Overcoming Barriers to Reaching Nativelikeness in Adult Second Language Acquisition
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Overcoming Barriers to Reaching Nativelikeness in Adult Second Language Acquisition Yanling Su Cardiff University This thesis is submitted to Cardiff University in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of PhD in Language and Communication UMI Number: U584311 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U584311 Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Declaration This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not concurrently submitted ip,candidature for any degree. Signed (candidate) Date . STATEMENT 1 This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD. Signed }{& f l S M ..(candidate) Date .(?<§... STATEMENT 2 This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by explicit references. Signed . .^ 1 4 .. (candidate) D ate /J.. Z . STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed Date ...... STATEMENT 4: PREVIOUSLY APPROVED BAR ON ACCESS I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loans after expiry of a bar on access previously approved by the Graduate Development Committee. Signed A • • • (candidate) D ate ........ 1.1../ J. Z . I . P .$ > .. Overview of contents Table of contents iii Abstract viii Acknowledgements ix List of Tables xi List of Figures xiii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Chapter 2 Barriers to reaching nativelikeness 38 Chapter 3 Meeting learning conditions: Insights from individual difference research and study abroad research 93 Chapter 4 Investigation of a group of adult L2 learners in a study abroad context 110 Chapter 5 The actual learning conditions and reactions: Individual differences and patterns 137 Chapter 6 Nativelikeness perceived: A rating investigation in China 188 Chapter 7 Formulaic Sequence Comprehension Ability 224 Chapter 8 The ideal and the reality meet - How to overcome barriers to reach nativelikeness 234 Chapter 9 Conclusion 283 References 305 Appendices 320 ii Table of contents Declaration i Overview of contents ii Table of contents iii Abstract viii Acknowledgements ix List of Tables xi List of Figures xiii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The difficulties in learning a second language as an adult 2 1.2 Overcoming obstacles 4 1.3 Outline of the following chapters 10 1.4 A preliminary investigation 11 1.4.1 Clea’s learning obstacles 12 1.4.2 Clea’s secret of overcoming obstacles and becoming nativelike 17 1.5 Summary of review questions 35 Chapter 2 Barriers to reaching nativelikeness 38 2.1 Introduction 38 2.2 Supply of input 39 2.3 Attention to input 49 2.3.1 Natural inclination to focus on meaning, not on form 49 2.3.2 L1 learned biased attention - input fails to become intake 54 2.3.3Adult tendency - breaking down input instead of taking it as a whole 60 2.4 Producing output opportunities 67 2.5 Attention to output 72 2.6 Identity 82 2.7 Summing-up and a way forward 86 Chapter 3 Meeting learning conditions: Insights from individual difference research and study abroad research 93 3.1 Introduction 93 3.2 Challenges in meetingthe nativelike-intention condition 94 3.3 Challenges in meetingthe L2-oriented identification condition 96 3.4 Challenges in meetingthe ‘ideal-inputcondition 97 3.5 Challenges in meetingthe appropriate-attention-to-input condition 101 3.6 Challenges in meeting the appropriate-attention-to-output condition 103 3.7 Summing-up and a way forward: A new interpretation of ‘aptitude’ 105 Chapter 4 Investigation of a group of adult L2 learners in a study abroad context 110 4.1 Introduction 110 4.2 Selecting methods 111 4.3 Selecting a population 115 4.3.1 Which target language? 116 4.3.2 Which learners? 116 4.4 Selecting instruments 119 4.4.1 Measuring oral proficiency 119 4.4.2 Selection of instruments 119 4.5 Designing instruments 121 4.5.1 Questionnaire 121 4.5.2 Interview 126 4.5.3 Pilot Testing 130 4.6 Participants 130 4.7 Procedure 133 4.7.1 Questionnaire procedure 133 4.7.2 Interview procedure 134 4.8 Conclusion 135 Chapter 5 The actual learning conditions and reactions: Individual differences and patterns 137 5.1 Introduction 137 5.2 Contextual information 138 5.2.1 Perceived changes in view about language learning. 138 5.2.2 Profile summary 140 5.3 Nativelike intention 145 5.4 L2-oriented identification 147 5.5 Input supply 157 5.5.1 Comprehensibility 158 5.5.2 Authenticity 159 5.5.3 Interaction 160 5.5.4 Abundance and richness 161 5.6 Attention to input 170 5.7 Attention to output 180 5.8 Summing-up and way forward 185 Chapter 6 Nativelikeness perceived: A rating investigation in China 188 6.1 Introduction 188 6.2 Meeting the aim of the ratingprocedure 188 6.2.1 Participants 191 6.2.2 Developing the rating instrument 192 6.3 Procedure 198 6.4 Analysis and results 199 6.4.1 Intra-rater reliability 201 6.4.2 Inter-rater reliability 206 6.4.3 Perceived nativelikeness profiles 212 6.5 Summary 223 Chapter 7 Formulaic Sequence Comprehension Ability 224 7.1 Introduction 224 7.2 The selection of the ratingcriteria 224 V 7.3 Analysis procedure 228 7.4 Results 228 7.5 Summary 233 Chapter 8 The ideal and the reality meet - How to overcome barriers to reach nativelikeness 234 8.1 Introduction 234 8.2 Nativelike-intention question 236 8.2.1 Renate - On a near-native speaker level 236 8.2.2 Joy - The Premier of China’s translator 237 8.3 Questions of L2-oriented identification 238 8.3.1 Renate: Becoming cosmopolitan 238 8.3.2 Joy: Having Chinese identity as well as British identity 240 8.4 Ideal-input questions 245 8.4.1 Renate 246 8.4.2 Joy 256 8.5 Attention-to-input questions 268 8.5.1 Renate 270 8.5.2 Joy273 8.6 Attention-to-output questions 275 8.6.1 Renate 275 8.6.2 Joy 278 8.7 Summary 281 Chapter 9 Conclusion 283 9.1 Summary of the findings and implications 283 9.1.1 Recap of research objectives 283 9.1.2 Summary of the key findings and evaluation of what has been learnt 284 9.2 Limitations of the study and suggestions for further research 296 9.2.1 Assumptions 296 9.2.2 Methodological issues 297 9.2.3 Participants 299 9.2.4 Analyses 299 9.3 The last word 303 References 305 Appendices 320 vii Abstract This thesis examines the complex questions of what the obstacles are to becoming nativelike and how they can be overcome. Questions for framing the literature review are developed by means of a down-to-earth preliminary case study of a nativelike French learner of English. The subsequent literature review focuses on key issues such as the supply of input, attention to input, output practise opportunities, attention to output, identity, and learning motivation. An ‘ideal’ model for reaching nativelikeness is established for further investigation. More specifically, five conditions for overcoming barriers to reaching nativelikeness are hypothesised. In order to test these five conditions, an investigation is reported into the learning of Mandarin by a cohort of undergraduate students of Mandarin at a British university. Using carefully constructed interview questions and questionnaires, details were gathered of their knowledge, approach and attitude to learning, and how they lived during their year abroad in China. Their nativelikeness was judged by independent monolingual Chinese listeners. The main findings are that there are different learning obstacles in the process of L2 learning for different learners, due to both their different language learning experiences and their particular stances relative to the target language. The key conclusion of the study is that nativelikeness is most likely to be achieved when learners have a persistent motivation to speak in a nativelike manner, develop an open/adaptive sense of identification with the L2 native group, have a guaranteed supply of on-going ‘ideal’ input, and achieve a ‘balanced’ attention to both input and output. Acknowledgements The whole process of doctoral study and thesis writing owes much to my supervisor, my second reader, my friends and my family. Without their assistance and support, the completion of this thesis would have been impossible. I wish to especially acknowledge the following people who have given me help, guidance, wisdom, friendship and support: — My supervisor who is patient, understanding, encouraging and steered me in the right direction when I did not know which way to go: Prof. Alison Wray — My second reader who advised and supported me especially through the final stage of my thesis writing: Dr. Joanna Thornborrow — My internal examiner and external examiner of this thesis who spent their precious time reading and examining the thesis carefully and critically, and made the experience of my Viva wonderful: Dr.