(Pcms) for SPACE HEATING and COOLING in BUILDINGS
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f o r u m The following paper was presented at the 2004 AIRAH performance enhanced buildings environmentally sustainable design conference. For copies of the conference proceedings, contact the AIRAH office on 03 8623 3000. USING PHASE CHANGE MATERIALS (PCMs) FOR SPACE HEATING AND COOLING IN BUILDINGS. Dr Frank Bruno Ph.D., B.Eng.(Hons.) Sustainable Energy Centre, University of South Australia. Abstract Unlike conventional sensible thermal storage methods, phase change materials (PCMs) provide much higher energy storage densities and the heat is stored and released at an almost constant temperature. PCMs can be used for both active and passive space heating and cooling systems. In passive systems, PCMs can be encapsulated in building materials such as concrete, gypsum wallboard, in the ceiling or floor to increase their thermal storage capacity. They can either capture solar energy directly or thermal energy through natural convection. Increasing the thermal storage capacity of a building can increase human comfort by decreasing the magnitude of internal air temperature swings so that the indoor air temperature is closer to that desired over a longer period of time. Alternatively, a thermal storage unit using PCMs can be used with conventional active space heating and cooling systems to improve the overall thermal efficiency as well as to reduce the peak heating and cooling electrical load. PCMs can also be incorporated in conventional heating or cooling systems so that its capacity can be reduced. Considerable research has been done on the application of PCMs for space heating and cooling, yet at present there are limited systems in use. The paper gives a review on the research work that has been done, followed by existing systems in use and possible future directions. Keywords: phase change materials, thermal energy storage, active and passive heating and cooling Introduction Typical data of some relevant properties of thermal storage materials are given in Table 1 for comparison [1]. The masses Thermal energy can be stored as sensible heat whereby the and volumes in the table correspond to a heat storage capacity temperature of the storage material varies with the amount of of 1000 MJ and a temperature rise of 15ºC during heat storage. energy stored. Alternatively, thermal energy can be stored as latent The relative mass and volume occupied by each storage media is heat which makes use of the energy stored when a substance based on ice. The table shows that in comparison to other thermal changes from one phase to another by either melting or freezing. storage materials such as rock or water, PCMs have a higher In the latter, the storage media is known as a phase change energy storage density, so that less material is needed. PCMs also material (PCM). Ice is an example of a 0ºC PCM. have the advantage that thermal energy is stored and released at Organic and inorganic compounds are the two most common an almost constant temperature. groups of PCMs. Most organic PCMs such as paraffin waxes are A thermal storage system may be one of the solutions to the chemically stable and non-corrosive, exhibit little or no supercooling problem when electricity supply and demand are out of phase. properties (that is, they do not need to be cooled below their A building with thermal storage could shift most of the load coming freezing point to initiate crystallisation), are compatible with most from air conditioners from peak to off-peak periods. As a result, building materials, have a high latent heat per unit weight and capital investment for peak power generation equipment or for are recyclable. Their disadvantages are low thermal conductivity, upgrading the existing electrical transmission network could be high changes in volume during phase change and flammability. greatly reduced for power utilities which could be reflected in Inorganic compounds such as salt hydrates have much higher less expensive energy prices to customers. Alternatively, thermal latent heat per unit volume, higher thermal conductivity, are non- storage can be used to store heating or cooling that is either flammable and lower in cost in comparison to organic compounds. available for free or that can be produced very efficiently only at Potentially, they can be recycled after their useful life. However, specific times. Thermal storage can be incorporated in buildings they are corrosive to most metals and suffer from decomposition either passively or actively. and supercooling, which can effect their phase change properties. Nucleating and thickening agents can be added to inorganic PCMs Cold storage using ice is a well established technology. There are to minimise supercooling and decomposition. a number of buildings that use ice storage systems for space cooling [2,3]. However, commercial use of other PCMs is limited. 26 EcoLibrium™ March 2005 f o r u m Material Mass (Kg) Relative Mass Volume (m3) Relative Volume Rock 67,000 22 30 10 Water (liquid) 16,000 5.3 16 5.3 PCM (organic) 5,300 1.8 6.6 2.2 PCM (inorganic) 4,350 1.5 2.7 0.9 Ice 3,000 1.0 3 1.0 Table 1 - comparison of various thermal storage media. Stored energy = 1,000 MJ or 278 kWhr, change in temperature = 15ºC. Relative mass and volume are based on ice. Using PCMs in walls to increase Although simulations have demonstrated the potential benefits of thermal mass. using PCM in walls, Feustel & Stetiu have concluded that cooling the envelope of a room by means of air transport through the room One disadvantage of light weight buildings is their low thermal provides a very inefficient way of heat transfer. Air movement mass. They tend to have high temperature fluctuations, which close to the walls, which determines the amount of heat being result in high heating and cooling loads. Using PCMs in such transferred, is relatively small. Particularly in periods of relatively buildings can smooth out the temperature variations [4,5]. high ambient temperatures during the night, it would be beneficial A PCM wall is capable of capturing a large proportion of the solar to force the supply air along the wall surfaces to facilitate good heat radiation incident on the walls or roof of a building. Because exchange. The limited discharge capacity of ventilation cooling of the high thermal mass of PCM walls, they are also capable during heat spells calls either for increased storage capacity or can of minimising the effect of large fluctuations in the ambient cause the thermal storage to fail. They concluded that new ways temperature on the inside temperature of the building. They can to discharge the latent storage had to be investigated. be very effective in shifting the heating and cooling load to off- peak electricity periods. One interesting possibility in building Other uses of PCMs in buildings applications is the impregnation of PCMs into porous construction A problem with incorporating PCM in the building envelope is materials to increase thermal mass [6,7,8,9]. Gypsum wallboard that it is difficult to exchange a high rate of heat between the impregnated with PCM could be installed in place of ordinary air and the PCM. The means of air transport through the room wallboard during construction or refurbishment of a building. It will provides a very inefficient way of heat transfer. Air movement provide thermal storage that is distributed throughout a building, close to the walls, which determines the amount of heat being enabling passive solar design and off-peak cooling. Peippo et al transferred, is relatively small. An active PCM system which [6] have shown that a 120 m2 house in Madison, Wisconsin, with uses a thermal storage unit incorporating PCM and uses forced a PCM wall could save up to 4 GJ a year or 15% of the annual air convection as the heat transfer medium can be employed to energy cost. Also, they have concluded that the optimal diurnal overcome this problem. heat storage occurs with a PCM having a melting temperature of Space cooling systems incorporating PCM have been developed 1 to 3ºC above the average room temperature. There are claims that store cooling from ambient air during the night and release it that PCM wallboard being developed could save up to 20% of the indoors during hot days. Hed has investigated this type of system house space conditioning costs [10]. for building types where there is an overproduction of heat during Stetiu & Feustel used a thermal building simulation program the day time such as offices, schools and shopping centres [13]. based on the finite difference approach, to numerically evaluate The PCM cooler uses a 24ºC PCM encapsulated in aluminium the thermal performance of PCM wallboard in an office building pouches. These are placed in an air heat exchanger. The PCM is environment [11]. They found that the use of PCM wallboard frozen at night when cool outside air is let into the building and into coupled with mechanical night ventilation in office buildings offers the PCM. The cool air is released into the building during the day. the opportunity for system downsizing in climates where the Each building was assigned with a different thermal inertia – light, outside air temperature drops below 18ºC at night. In the case of medium or heavy weight. The buildings were simulated using a a prototype building located in California, they estimate that PCM finite difference method. Climate data, air temperature and solar wall board can reduce the peak cooling load by 28%. In climates radiation on a horizontal surface were from the 2002 summer in where the outside temperature remains above 18ºC at night, the Gavle, Sweden. The simulations show that the use of PCM has use of PCM wallboard coupled with mechanical night ventilation a significant effect on the maximum indoor air temperature during and no cooling system does not lead to energy or peak power the day.