Human Rights In Sweden: The Breakthrough of an Idea JACOB W.F. SUNDBERG* TABLE OF CONTENTS I. THE EUROPEAN SYSTEI OF HuMoAN RIGHTS 951 A. The American Influence 951 B. The European Approach 954 C. The Lawyer's Approach 955 D. Nothing Succeeds Like Success 958 II. SWEDEN AND THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION 960 A. The Periodof No Complaints 960 B. The Periodof Massive Complaints 961 Ill. THE ExTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CONVENTION IN SWEDEN 961 A. A Fit of Absentmindedness? 961 B. Importance of the ForeignMinister, Professor Undin 962 C. The Declaration Under Article 46 963 D. The Greek Case 964 E. The Crisis of the 1970s 965 F. The Adverse Judgments of the 1980s 968 IV. THE INNER HISTORY OF THE CONVENTION IN SWEDEN 970 A. The PhilosophicalBackground 970 B. The Secret Marriage 972 C. Professor Undin and Human Rights 974 D. The Swedish Silence 976 V. THE SucCEss OF AN IDEA 978 A. The Change Summarized 978 B. Irresistibility of the Lawyer's Approach 978 C. The European Limelight 979 D. Room for a PluralistDoctrine of Precedent 980 E. Does It Pay To Argue The Convention? 981 F. Conclusions 982 I. THE EUROPEAN SYSTEM OF HUMAN RIGHTS A. The American Influence In order to understand the American contribution to the European system of human rights,' it is necessary to go back to the situation at the close of the Second * Professor of Jurisprudence, University of Stockholm; Director of Studies, Institutet for offentlig och internationell r-tt, Stockholm. 1. Among the early literature on the European Convention on Human Rights, see generally RoBEsroN, THE LAw OFINERNA1ONAL INtTr.ONS m EUROPE(1961); Coblentz & Warshaw, European Convention for the Protection of Human 952 OHIO STATE LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 47:951 World War. This is the time when the world saw the emergence of the two superpowers to which we have grown accustomed: the Soviet Union and the United States of America. The Soviet advance and progress was impressively manifested in February 1948, when the Communist Action Committees seized power in Czecho- slovakia and seemingly irrevocably included that country in the bloc of Socialist states, known as "the Socialist Camp." With the seizure of Czechoslovakia, the Soviets were able to establish their Socialist legal system throughout Eastern Europe. In order to see the American influence on the European system of human rights, an understanding of the chief differences between the Anglo-American legal systems and the Marxist-based Socialist ones is required. These systems disagree fundamen- tally about the nature and source of human rights. This disagreement has formed the basis for the conflict over human rights within Europe. "Human rights" was the notion that was to dominate the coming decades in many ways. The significance of human rights was manifested in the Universal Rights and FundamentalFreedoms, 44 CAiuF.L. Rxv. 94 (1956); Eustathiades, La Convention europiene des droits de Ihomme et le Statut du Conseil de l'Europe, 52 FRPEDOEswARm332 (1953-1955); Golsong, Das Rechtsschutzsystem der Europdischen Menschenrechtkonvention, Karlsruhe (1958); Golsong, Die Europaische Konvention zum Schutz der Menschenrechte und Grundfreiheiten, 10 JARRBUcHDES OFFEmrscHEN RFarrs (Germany 1961); Golsong, The European Conventionfor the Protection of Human Rights and FundamentalFreedoms in a German Court, 33 Barr. Y.B. lNr'L L. 317 (1957); Green, The EuropeanConvention on Human Rights, 5 WoRD Ait. 432 (1951); Honig, The EuropeanHuman Rights Convention, 105 L.J. 759 (1955); Horvath, The European Court of Human Rights, 5 Ossrumoiuscsm7znsrmomrF FOR OFFENUC S Rxcur (Austria) 166 (1953); Lauterpacht, The Proposed European Court of Human Rights, 35 TRANsAcnoNs OF ms GRollus Soc'Y 25 (1950); Modinos, La Convention europienne des droits de r'homme, ses origines, ses objectives, ses realisations, 1 EUROPEANY.B. 141 (1955); Mosler, Organisation und Verfahren des Europdischen Gerichtshofspfir Menschenrechte, 20 Zu-rscuPtwrFUR Aust..DtSCncs OFEzruacuEs REcNT UND V6ERRmir (Germany) 415 (1959-1960); Partsch, Die Entstehung der Europdischen Menschenrechtskonvention, 15 ZsrrscuRtmr FOR AusLXNnDcusS Oamc EsRrcHT UNDVL, RRECtr(Germany) 631 (1954); Partsch, Die EuropaischeMenschenrechtskonvention vor den nationalen Parlamenten, 17 ZsrrscH uFr FOR AusaNi.scuss OEucpsnam REcur UrN VtEsr, r (Germany) 93 (1956); Robertson, The European Conventionfor the Protectionof Human Rights, 27 BRrr. Y.B. INr'L L. 145 (1950); Robertson, The European Court of Human Rights, 9 A?. J. Co.%up.L. 1 (1960); Robertson, The European Court of Human Rights, 8 INT'L & CoMP. L.Q. 396 (1959); Robertson, The European Convention on Human Rights, YEARBOOKOF Hu,.ts Rimrs FoR 1951 (1953); Waldock, The European Conventionfor the Protection of Human Rights and FundamentalFreedoms, 34 BRrr. Y.B. IWr'L L. 356 (1958); Wiebringhaus, Die Rom-Konvention fir Menschenrechte in der Praxis der Strassburger Menschenrechtskommission, Saarbiicken (1959); Wiebringhaus, Ein internationaler Gerichtshof zum Schutz der Menschenrechte, 55 FRiErEsswARTE1 (1959-1960); Wiebringhaus, Institution und bisherige Rechtsprechung der Strassburger Menschenrechtskommission, 54 FPiosssswARTE 252 (1957-1958); Weil, Decisions on Inadmissible Applications by the EuropeanConunission on Human Rights, 54 Au. J. INr'L L. 874 (1960); Comment, The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 49 CAUrP.L. REv. 172 (1961). For more recent, important literature on the Convention and its system, see K.J. PAR Scn, Dm REcusm uto FRirRnnrnu DuR EuRoPktscHn MWNSCENRECHrs9oNvEmnoN (1966) (also in: NEUMANN,BsrrUrANm, NIPPRPs : DI GRJNDRECNTE,Vol. 1 (1966); H. GURADzE,Dm EoRopXisCHE MENScHENREcrTSKONVENION, KotlrerrAR (1968); J.E.S. FAwcErT, THE APrmcx'ox OF m EUROPEANCoNvENTnoNx O HumrANRios (1969); H. WALmm, DiE EusoptiscE MENsaNrsc~trrsoRNuNo, BmIRXoE zuN AuSLXNDISCEN6tsrucuE REcHr uND VLKEscirRE, Vol. 53 (1970); S. TRErCsE., Dts EutRoPRIsCR MENSaCso]- RECTSKONVENTION,nm SCHtrz DuR PEsS6NucHsNtFREaE UNr DIE SCtwEEsISCtN STAnOzESSRR rM (1974); F.G. JAcoas, THE EUROPEANCoNVEsmNON ON HumAN RIGHTs, (1975); U. HopntAN-REuv, DiE M6oucnsKurrE DE GsurmsnRUrErscuSCHXrtKL.No ACH DENART. 8-11 Ass. 2 DER EutRopXtscH MENscweRCHrsKoxvENTnoN (1976); H. MosLER, R. Bsu, mrr ANDM. Hay (Ems.), GRUusDRECrSScHttrZIN EUROPA, BsnrXos ztu AUSANDISCUEN6ru=ercHs REcur urN V6xxRrP (1977); D. Poxcsr, LA PROTECIONDE L'ACC'JSi PAR LA CONVENTIONEUROPiENNE DES DROrrS Ds L'Hoitrt (1977); D. BtENDuL, VosautmiLm UND AusLEGENo'ERR CtRuNEN ZUREuRoPXmSc'NN MEN sC ENRCMSKONVENON (1978); E. LDE, I.I.ORTEGA AND M. Skrcuz MoR6N, EL SImTvNA EUROPEODE PROTECCI6N DE LOS DEREC-OS HUMANOS. ESTUDIOOF LA CONVENCI6N Y DE LA SURISPRUDENCIADEL TRsuNA. Eusopo us DERscuos HuutAsos (1979); P. VAN DuK ANDG.J.H. VANHoop, Ds EURoPESEcoNVENTIs Im WOR INPRAAKTSuK (1979); G. G Eot, LA WTUM.AEOROPEA DEI DiRrM DLL'UOMo (1979). See also J.ABR. FRowEIN & W. PnuKF-RT,EUROPISCHE MENscuNRxacmsKovsmnoN. EMRK-Ko.t.mamrAR (1985); Z. NEOjAi, HuiuAN RIoTs UrDE ru EUROPEAN CoNvEnoN (1978); RoauRrsON, HuMtANRiotris rNEURoPE (1977); F. CAsrBERo, THE EUROPEANCoNVEmON ONHumAN Riors (1974); J.W.S. FAwcEr, THE APPLICATO,OF nE EUROPEANCoNVE NTON ONHuMN Ritrs (1969). 19861 HUMAN RIGHTS IN SWEDEN Declaration of Human Rights in 1948,2 the very year Czechoslovakia fell. That there are "fundamental human rights" was declared an article of faith, "reaffirmed" by the peoples of the United Nations in the UN Charter. 3 In spite of the fact that the Universal Declaration reflected no single comprehensive theory of the relation of the individual to society, the Soviet Union abstained from supporting the Declaration when it was adopted. The Soviet view of human rights is rooted in Marxist-Leninist theory. 4 Under it, law, like government, is the product of the underlying economic relationships in society. The relationship between the individual and the state in society is defined by the forces of production, and human rights is part of that relationship. Hence, human rights derive their content and nature from those forces and the class relationships manifested in the state. Because the law can never rise above a society's socio- economic system, it follows that the state must be the source of human rights. Soviet theorists, therefore, believe that individuals can have no inherent rights. Instead, the state confers rights upon its citizens. Within such a framework, the individual can hold no right against the state. This much being said, the contrast to the American view of natural rights and of constitutionalism is most apparent.5 The American approach, unlike the Soviet approach, is rooted in the Enlightment doctrine of "natural rights." Such a doctrine was first articulated clearly by John Locke, who argued that man possesses certain rights by virtue of his humanity, and not by virtue of social convention or law.6 In both Europe and America, Locke's views came to carry great weight. In the 1780's, both Europe and America adopted new constitutions addressing the issue of the natural rights. On August 4, 1789, the French National Assembly resolved that a Declaration of Rights should antecede the new Constitution. It was completed by August 26, 1789. The Declaration of Rights stated in Article 2 that the purpose of all political 2. G.A. Res. 217, 3 U.N. GAOR (A/810) at 71. 3. U.N. CRmER preamble. 4. For a recent survey of the human rights problem in the Marxist perspective, see Dean, Beyond Helsinki: The Soviet View of Human Rights in InternationalLaw, 21 VA. J.IT'L. L. 55 (1980). 5. See generally Henkin, Constitutional