thus urging the victims to seek answers122. isolation starts. Phrases like "us", "we", "together" and "our" are used to enhance belonging, compensate for To advance in this stage (isolation) the victim may misfortunes and tragedies and encourage tailored receive an exclusive offer. An example could be behavior through inflicted loyalty, and the quest a proposal for certain privileges, i.e. to become a for “thrill and adventure", "power and control" member of the "special ones". Initially, a closed - to substitute and compensate real for the virtual group is focused on building confidence and trust world123. Based on profiling in the isolated group which is why the topics are usually general120. during the indoctrination target can express Another method to isolate the target could be themselves, feel emotionally comfortable, and entrance by recommendation in selected or special protected. These groups create a circle of trust groups where all the "hot topics" occur. These topics and when the victim feels safe he/she is ready to and “exclusive information” are only for the chosen be implanted with the behavior that previously one. Discussions deliberately prepared may was forbidden or strange124. Resort to violence usually include topics such as rioting, changing the often becomes a moral justification against all system, and hate speech against those who are odds that have put the victim on the opposite pole different. In general, closed groups have rules based of the polarized spectrum in the society. on the “members only” principles. The goal at this stage is to gain a sense of belonging and the victim Practice shows that the whole process to feel equal to the others. Earning trust may also described above may happen through "self- include compensation. A person (victim of the online radicalization"125. As mentioned earlier pre- violent radicalization) may be asked for a service (to do prepared manipulative websites (full of mis-, dis-, something) for which he/she will be rewarded. Once and mal-information) can be found on the internet the trust is gained, the process of building a shared which use written texts, videos, and music to identity – indoctrination begins121. distort the facts and exert influence toward violent radicalization or violent self-radicalization. This is During the indoctrination phase, certain wording and when a random victim reads literature, forums, and phrases dominate isolated chat-rooms to encourage blogs from suspicious sources or you stream videos, a general position on concrete issues. There is no audio recordings, or songs with content that has the rule about how much time passes from the selection purpose to violently radicalize.
120 Weimann, Gabriel, (2010), “Terror on Facebook, Twitter, the Western Balkans. The Atlantic Initiative, p. 17, available at: 120 Weimann, Gabriel, (2010), “Terror on Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube”, Brown Journal of World Affairs, 16(2), 45-54, available at: http:// and YouTube”, Brown Journal of World Affairs, 16(2), 45-54, http://www.atlantskainicijativa.org/bos/images/BETWEEN_SAL- bjwa.brown.edu/16-2/terror-on-facebook-twitter-and-youtube/ available at: http://bjwa.brown.edu/16-2/terror-on-facebook- VATION_AND_TERROR/BetweenSal vationAndTerror.pdf 121 Some have called this process “identity fusion”, see: Swann William Jr. & Buhrmester D, Michael (2015), “Identity Fusion”, Psychological twitter-and-youtube/ 124 In UNESCO’s Manual, these factors are singled out as pull fac- Science, Vol. 24(1) 52–57, available at: https://labs.la.utexas.edu/swann/files/2016/03/52-57.pdf 121 Some have called this process “identity fusion”, see: Swann tors. See more in UNESCO, (2017), “Preventing violent extrem- 122 Ibid. William Jr. & Buhrmester D, Michael (2015), “Identity Fusion”, ism through education: a guide for policy-makers”, available at: 123 In the 2017 Atlantic Initiative research, the so-called human touch is always identified as the beginning of the radicalization, in the Psychological Science, Vol. 24(1) 52–57, available at: https:// https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000247764 edition of Azinovic, V (ed) (2017). “Between Salvation and Terror: Radicalisation and the Foreign Fighter Phenomenon in the Western labs.la.utexas.edu/swann/files/2016/03/52-57.pdf 125 More about this can be found in: Sageman Martin (2008), Balkans. The Atlantic Initiative, p. 17, available at: http://www.atlantskainicijativa.org/bos/images/BETWEEN_SALVATION_AND_TERROR/ 122 Ibid. “Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century”, BetweenSal vationAndTerror.pdf 123 In the 2017 Atlantic Initiative research, the so-called human Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 124 In UNESCO’s Manual, these factors are singled out as pull factors. See more in UNESCO, (2017), “Preventing violent extremism through touch is always identified as the beginning of the radicalization, education: a guide for policy-makers”, available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000247764 in the edition of Azinovic, V (ed) (2017). “Between Salvation and 125 More about this can be found in: Sageman Martin (2008), “Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century”, Philadelphia: Terror: Radicalisation and the Foreign Fighter Phenomenon in University of Pennsylvania Press
30 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
What lies beneath the negative impact of ICT and social media on Macedonian youth and why mis, dis-, and mal-information is a growing trend?
31 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
What lies beneath the negative impact of ICT and social media on Macedonian youth and why mis-, dis-, and mal- information is a growing trend?
Modern ICT and social media (and this is especially practice in real-time between trusted peers where any true during the COVI-19) have created new piece of information is far less likely to be challenged ecosystems in North Macedonia changing the way (please also see more general as we explained on this we leave. Modern technologies have influenced in 2.1., but also in 3.2.). the way people communicate, interact, learn, work, receive information, express political opinions, These new trends, however, as the above and many or pursue wellbeing. As the statistics provided by other discussions have shown, are mostly utilized by DataReportal showed (please see above) the trend of the youth as a progressive force in society. Although using the internet, ICT, and social media is growing. mis-, dis-, and mal-information are a disease for the Nevertheless, the growing technological boom in the whole society the Macedonian youth seems to be country has not been matched by a parallel focus on the most vulnerable group. Now, through devices, secure and safe exploitation. youth is directly accessible at any time of day by peers, corporations, and even by state proxies and extremist In addition to the general society online illiteracy, there recruiters and predators. In fact, the analysis above are other factors that make fertile ground for the showed that most of the Macedonian citizens involved negative impact of ICT and social media and especially in mis-, dis-, and mal-information (either as the for the spread of disinformation, and fake news. disseminator or as a target) are young people chasing Widely accessible, cheap, and sophisticated editing opportunities. and publishing technology have made it easier than ever for anyone to create and distribute content via While these trends have generally couth the Macedonian cyberspace and active social platforms. Government and relevant national stakeholders’ Social media has also changed the way information and partners states’ and organizations’ attention the is consumed. Social media has turned information deliberate and politically motivated disinformation consumption from private to public. The speed at campaigns, often centerstage in Macedonian media, which the information/mis-, dis-, and mal-information are drastically shaping public perceptions and policy. are distributed has changed too. Utilizing established The well-intended efforts to address mis-, dis-, and practice by credible media industry of 24/7 cycle of mal-information via Macedonian cyberspace, without information the mis-, dis-, and mal-information farms systematic content, however, have caused another have the ability to bombard generally digital illiterate concerning effect, i.e., the general distrust of news. As Macedonian population and exploit on sensationalist a result, this effect (distrust of news) has contributed (clickbait) rhetoric and content. Moreover, those who to widespread cynicism and a growing belief that produce these news count on the information-sharing nothing is true. Moreover, addressing the
32 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
consequences of mis-, dis-, and mal-information into the official Government’s strategic and policy political elites in North Macedonia (as elsewhere) have approach to the issue. This part will be an add-on underlined and in some cases excerpt the ideological to the field research focusing on the education context. Both ruling and opposition political elites have system’s stakeholders’ (high school’s workers, tried to spin the context of addressing mis-, dis-, and students, parents) awareness and readiness to mal-information dividing the general public further, comprehend the threats from ICT and social both ideologically and on the mere acceptance of the media. Moreover, the analysis that follows is also fact, providing credence to ideological claims of “fake based on the conclusions (and thus represent a news.”126 These consequential effects are a danger compilation) from the contextual webinar debate to our society, and most of all, to developing with the relevant stakeholders on the issue. children and youth who are learning to discern what is real and true, and how to behave as engaged citizens, responsible consumers, healthy individuals, and informed creators of content.
In order to assess the Government’s and other relevant stakeholders' readiness to address the negative effects of ICT and social applications to Macedonian youth, our analysis will dig deep
126 See for example findings of a Stanford based study: Cable Jack, Isabella Garcia-Camargo, Renée Diresta, (October 13, 2020), “A Look Into Viral North Macedonian Content Farms”, available at: https://www.eipartnership.net/rapid-response/north-macedo- nian-content-farms; Also see: Synovitz Ron, Mitevska Maria, (October 22, 2020), “ ‘Fake News’ Sites In North Macedonia Pose As American Conservatives Ahead Of U.S. Election”, Radio Free Europe, available at: https://www.rferl.org/a/macedo- nia-fake-news-sites-us-election-conservatives/30906884.html
33 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Assessment of the strategic, legislative and relevant stakeholders’ readiness to address the threat streaming from ICT and social application to Macedonian youth
34 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Assessment of the strategic, legislative and relevant stakeholders’ readiness to address the threat streaming from ICT and social application to Macedonian youth
Several investigative reports, but also incidents, of State and the U.S. private sector, in a indicate that there is a growing threat to Macedonian Government’s Country Security Report for North youth streaming from ICT and social media Macedonia observed that cybercrime in North applications. After police action the Cell in 2015, Macedonia continues to be a concern.130 According allegedly an Islamic-based organization hacked to the report, cybercriminals use spam and government websites.127 During the opening phishing e-mails to compromise online accounts ceremony of the Regional School on Security 2019 and steal personal information. The report also in Skopje, Bulgarian university professor Tatyana claims that in 2019, North Macedonia had 156 Dronzina claimed that Macedonia has been targeted documented cybercrime offenses, with damage by Russian cyber-threats from centers based in and illegal access to computer systems being Bulgaria.”128 These attacks according to her took the most common (60 cases). The government, place “During the elections in North Macedonia”, according to these data, brought 26 criminal when “centers of Russian intelligence based in cases against individuals who used computers to Bulgaria conducted several cyber-operations against distribute racist or xenophobic material. Alarming, North Macedonia”129 nevertheless, is that “In total, cyber-related crimes in North Macedonia increased by 70% compared The U.S. Overseas Security Advisory Council to 2018”.131 (OSAC), a joint venture between the Department
127 Vjesti, (2015), (Macedonian websites hacked” (Original in 131 Ibid; Giving that for the purpose of this report, we have con- Croatian: “Hakovani sajtovi makedonskih institucija”), Available tacted some of the participants involved in the preparation of at: https://www.vijesti.me/svijet/balkan/168775/hakovani-sa- the National Cyber security strategy it is worth to mention that jtovi-makedonskih-institucija their view about this story claims have some logical explana- 128 Skopje Diem, (October 7, 2019), “Dronzina: North Macedonia tion that provides slide different perception for the outcome Was Target of Russian Cyber-threats”, available at: https:// and is worth mentioning. Namely, according to the experts, 127 skopjediem.com/2019/10/07/dronzina-north-macedonia-was-Vjesti, (2015), (Macedonian websites hacked” (Original in Croatian: “Hakovaniwe interviewed sajtovi makedonskih the reason institucija”), for Councils’ Available slow reaction at: https:// lays in target-of-russian-cyber-threats/www.vijesti.me/svijet/balkan/168775/hakovani-sajtovi-makedonskih-institucijathe current elections, and the effects caused by COVI-19. As 129128 IbidSkopje Diem, (October 7, 2019), “Dronzina: North Macedonia Was Targetthe of Russian experts Cyber-threats”,underlined, though available the Council at: https://skopje is not activediem. some 130 com/2019/10/07/dronzina-north-macedonia-was-target-of-russian-cOverseas Security Advisory Council (OSAC), (July 14, 2020), yber-threats/consultations are ongoing. 129 “NorthIbid Macedonia 2020 Crime & Safety Report”, available at: 130 https://www.osac.gov/Country/NorthMacedonia/Content/DeOverseas Security Advisory Council (OSAC), (July 14, 2020), “N-orth Macedonia 2020 Crime & Safety Report”, available at: https://www. tail/Report/4c2842d7-0569-4811-8e69-192b0f314190osac.gov/Country/NorthMacedonia/Content/Detail/Report/4c2842d7-0569-4811-8e69-192b0f314190 131 Ibid; Giving that for the purpose of this report, we have contacted some of the participants involved in the preparation of the National Cyber security strategy it is worth to mention that their view about this story claims have some logical explanation that provides slide different perception for the outcome and is worth mentioning. Namely, according to the experts, we interviewed the reason for Coun- cils’ slow reaction lays in the current elections, and the effects caused by COVI-19. As the experts underlined, though the Council is not active some consultations are ongoing.
35 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Our research showed that Government officials community.134 This trend, nevertheless, was have sufficient awareness about the threat and that changed recently by the Agency for Audio and they have a certain level of commitment to address Audiovisual Media Services (AAAMS), which these threats. Following the EU and UNESCO efforts according to the official documents is responsible to promote MIL,132 different government authorities for the development and promotion of media have accepted this framework and have, therefore, literacy and safe use of new media. Namely, the strived to address them in different ways. joint project between the EU and the Council of Europe titled “Reinforcing Judicial Expertise on The Republic of North Macedonia has no specific Freedom of Expression and the Media in South- strategy for MIL. Instead, certain provisions across East Europe”, in 2019, supported the AAAMS the relevant laws or bylaws refer, imply, or promote in promoting strategic framework and policy elements of MIL, that is ML. Such provisions, for for ML in the Republic of North Macedonia.135 example, are the freedom of expression and media The new Media literacy Policy is supposed to freedom, ethical behavior of journalists and editors, drive the process forward, especially after the protection of children from inappropriate content, and Program for Promoting Media Literacy in the protection of the public. On the other hand, instead of Republic of Macedonia 2016-2018.136 Engaging IL, Government authorities have used the term digital both stakeholders and citizens alike, the new literacy in a variety of national documents, legislation, policy predicts activities compiled under specific and regulations.133 In all of these addressing Programme that for the first time aim at nevertheless, the main focus is on building fighting phenomena such as disinformation and populace (including youth - through elementary propaganda, cyberbullying, and surveillance and and high schools) capacities to comprehend enable better use of technology.137 According to ICT and to increase own efficiency and work the document, the Agency should contribute to productivity by using ICT. citizens’ understanding of media literacy and increase its visibility and recognition (raising awareness); Unlike IL, which has mostly been in the cooperate with international organizations, national governmental focus, ML was a focus and was ministries, and other stakeholders by means of largely developed by the journalist and CSO networking,consultations, and reports (cooperation
132 UNESCO, (2013), “Media and Information Literacy Policy & where among others, “Raise the level of digital literacy of Strategy Guidelines”, available: http://www.unesco.org/new/ citizens by means of trainings” is one of the projected activity., en/communication-and-information/media-development/me- available at: https://mioa.gov.mk/?q=en/node/3152 dia-literacy/developing-mil-policy-and-strategy/; Also see about 134 European Commission, (November 29, 2019), “6.8 Media liter- 132 UNESCO, (2013), “Media and Information Literacy Policy & Strategy Guidelines”, available: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communi- Joint efforts with the EU underlined during the 2015 Forum acy and safe use of new media, Republic of North Macedonia”, cation-and-information/media-development/media-literacy/developing-mil-policy-and-strategy/; Also see about Joint efforts with the that followed the First European Media and Information Liter- EACEA National Policies Platform, available at: https://eacea. EU underlined during the 2015 Forum that followed the First European Media and Information Literacy Forum (EU-MILINFO) held in acy Forum (EU-MILINFO) held in 2014. The usefulness and de- ec.europa.eu/national-policies/en/content/youthwiki/68-me- 2014. The usefulness and desire for a collective ownership EMELINFO was reiterated in the First Coordination Meeting of the European sire for a collective ownership EMELINFO was reiterated in the dia-literacy-and-safe-use-new-media-former-yugoslav-repub- Sub-Chapter of the UNESCO-initiated Global Alliance for Partnerships on Media and Information Literacy held on 8 and 9 October First Coordination Meeting of the European Sub-Chapter of the lic-macedonia#_ftn2 2015., more information available at: UNESCO, (2015), “ Second European Media and Information Literacy Forum”, available at: http:// UNESCO-initiated Global Alliance for Partnerships on Media 135 Agency For Audio And Audiovisual Media Services, (March www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/media-development/media-literacy/global-alliance-for-partnerships-on-me- and Information Literacy held on 8 and 9 October 2015., more 2019), “Media Literacy Policy”, available at: http://mediumska- dia-and-information-literacy/second-european-media-and-information-literacy-forum/ information available at: UNESCO, (2015), “ Second European pismenost.mk/media/2019/04/Media-Literacy-policy_on- 133 See for example Ministry of Information Society (December 21, 2017), “ Digital Literacy Promotion Project in the Republic of Macedo- Media and Information Literacy Forum”, available at: http:// line-version.pdf nia - National MOS (Microsoft Office Specialist)”, available at: http://arhiva.mioa.gov.mk/?q=node/4534; Also see Ministry of Information www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/ 136 Agency For Audio And Audiovisual Media Services, (2017), Society, (October 22, 2020), “ “Signed Memorandum of Cooperation Between MISA and MASIT”, where among others, “Raise the level of media-development/media-literacy/global-alliance-for-part- “Programme for Promoting Media Literacy in the Republic digital literacy of citizens by means of trainings” is one of the projected activity., available at: https://mioa.gov.mk/?q=en/node/3152 nerships-on-media-and-information-literacy/second-europe- of Macedonia, available at: http://mediumskapismenost.mk/ 134 European Commission, (November 29, 2019), “6.8 Media literacy and safe use of new media, Republic of North Macedonia”, an-media-and-information-literacy-forum/ media/2017/12/Programme_for_Promoting_Media_Literacy. EACEA National Policies Platform, available at: https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-policies/en/content/youthwiki/68-media-litera- 133 See for example Ministry of Information Society (December pdf cy-and-safe-use-new-media-former-yugoslav-republic-macedonia#_ftn2 21, 2017), “ Digital Literacy Promotion Project in the Republic 137 Agency For Audio And Audiovisual Media Services, (March 135 Agency For Audio And Audiovisual Media Services, (March 2019), “Media Literacy Policy”, available at: http://mediumskapismenost.mk/ of Macedonia - National MOS (Microsoft Office Specialist)”, 2019) media/2019/04/Media-Literacy-policy_online-version.pdf available at: http://arhiva.mioa.gov.mk/?q=node/4534; Also see 136 Agency For Audio And Audiovisual Media Services, (2017), “Programme for Promoting Media Literacy in the Republic of Macedonia, Ministry of Information Society, (October 22, 2020), “ “Signed available at: http://mediumskapismenost.mk/media/2017/12/Programme_for_Promoting_Media_Literacy.pdf Memorandum of Cooperation Between MISA and MASIT”, 137 Agency For Audio And Audiovisual Media Services, (March 2019)
36 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
and consultations); improve the conditions for countering disinformation could be exclusive civic and democratic participation, including strategic and organizational responsibility in 2019 the incorporating media literacy and its inspiring Government has announced its own plan to tackle principles in national related policy and strategies, the disinformation. Namely, after being marked as including media freedom and pluralism (policy and a “fake news capital”, the Government announced trends).138 In March 2019 the AAAMS adopted the that is working on an “Action Plan for managing new Regulatory Strategy for the Development of disinformation on a systemic level”.143 The objective, Audio and Audiovisual Media Activity 2019-2023.139 according to the official who announced the The Strategy covers several areas, including media information, is “to enhance the national security literacy. and safety of our citizens while defending and advancing democracy”.144 This Proposed Action The Report for the work of the AAAMS for 2017 plan is a compilation of processes, projects, stipulates that the Agency strived to promote measures, and recommendations for fighting media literacy and therefore accomplished a set disinformation, prepared as a result of the of activities.140 One of the achievements worth measures of the European Commission, NATO mentioning is the “Media Literacy Network of Information and Communications Agency, as well the Republic of North Macedonia”, which has 35 as the Committee of Experts on Quality Journalism founding members ministries, state institutions, within the Council of Europe. The proposed action higher education institutions, civic associations, plan, however, as it was reported then, supposed and organizations).141 According to the official to be discussed within the institutions and report, AAAMS with some of the members of the become a subject to consultations with the civic Network promoted educational material on media sector, media, and various stakeholders within literacy for primary schools in the country; finalized the society, including the strategic partners of the the development of a separate web page dedicated Republic of North Macedonia, in order to refine it solely to media literacy; print a leaflet which explicitly to its final version.145 explains the basic principles of media literacy; adapted and promoted a video clip from EAVI for While these and similar efforts remain valuable raising awareness about media literacy, etc. 142 as ever and demonstrate clear Government’s commitment to take the lead in addressing this While analyzing the work of the AAAMS one could problem our research has identified two other develop an understanding that ML including challenges.
138 Ibid original/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88% 138139 AgencyIbid For Audio And Audiovisual Media Services, (March D0%B5%D0%BD-%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5 139 2019)Agency Regulatory For Audio Strategy And Audiovisual for the Development Media Services, of Audio (March and 2019) %D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%98-%D0%B7%D0%B0- RegulatoryAudiovisual Strategy Media for the Activity Development 2019-2023” of (Original:Audio and Регулаторна Audiovisual Media Activity%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82% 2019-2023” (Original: Регулаторна стратегија- за развој на аудиостратегија и аудиовизуелната за развој на аудио медиумска и аудиовизуелната дејност 2019-2023) медиумска Available at: https://avmu.mk/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/%D0%A0%D0%D0%B0-%D0%BD%D0%B0- B5%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%дејност 2019-2023) Available at: https://avmu.mk/wp-content/ %D0%90%D0%92%D0%9C%D0%A3-%D0%B7%D0%B0-D0%B0-%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0 %B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0-%D0%B7%D0%B0-%D0%BF%D0%uploads/2019/03/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%B- 2017-%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0.B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4% D0%BE%D1%82-%D0%BE%D0%B4-2019-%D0%B4%D0%BE-2023-%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0B%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1 pdf?1535034532%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0.pdf 140 %82%D0%B0-%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%DReport on the work of the Agency for Audio and Audiovisual Media141 Services Ibid for 2017, Agency for Audio and Audiovisual Media Services,0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0-%D0%B7%D0%B0- (March, 2018) p.6 https://cdn.epra.org/organizations/second_documents/54/original/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0142 Ibid %B8%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD-%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0% 143 Government of the Republic0%D1%98-%D0%B7%D0%B0- of North Maceodnia, (July %D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%90%D0%92%BE%D1%82-%D0%BE%D0%B4-2019-%D0%B4%D0%BE-2023- 24, 2019), “Proposed PlanD0%9C%D0%A3-%D0%B7%D0%B0-2017- for Resolute Action against the %D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0.pdf?1535034532%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0.pdf Spreading of Disinformation”, available at: https://vlada.mk/ 141140 ReportIbid on the work of the Agency for Audio and Audio- node/18641?ln=en-gb 142 visualIbid Media Services for 2017, Agency for Audio and 144 Ibid 143 AudiovisualGovernment Media of the Services, Republic (March, of North 2018) Maceodnia, p.6 https:// (July 24, 2019), “Proposed145 Ibid Plan for Resolute Action against the Spreading of Disinfor- mation”,cdn.epra.org/organizations/second_documents/54/ available at: https://vlada.mk/node/18641?ln=en-gb 144 Ibid 145 ibid
37 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
First, there is a conceptual challenge (lack of a of pupils (and all learners), “thus promoting critical framework that will converge media and informational thinkers, active and relevant participants in social literacy). Second, there is no systematic approach life”, there is no separate study program for ML in raising awareness and/or building capacities that is taught in schools.147 To be fair, our research to sustain, counter, and mitigate negative effects showed that certain segments of the media (their from ICT and social media applications that exploit characteristics, differences between false and real Macedonian youth’s vulnerability. Put differently, news, as well as education for recognizing information there is no logical operationalization of the strategic sources and assessing their quality) are present in the documents and action plans. curriculum on the subject Civic Education in Primary and Secondary Education. However, the total number Concerning the first challenge, it is worth mentioning of classes where these topics are discussed is almost that recent AAAMS and Government strategic negligible, which makes it difficult to talk about the documents try to converge the ML and IL. From most acquisition of comprehensive knowledge in this field. of the past and the current work, one could get a feeling that ML competencies are the stronger side The second challenge in the context of IL is even of the AAAMS and the Government and IL is not. more complex. Different areas identified as a source Nevertheless, without concrete actions that could be of threat vectors to the youth streaming from ICT evaluated, it is not clear whether or not the designated and social media applications are not addressed authorities to tackle the challenge of the threats by the single authority. Though AAAMS and to a streaming from ICT and social applications have the certain degree the Government claim to invest in capacities to promote and sustain MIL in full mode safety, online harassment competencies, and to (ML plus IL). a certain degree spread of disinformation148 are competences of the Ministry of Interior. Online The second challenge is evident in the context of radicalization is even a bigger problem because ML and IL. Though AAAMS has recognized that ML except for awareness there is no regulatory norm, needs to be promoted through the education system, conceptual and systematic framework and with and despite the numerous reforms in the curricula that, a clearly designated authority that should and subjects and their content, both in primary and approach and tackle the issue. Hence, documents secondary education there is no single document, law, such as the National Cyber Security Strategy 2018 strategy, a program for the development of education, – 2022 and National Cyber Security Action Plan in which ML is incorporated. Even in the relatively 2018-2022, or National Strategy Of The Republic new Education Strategy 2018-2025, ML as a term has Of Macedonia For Countering Violent Extremism not been mentioned at all.146 While the Strategy is should also be considered and synchronized with innovative and right on the target aiming at the the above-mentioned plans addressing ML. development of generic and core competencies
146 Ministry of Education and Science (2018), “Education Strategy 148 Ministry of Interior informed the citizens - users of social аnd Action Plan”, available at: http://mrk.mk/wp-content/up- networks not to share and spread unverified or “fake” news loads/2018/10/Strategija-za-obrazovanie-ENG-WEB-1.pdf about the Covid 19 virus, which creates anxiety and panic 147 Ibid among the citizens. abuses will be legally sanctioned because in this way the citizens are disturbed and unnecessary panic is created. There will be no compromise in sanctioning those 146 Ministry of Education and Science (2018), “Education Strategy аnd Actionwho Plan”, knowingly available spreadat: http://mrk.mk/wp-content/up false news. We appeal to the- media and loads/2018/10/Strategija-za-obrazovanie-ENG-WEB-1.pdf users of social networks to refer only to the officially published 147 Ibid data from the competent institutions. See: Blazevski Teo, (Mar 148 Ministry of Interior informed the citizens - users of social networks not to12, share 2020), and “For spread spreading unverified false or news "fake" about news “Covid about 19” the can Covid end 19 virus, which creates anxiety and panic among the citizens. abuses will beup legallyin prison”, sanctioned available because at: https://vistinomer.mk/za-shireњe- in this way the citizens are disturbed and unnecessary panic is created. There will be no compromiselazhni-vesti-za-kovid-19-mozhe-da-se-zavrshi-i-vo-zatvor/ in sanctioning those who knowingly spread false news. We appeal to the media and users of social networks to refer only to the officially published data from the competent institutions. See: Blazevski Teo, (Mar 12, 2020), “For spreading false news about "Covid 19" can end up in prison”, available at: https://vistinomer.mk/ za-shireњe-lazhni-vesti-za-kovid-19-mozhe-da-se-zavrshi-i-vo-zatvor/
38 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
The other part of this complex challenge in the On top of these challenges an Oxford independent context of IL stems from insufficient evidence study, sponsored by the World Bank, 155 further of operationalization on a strategic framework. support our findings and thesis a) about merging Namely, although there are evident government ML and IL and b) about coherent and immediate efforts that reflect the political elite’s awareness efforts to synchronize and operationalize national about the importance to address the threat efforts to address threat vectors from ICT and streaming from ICT and social media applications, social media applications that exploit Macedonian there is no publicly available evidence that will youth’s vulnerability. The study’s alarming results describe efforts to operationalize these strategic about the Country’s readiness and maturity of documents.149 cybersecurity capacity, among others, found that “the majority of Internet users ‘blindly’ trust information and An independent investigative report, published by communication technologies (ICT) and Internet services. BIRN, seems to support these claims.150 The report Participants indicated that users are mostly unaware of recognized that the political authorities have been any risks when using the Internet and assume that they agile in adopting some of the strategic documents are safe to use online services. Most users do not have the such as the National Cybersecurity Strategy,151 ability to critically assess the content they see and receive and the national cybersecurity action plan.152 online, nor the applications they use. Among the concerns However, since then, according to the report, the raised by the participants were also those cases where Government has not been active in transferring users were aware of the risks – in the cases of cybercrime, strategic framework into actions.153 While these cyberbullying and data breaches, for example – but they attacks have gradually grown, a National Council did not undertake the necessary security measures out of for Cyber Security, bringing together the ministers convenience”.156 of interior, defense, and information society (as predicted by the National cybersecurity strategy), Therefore, we believe that proposition provided in has reportedly met only once since its inception the next chapter is worth considering. (2019).154
149 Although we do not have empirical evidence for such an out- 152 Government of the Republic of Macedonia, (December, 2018), come, one reason for this might be the effect of a worldwide “Republic of North Macedonia: National Cybersecurity Action pandemic caused by COVID-19. In these regards, we have Plan 2018-2022”, noticed that almost all of the strategic documents and plans 153 Stojkovski Bojan, (May 22, 2020) mentioned in the context of our research dates from 2018. 154 Stojkovski Bojan, (July 28, 2020), “New Cyber Attacks on North Nevertheless, this assumption needs further clarification. Macedonia Spur Calls for Better Defences”, BIRN, available at: 150 Stojkovski Bojan, (May 22, 2020), “Hackers Expose Gaping https://balkaninsight.com/2020/07/28/new-cyber-attacks-on- Holes in North Macedonia’s IT Systems”, BIRN, available at: north-macedonia-spur-calls-for-better-defences/ https://balkaninsight.com/2020/05/22/hackers-expose-gaping- 155 Nagyfejeo Eva, Weisser Carolin & Griffin Matthew, (2018), holes-in-north-macedonias-it-systems/ “Cybersecurity Capacity Review FYR Macedonia 2018”, Global 151 Government of the Republic of Macedonia, (July 17, 2018), “Na- Cybersecurity Capacity Center, Oxford tional Cybersecurity strategy 2018-2022”, available at: https:// 156 Ibid, 149 Although we do not have empirical evidence for such an outcome, one reason for this might be the effect of a worldwide pandemic mioa.gov.mk/sites/default/files/pbl_files/documents/strategies/ caused by COVID-19. In these regards, we have noticed that almost all of the strategic documents and plans mentioned in the context of cyber_security_strategy_macedonia_2018-2022_-_eng.pdf our research dates from 2018. Nevertheless, this assumption needs further clarification. 150 Stojkovski Bojan, (May 22, 2020), “Hackers Expose Gaping Holes in North Macedonia’s IT Systems”, BIRN, available at: https://balkanin- sight.com/2020/05/22/hackers-expose-gaping-holes-in-north-macedonias-it-systems/ 151 Government of the Republic of Macedonia, (July 17, 2018), “National Cybersecurity strategy 2018-2022”, available at: https://mioa.gov. mk/sites/default/files/pbl_files/documents/strategies/cyber_security_strategy_macedonia_2018-2022_-_eng.pdf 152 Government of the Republic of Macedonia, (December, 2018), “Republic of North Macedonia: National Cybersecurity Action Plan 2018- 2022”, 153 Stojkovski Bojan, (May 22, 2020) 154 Stojkovski Bojan, (July 28, 2020), “New Cyber Attacks on North Macedonia Spur Calls for Better Defences”, BIRN, available at: https:// balkaninsight.com/2020/07/28/new-cyber-attacks-on-north-macedonia-spur-calls-for-better-defences/ 155 Nagyfejeo Eva, Weisser Carolin & Griffin Matthew, (2018), “Cybersecurity Capacity Review FYR Macedonia 2018”, Global Cybersecurity Capacity Center, Oxford 156 Ibid,
39 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Improving Macedonian Youth’s online literacy in the context of safety and security
40 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Improving Macedonian Youth’s online literacy in the context of safety and security
The online threat landscape urges relevant national/ Among others, one of the main efforts in building ICT local and civil society stakeholders to address and social media resilient youth is to improve youth’s challenges that undermine our youth safety, security online literacy. and privacy. Macedonian youth need to understand the consequences of using and abusing ICT and social Macedonian youth need strong literacy skills to media; understand the threat that they might get participate constructively in a pluralistic democracy involve in; critically assess the information they get or facing complex domestic, regional and global see; to make a good judgment about the content they challenges. These challenges range from a large get or see before sharing this information or decide to national debt, social stability, ethnic and religious take any action based on the information or content relations on a community and national level, they received or access (come across). Moreover, demographic dynamics up to regional disagreements, our youth need to be able to make good choices disputes and challenges such as the rise of violent about privacy, ethics, safety and verifying information extremism, hybrid threats, global warming, the digital when they’re using ICT and social media while staying transformation the proliferation of nuclear weapons digitally involved. and AI applications and systems.
Disconnecting youth from the ICT and social ICT and social media contain plenty of information media as a protectionist approach is not a choice. about these challenges. The problem, however, is that Overprotection and overregulation also might surfing through the conflicting arguments and judging cause tensions and shift the balance between which pieces of evidence hold up to scrutiny require safety and security on one hand and innovation, significant literacy skills. The nation’s ability to meet chasing opportunities, not to speak about privacy these challenges is quite likely to depend on the extent and freedoms, on the other hand toward the to which the electorate understands them. Giving that wrong end. The Government should ensure that the target audience of this study (youth 15-18) in a youth progressively acquire media and information few years will be qualified voters (and some already competencies to enable them to fully capitalize on are qualified voters) the urgency of addressing online this potential access. The best way to achieve this is to literacy is imperative. invest in ICT and social media resilient youth. The quest for a conceptual framework, guidance and Resilience, in general, is a concept that should good practices of improving online literacy among empower Macedonian youth to absorb, sustain and Macedonian youth lead to the pioneering work in the bounce back against the threat vectors coming from field. Recognizing the importance of improving media ICT and social media exploitation while preserving and literacy in general dates back to the 7th European at the same time capitalize on the positive aspects. Ministerial Conference on Mass Media Policy.157
157 TheThe 7th7th EuropeanEuropean MinisterialMinisterial ConferenceConference onon MassMass MediaMedia Policy, as seen ofin TheEurope Council Conferences, of Europe, of (2016), Ministers “European responsible Ministerial for Media Confer - encesPolicy, onas Massseen inMedia The Council Policy and of Europe, Council (2016),of Europe “European Conferences, of Ministersand Newresponsible Communication for Media Services”, and New p.46,Communication available at: Service https://s”, p.46,Ministerial available Conferences at: https://rm.coe.int/16806461fb on Mass Media Policy and Council rm.coe.int/16806461fb
41 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
In 2007 the European Commission adopted a there are no systematic efforts to develop safety Communication – A Europe an approach to media and security awareness as a part of the overall literacy in the digital environment. The document online literacy among the Macedonian youth. covers different levels of media literacy and distinguishes among “information literacy”, “digital A good starting point toward this direction is literacy”, “audio-visual literacy”, “movie literacy” to follow the UNESCO suggestion to develop a and “culturological literacy”.158 The European strategy that will address the issue. The strategy Commission Recommendation on Media Literacy should bridge the gap between policies and in Digital Environment from 2009, went a step the desired impact we want to achieve among further and argued for “intellectual and emotional the youths. Hence, the strategy that will help to understanding of the digital media”, but also improve Macedonian youth’s online literacy (in the demanded inclusion of media literacy in the context of safety and security) should address the teaching programs on all levels.159 What is also following broad strategic areas: significant was that since 2010, the EU has begun to merged media and information literacy. › Formal education (building capacities among teachers, students, librarians, policymakers, United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural researchers, administrators); Organization (UNESCO), has recognized the importance of the issue. Therefore, in 2013 › Non-formal education and continuing education UNESCO has published extensive Policy and (raising awareness among parents, caregivers, Strategy guidance on Media and Information community leaders, etc.) Literacy.160 This comprehensive Media and › Civil society in general: community Information Literacy Policy and Strategy groups, NGOs, CBOs, etc. Guidelines resource are the first of its kind to treat › Out of reach (citizens in deprived commu Media and Information Literacy as a composite nities), those without access to education or concept. The guidelines unify information literacy are illiterate and media literacy as well as considering the › Professionals – on the job training right to freedom of expression and access to information through ICTs.161 Though the UNESCO › Other stakeholders. Media and technology-re- literacy policies and strategy guidelines have a lated organizations, media regulatory bodies, wider focus than our study the document provides libraries and other memory institutions, training a framework that requires further attention and institutes, the corporate world (advertising and offers a conceptual framework for future work. its impact, corporate social responsibility), other Later, the EU joined UNESCO in promoting this partners government entities, particularly minis- concept.162 tries and other relevant organizations.
As the analysis (please see in 5.) has shown while › Integration of MIL strategies with other related there are some efforts to improve digital literacy strategies; Enabling environment (identify govern- in terms of building digital (ICT) capacities to ment policies and programmes that can promote access and use ICT in the educational process, MIL or militate against MIL)
158 The European Commission, (December 12, 2007), “A European approach to media literacy in the digital environment”, Brussels, COM(2007), available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM%3A2007%3A0833%3AFIN%3AEN%3APDF 158 The European Commission, (December 12, 2007), “A European 160 UNESCO, (2013), “Media and Information Literacy, Policy and 159 The European Commission, (August 20, 2009), “Commission Recommendation of 20 August 2009 on media literacy in the digital approach to media literacy in the digital environment”, Strategy Guidance”, available at: http://www.unesco.org/ environment for a more competitive audiovisual and content industry and an inclusive knowledge society”, OJ L 227, 29.8.2009, p. 9–12, Brussels, COM(2007), available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/ new/en/communication-and-information/resources/publi- available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32009H0625 LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM%3A2007%3A0833%3AF- cations-and-communication-materials/publications/full-list/ 160 UNESCO, (2013), “Media and Information Literacy, Policy and Strategy Guidance”, available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/com- IN%3AEN%3APDF media-and-information-literacy-policy-and-strategy-guidelines/ munication-and-information/resources/publications-and-communication-materials/publications/full-list/media-and-information-litera- 159 The European Commission, (August 20, 2009), “Commission 161 Ibid cy-policy-and-strategy-guidelines/ Recommendation of 20 August 2009 on media literacy in the 162 UNESCO, (April 5, 2019), “EU and UNESCO collaborate to 161 Ibid digital environment for a more competitive audiovisual and strengthen youth media and information literacy skills”, 162 UNESCO, (April 5, 2019), “EU and UNESCO collaborate to strengthen youth media and information literacy skills”, available at: https:// content industry and an inclusive knowledge society”, OJ L available at: https://en.unesco.org/news/eu-and-unesco-collab- en.unesco.org/news/eu-and-unesco-collaborate-strengthen-youth-media-and-information-literacy-skills-0 227, 29.8.2009, p. 9–12, available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/ orate-strengthen-youth-media-and-information-literacy-skills-0 legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32009H0625
42 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Conclusion
43 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Conclusion
It is a well-accepted argument that ICT and social of the importance to improve media literacy. media applications provide both positive and Nevertheless, except for awareness, there are negative impacts on youth across the globe. no concrete and conceptual attempts to address Macedonian youth is no immune to these trends. this problem. Several governmental authorities The research showed that in North Macedonia ICT have been involved in these efforts attempting and Social media applications are mostly utilized to tackle different aspects of media literacy. and used by Macedonian youth. Various factors Instead of synchronizing and optimizing efforts, influence why ICT and social media applications different authorities are trying to tackle the are mostly used by Macedonian youth. Young problem and thus may produce the resource, people tend to be more adaptive to new main efforts, manpower and other unintended technologies and this also complies with young competitions. Our research has confirmed these people’s needs to communicate. These trends, assumptions indicating that youth is aware of nevertheless, merge the online and physical the threat (info gained from the questioners) but world and push Macedonian youth outside the lack critical thinking capacities (the results from traditional value chamber generally shaped by the the questioners but also the recent incidents) family. that can further mitigate the negative effects of ICT and Social media applications. Therefore, we Hence, ICT and social media applications easily provide a recommendation for a comprehensive turn from opportunity to disruption. Thanks and strategic approach that will build and upgrade to the interconnectivity Macedonian youth may the existing efforts provided by the Media and experience lifestyle, values and self-expression, Civil society sector and integrate media literacy consume and participate in social and political efforts and information literacy efforts into media activism, boycotts, political comedy, self- and information literacy efforts. This approach organizing protests, and discussing politics will enable the government to synchronize all online. In this line, ICT and social media may the Government’s efforts, stimulate and enhance have negative mental and emotional effects on bottom-up, solutions and finally empower Macedonian youth. ICT and social media platforms communities to provide important support to are used as channels to mis, dis or mal – inform building an online resilient society. Macedonian youth thus impacting their ability to make critical decisions in a social, economic Another important conclusion from our research and political context. Moreover, utilizing ICT and is that local authorities, schools and students’ social media applications for political purposes families showed interest in improving their skills in has provoked radicalization that leads to violent media and information literacy. Therefore, further extreme actions from Macedonian youth. efforts to sustain these valuable requirements with tailored capacity building programmes are The government has generally recognized urgent if the Government is about to mitigate these negative trends. Building on the trend negative effects from ICT and social media and to preserve the positive aspects of using ICT promote the positive one. and social media applications and mitigate the negative ones, Government authorities are aware
44 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Annex-1: Surveys Review
To survey the views on various topics in the field people up to 35 years old) would encounter while of ICT use, internet security, media literacy, and using the internet, 3 (three) questionnaires were practices for dealing with various risks that users created: (high school staff, students, parents, and young
Graph 1. Questionnaire for online media literacy for students; (120 respondents) ; (Year of Highschool Education)
45.8
3.4
10.8
40
Graph 2. Questionnaire for online media literacy of young people 17 – 35 years; (48 respondents)
25 22.9
or younger
31.3 20.8
45 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 3. Questionnaire for online media literacy for teaching staff and parents. (83 respondents); (Age)
22.2 44.4
or younger or older
16
The responders were from 5 high schools from The first and the second questionnaire are similar, Skopje, Struga, Sveti Nikole, Veles, and Stip that is why we will compare them, and we will municipality. discuss the third questionnaire for the teaching staff and parents at the end.
Graph 4. Question: Do you have internet access in your home?
STUDENTS YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
40.8 83.3 14.6
es always es most of the time es some period o
53.3
Graph 5. How much time do you spend on the internet each day (for students not taking into account online learning/education)
STUDENTS YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
42.5 50
8.3 ore than hours hours ess than an hour don t ha e internet access each day don t now
45.8 47.9
46 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 6. Question: How do you get access to the Internet?
STUDENTS
ome through computer de ice of my parent guardian ome through my computer de ice
Through gaming console
n an nternet cafe
n friend s house
n relati e s house
t school
n a club
Through publicly a ailabile networ s
obile phone
YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
ome through computer de ice of my parent guardian ome through my computer de ice
Through gaming console
n an nternet cafe
n friend s house
n relati e s house
t school
n a club
Through publicly a ailabile networ s
obile phone
utdoors
Through my personal mobile phone
47 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 7. Question: Which of the following do you agree with about the internet?
STUDENTS
adore it use it all the time
use it for homewor
use it for fun
use it for news
use it to communicate with friends
Sometimes it negatively affects my life
can li e without it
YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
adore it use it all the time
use it for homewor
use it for fun
use it for news
use it to communicate with friends
Sometimes it negatively affects my life
can li e without it
48 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 8. Which of the following services do you use most (daily or weekly)?
STUDENTS
otmail mail ahoo ail aceboo yspace ouTube iTunes lic r li ter bo i e nline ii nline Twitter logs nline ames hat ites nstagram Tumblr napchat hatsup ype iber ther specify which ti to spotify, netflix Ti to spotify pinterest ui let teams Ti To ebula obile hone sco Ti to essenger interest potify iscord
49 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
otmail mail ahoo ail aceboo yspace ouTube iTunes lic r li ter bo i e nline ii nline Twitter logs nline ames hat ites nstagram Tumblr napchat hatsup ype iber ther specify which essenger oom eddit Telegram signal oom potify Ti to reddit eddit iscord
50 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 9. Question: Do you feel safe on the internet?
12.5 es ha e ne er 54.2 faced any threat or 45 12.5 incon inience es thin can handle any threat or incon inience might face ometimes ha e heard of people who ha e had 8.3 bad e periences that ma e me more aware of danger 22.5 21.7 12.5 ometimes because i ha e had bad e periences that ma e me more aware of danger STUDENTS YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS o ne er feel safe online and i always thin about the dangers
Graph 10. Question: If you access an exciting website that you do not know well enough if you need to register and leave information about the place and address of residence, your parents, the password of your email address, or your profile on social networks, are you going to register to this website
95.8 95.8
es o
STUDENTS YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
51 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 11. Have you encountered any of the following?
STUDENTS
Pressure from fiends to do things online that i do not want to do Bullying or harassment by friends or acquanintances Unwanted intimate messages and access to chat rooms, social networks or email
Incoming intimate images and contetnt Outcoming intimate images and contetnt Someone is abusing my pictures in an inappropriate way None of the above Incoming messages from fake profiles Threats due to sharing personal opinion
YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
Pressure from fiends to do things online that i do not want to do Bullying or harassment by friends or acquanintances Unwanted intimate messages and access to chat rooms, social networks or email
Incoming intimate images and contetnt Outcoming intimate images and contetnt Lorem ipsum Someone is abusing my pictures in an inappropriate way None of the above Other (explain) Incoming messages from fake profiles
Spam
52 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 12. Question: Is it easier for you to share experiences and information online or live?
28.3 33.3 66.7
nternet i e No difference
5 10.4
56.3
STUDENTS YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
Graph 13. Question:Have you ever stumbled upon a joke or fake online information?
31.7 29.2 51.7 58.3
ften arely e er
12.5
16.7
STUDENTS YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
53 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 14. Question: Do you think there should be a Rulebook for the use of smart devices and the Internet in the school that will contain guidelines for (indicate what you think the Rulebook should contain):
STUDENTS
rotection of nternet ro ider
o haring personal information and data
eha ior on the nternet in terms of protection against cyberbullying
Verification of information
There in no need for such a uleboo
YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
rotection of nternet ro ider
o haring personal information and data
eha ior on the nternet in terms of protection against cyberbullying
Verification of information
There in no need for such a uleboo
54 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 15. Question: Have you ever had a lecture on safe internet use?
56.3 54.2
es o
45.8 43.8
STUDENTS YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
Graph 16. Question: Have you ever had a lecture on how to access information?
62.5 57.5
es o
42.5 37.5
STUDENTS YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
55 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 17. Question: With whom would you share information that you find strange/inappropriate (for example, communication about religion, cult, belief, etc. other than what you are taught at home or in the environment in which you live)
44.2 artents guardians Teachers psychologist or principal director riends thers specify arents if it is ery suspicious in the police lder relati es ith li e minded people 49.2
STUDENTS
12.5 37.5 artents guardians Teachers psychologist or principal director riends olegues ith all o one epending on the information with the appropriate security 41.7 structures
YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
Graph 18. Question: Have you ever had a lecture on how to access information?
43.8 46.7
10 ften ometimes e er
43.3 54.2
STUDENTS YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
56 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 19. Question: How many times have teachers asked you to show them how to use the internet and smart technologies?
45.8 36.7
ften ometimes e er
17.5
STUDENTS
Graph 20. Question: Do you find it always useful to use privacy settings to control what is posted by the user or other users for you (e.g. can someone else’s photos ‘tagging’ can be controlled, so you can choose the ap- propriate option for whom you want to see (the tag) or sometimes this procedure is too complicated and takes time to register or use the profile).
43.8 43.3
ften ometimes e er
50 54.2
STUDENTS YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
57 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 21. Question: Do you find it always useful to use privacy settings to control what is posted by the user or other users for you (e.g. can someone else’s photos ‘tagging’ can be controlled, so you can choose the appropriate option for whom you want to see (the tag) or sometimes this procedure is too complicated and takes time to register or use the profile).
STUDENTS
I know how to use different now that the media now how the now how media content sources of information and presents information production and is tailored to the target media de ices for e ample selecti ely and nows distribution of audience eg hoices to search for information how to interpret media information by the media personalized Internet offer using social networ ing messages eg mplicit wor s eg from source to through coo ies sites the internet ersus e plicit media article, news filtering, newspapers T channels language te t article cross cutting between websites and their target mo ie ideo ideo politics media and audience structure democracy
can e aluate media am aware of the hen read am aware that there content ta ing into effects od the media (for information shared by are media outlets that account different example, influencing a medium read all now how to share criteria eg accurancy of the beha ior of the information not information that may be information customers oters side ust the title of the partially or completely comparison of effects such as hatred information inaccurate information or addiction assessment of aesthetic aspects
ha e a habit of chec ing ha e a habit of am aware of my own can create media the reliability accurancy chec ing the reliability media beha ior eg content for e ample of the information ha e accurancy of protection of rights illegal write an article create a found online for e ample information ha e ta eo er dangerous photo or ideo chec ing in se eral media learned from beha ior of the media document set up a blog that are recogni ed as communicating with media that transmit verified friends whether now and accurate information them
ully gree artially gree artially isagree ully isagree can communicate and can participate in public present content using debate through media media eg structure and for e ample show customi ation of commitment using social presentation posting media contact media content through organi ations ia email appropriate channel respond to reader or such as blogs social media reactions directories ouTube
58 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
YOUNG PEOPLE 17–35 YEARS
I know how to use different now that the media now how the now how media content sources of information and presents information production and is tailored to the target media de ices for e ample selecti ely and nows distribution of audience eg hoices to search for information how to interpret media information by the media personalized Internet offer using social networ ing messages eg mplicit wor s eg from source to through coo ies sites the internet ersus e plicit media article, news filtering, newspapers T channels language te t article cross cutting between websites and their target mo ie ideo ideo politics media and audience structure democracy
can e aluate media am aware of the hen read am aware that there content ta ing into effects od the media (for information shared by are media outlets that account different example, influencing a medium read all now how to share criteria eg accurancy of the beha ior of the information not information that may be information customers oters side ust the title of the partially or completely comparison of effects such as hatred information inaccurate information or addiction assessment of aesthetic aspects
ha e a habit of chec ing ha e a habit of am aware of my own can create media the reliability accurancy chec ing the reliability media beha ior eg content for e ample of the information ha e accurancy of protection of rights illegal write an article create a found online for e ample information ha e ta eo er dangerous photo or ideo chec ing in se eral media learned from beha ior of the media document set up a blog that are recogni ed as communicating with media that transmit verified friends whether now and accurate information them
ully gree artially gree artially isagree ully isagree can communicate and can participate in public present content using debate through media media eg structure and for e ample show customi ation of commitment using social presentation posting media contact media content through organi ations ia email appropriate channel respond to reader or such as blogs social media reactions directories ouTube
59 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Responses from the questionnaire for online media literacy for teaching staff and parents.
Graph 23. Gender
25.6
emale ale on t want to declare
73.2
Graph 24. What is the highest level of education that you have completed?
61 12.2
rimary education econdary education ni ersity aculty aster studies h 20.7
Graph 25. What type of media do you usually get information from?
42 27.2
ocial media nternet non social media related resources Tele ision adio riends and family ll of the abo e
25.9
60 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 26. Have you ever been a victim of “fake news”
71.6
es o
28.4
If the answer to the previous question is “Yes”, please answer how many times have you faced this problem and from what media?
› Fb › Electronic/Internet › News generators via social media › 5 › 100 › Social media › Many times, mostly from internet portals › False information from tv. Alpha › 4 › Dozens of times from media without signed › Several times, portals that transmit everything editors or journalists. “Kurir” › Several times › Internet › Many times, from different media › Everything they say is a lie, sitel kanal 5 and telma › Many times, from social networks and television media.
Graph 26. Have you ever been a victim of “fake news”
63
es o
37
If the answer to the previous question is “Yes” please answer how you do it?
› I read, listen to more media and try to see if › Social media something is objective › I always want to insure the news I have heard › with additional search from trusted sources › I have not faced › Check comparison with another medium › Several times › I check online › I look for books and more internet sites to be › Simply, you need to have wider information sure (if it is about electronic media, portals) or › I google search. recognition of the persons, their environment, › Often, Internet portals affinities, goals (if it is about social networks) › I check the news on several media › A billion times the above › Many times, from different media
61 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 27. Do you consider it important to fight against the “fake news”?
28.4
12.3
completely agree agree do not agree neither agree nor disagree 58
Graph 28. Do you think that people are more likely to fall for “fake news” on the Internet and/or social media?
91.5
8.5
es o
If the answer to the previous question is “Yes” please answer how you do it?
› Because on social networks and various › Because anyone can write on social networks unverified media by quasi-journalists and › Many people are informed by social networks quasi-experts it is allowed to publish any kind and are easily subjected to manipulation of information › The Internet, and especially social networks, › Very few people can and do recognize them is a wide space for placing “fake news”. “They › Because people listen, read different portals, have a large scale and are of different mo- and share the same news at the same time. tives. If you do not see or read anything other than › There is no control or responsibility, a politi- what is said, people will believe the original cized state news. › There is a lot of fake news › It is the Internet as a tool that many people › There is no control over the published con- use to get the information they need to be tents. accurate and precise › Most often we have news that does not al- › For more advertising ways tell the whole or true truth but it can be › Because of unverified information partially true or false. › Because we are constantly on social networks › People are confused by too much false infor- › They do not know how to check fake news mation and sources. › That is why all media are bribed
62 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
› Because we spend most of our time on social › Because everyone has access networks and constantly read various news › Too much information every day that we trust. › Because it is easier to display › Because I have a feeling that today, and in the › There is no big control, someone publishes future, it will be worse, everyone is “allowed” what he wants to post anything and everything in the literal › The naivety of the people, and our mentality! sense of the word on any topic, and unverified › Because misinformation is being written. information, rewritten things and then misin- › Cannot because the website needs to be terpreted and so on. expanded with more clicks and shares › Infor spreads faster. And it is more accessi- › Fake news spreads and is shared faster. ble еxample people who do not believe in › Because there is no censorship Covid-19 › False headlines, insufficient critical thinking, › because they can not check them quickly information ... › Because the headline of a news item is short, › There is a lot of information, some of which is and in the following text it means something certainly unverified or false completely different, so some people under- › There is everything on the Internet stand it in a completely different way and post fake news through no fault of their own.
Graph 29. Do you think that “fake news” affect your trust in news organizations?
63.4
36.6
es o
If the answer to the previous question is “Yes” please answer why?
› From so many media we have to create our of their own submissiveness to one side or own objectivity, and in the end, we do not the other, personal profiteering, and in many really know what the real truth is situations change of attitudes, placing “fake › There is no relevance if it conveys false news news” due to sensationalism, some interest, › Then we watch and listen to the news from and so on. Professionalism means impartial- the news organizations with reservations. ity, expertise, good diction, use of standard › Because I doubt what kind of intellectual staff language, dress code, respect for the inter- they work with locutor, whether there are invited guests, not › If I come across false news then I doubt the brutal and reckless intrusion truth › They are politically colored and I do not trust › I do not read those media that spread fake them news to get more clicks › There is often a distortion of the truth. › Unfortunately, independent journalism, at › Journalists are biased and not always what least in its true sense, is rare. Journalists, in they present is the whole or exact truth of an some cases, are victims of editorial policy, event and rarely anyone has borne the con-
63 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
sequences for such a way of working unless › Because the news and the great influence of someone initiates a lawsuit, everything else politics in our country, ie the great influence passes. of political parties have not been checked for › They are drowning in lies the most part › By publishing fake news, they cause us a › Present differently on the same questions dilemma to trust them for further news. › (un) trust is built that way › Every day, the same news can be interpreted › I expect accurate news from news organiza- differently and when you lose the reality of tions what is true and what is not, trust is shaken. › They ruin their own image › My view of ratings by quality. › I do not read with confidence those who › If they report false news they will lose the spread false news. trust of the viewers › Because I feel cheated › they lose their rating, they fall low by present- › It speaks for itself ing lies and untruths
Graph 30. What is your opinion, who should be responsible for identifying “fake news” on social networks? (Please select all applicable answers)
nline social platform
ndependent body
The go ernment
The public
obody
dont now
omeone should be responsible for that
64 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Graph 31. Do you ask children/students (as teaching staff or parents) to show you what and how they use the intrenet and smart technologies for?
58.2 20.3
ften ometimes e er
21.5
Graph 31. Do you think that there should be a Rulebook for the use of smart devices and internet in the school together with the students and parents/guardians which will contain guidelines for (indicate what you think the Rulebook should contain):
nternet ontent rotection
ot sharing personal information and data
nternet eha ior in terms of protection
hec ing information
There in no need for such a uleboo
65 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
Annex-2: Where to seek help and report online harassment, mis, dis mal-information, and online radicalization
The timely and efficient reporting of cybercrime goes directly to a duty officer who directs the including online harassment, mis, dis mal- information to the relevant unit.165 information, and online radicalization to the relevant authorities and ensuring meaningful The MoI has a special e-mail address: follow-up of the crime reports is perhaps one of [email protected] where citizens can the most important countermeasures.163 send e-mails about possible mis, dis and mal- information. The evidence they can send can be In general, the channels that the users can report a “print screen” or a photo of the news or even a online harassment are: link where the information was published. After this, the MoI reviews the reports and decides If the › Trough police stations in person or via phone; report is confirmed to be true, and only if there › Report to the cybercrime and Digital Forensics is a crime included, they forward it to the Public unit at the MoI using the “Red Button” reporting Prosecutor’s Office.166 However, if the perpetrator scheme; is not from North Macedonia, the MoI cannot › Directorate of Personal Data Protection if the case prosecute them, but they can be detected, and includes data abuse.164 the MOI can inform the authorities of the foreign country where the criminal is based.167 The MoI has dedicated phone numbers for the citizens to report any computer crime directly One of the biggest issues is that there is no to the Department of Cybercrime and Digital mechanisms for reporting online radicalization. Forensics and to any police station. The MoI has also set up the “Red Button” reporting scheme on its website, which is a national reporting system, which is available under a web portal (http:// redbutton.mvr.gov.mk/). On the intro page there is information that the application is intended to report any knowledge or information in the field of child abuse (up to 18 years of age), hate crime and incitement to violence, as well as human trafficking and radicalization. When a citizen uses this system, the information
163 Report Advisory mission and workshop on online fraud and iPROCEEDS project (April 2017), https://rm.coe.int/3156-26-ip- other cybercrime reporting mechanisms 20 - 21 February roceeds-report-reporting-mechanisms-mk/16807be381, 2017, Skopje “The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia” [Accessed 22 Nov. 2020]. Provided under the iPROCEEDS project (April 2017), https:// 166 Report misinformation - here’s how and where [In Macedoni- rm.coe.int/3156-26-iproceeds-report-reporting-mecha- an], (2020), http://proverkanafakti.mk/prijavete-dezinformacii- nisms-mk/16807be381, [Accessed 22 Nov. 2020]. eve-kako-i-kade/, [Accessed 22 Nov. 2020]. 164 Dzlp.mk. (2018). Your rights | Дирекција за заштита на 167 Akademik (2014) ‘МВР апелира до граѓаните: Ако личните податоци. [online] Available at: https://dzlp.mk/en/ забележите педофилија на интернет – пријавете на node/2201 [Accessed 22 Nov. 2020].165 Report Advisory cybercrime@ moi.gov.mk’, https://www.akademik.mk/mvr-ape- mission and workshop on online fraud and other cybercrime lira-do-graganite-ako-zabelezhite-pedofilija-nainternet-pri- reporting mechanisms 20 - 21 February 2017, Skopje “The javete-na-cybercrime-moi-gov-mk-4/ former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia” Provided under the 66 Toward safe and secure youth online: Embracing the concept of media and information literacy
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