“Red-Dotted!” A case study analysing how the national Taser training standards are received, interpreted and operationalised by Specially Trained Officers William Keating-Jones This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Professional Doctorate of Criminal Justice Studies of the University of Portsmouth Submission Date: September 2017 1 | Page Table of contents Declaration……………………………………………………………………………........................................................5 List of figures……..………………………………………………………………………………...........................................6 List of tables………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….7 List of acronyms and abbreviations……………………………………………………............................................8 Dedication and acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………………………….10 Abstract and keywords………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..11 Chapter one – Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………….12 An overview of Conducted Energy Devices………………………………………………………………………………………14 The Taser Timeline…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………16 CED training………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………..19 Statistics on CED use in England and Wales……………………………………….…………………………………………….20 Chapter two – Research context………………………………………………………………………………………..………..22 Why this research is needed…………….………………………………………………………………………………………………22 Research Aims and objectives………………………………………………………………………………………………………….22 Research questions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………..23 Literature search strategy……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…25 Chapter three – The police use of force……………………………………………………..……………………………….28 Policing by consent or coercion?…………………………………………………………………………………………………….28 Use of force ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………34 Lethal-force…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………36 Less-lethal force………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………40 Chapter four – Operational decision making aides……………………………………………………………………….46 Equipment ………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………..46 Legislation………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………..50 Force continua…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………52 The National Decision Model………………………………………………………………………………………….……………….54 Deployment and command……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..57 2 | Page Chapter five – The police use of Conducted Energy Devices………………………….……………………………..60 CED use in the United Kingdom……………………………..……….…………………………………………………………….…60 Medical implications………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..62 Ethical and social concern………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..67 CEDs as life takers……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………68 CEDs as an effective tactical option………………………………………………………………………………………………….75 Chapter six – Research methodology…..........................................................................................77 Methodology……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………77 Setting...................................................................................................................................................79 Sample………………………………….……………………………………….………………………………………………………………..80 Analysis……………………………………………………………………..........................................................................84 Ethical compliance.……….……………….……………………………….…................................................................86 Chapter seven – Survey research and the initial application process……………………………………………90 Survey research……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….90 The application and pre-joining process……………….……………………………………………………………………….101 Chapter eight – Training and content…………………………………………………………………………………………105 Initial training – Day one…………………………………….……………................................................................105 Initial training – Day two………………………………………………….................................................................111 Initial training – Day three…………………………………………………..............................................................115 Post-course reflections………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….118 Chapter nine – CED operationalisation………………………………………………………………………………………123 Operational context……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….123 Operational CED use…………………………………………...............................................................................126 Post-incident procedures……….………………………………………………………………………………………………………136 CEDs as a standalone force option…………………………………….…………………………………………………………..137 CEDs and less-lethal force predictors……..……………………………………………………………………………………..138 3 | Page Chapter ten – Decision making and the protection of vulnerable population groups…………........144 The National Decision Model…………………………………………………………………………………………………………144 The continuum perspective……………………………………………………………………………………………………………147 Vulnerable population groups………….……………………………..................................................................150 The mentally vulnerable………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..153 Chapter eleven - Conclusion…………………………..………………………………………………………………………….157 Research limitations.……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..157 Future direction……………….…………………………………………………….…......................................................157 Suggested implementations ……………………........................................................................................160 Avenues for further research.………………………………………………………………………………………………………..162 Conclusion…………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………163 4 | Page Declaration Whilst registered as a candidate for the above degree, I have not been registered for any other research award. The results and conclusions embodied in this thesis are the work of the named candidate and have not been submitted for any other academic award. 5 | Page List of figures Figure 1.1. Taser X26 with associated nomenclature (p. 15) Figure 4.1. The National Decision Model (p. 54) Figure 7.1. Number of STOs in Westshire Constabulary (p. 91) Figure 7.2. Should all police officer carry Taser (p. 93) Figure 7.3. Should all police officers carry a firearm (p. 94) Figure 7.4. Firearms training as an operational contingency (p. 93) Figure 7.5. Retention (p. 94) Figure 7.6. Length of time as a STO (p. 95) Figure 7.7. Participant experience of Taser training (p. 96) Figure 7.8. Initial training failure rate (p. 97) Figure 7.9. Taser firings (p. 98) Figure 7.10. Operational Taser use (p. 99) Figure 7.11. Post-incident procedures (p. 100) 6 | Page List of tables Table 4.2. Deployment policy of Westshire Constabulary (p. 57) Table 5.1. The medical implications of CED deployment (p. 64) Table 6.1. Demographic breakdown of the sample population (p. 81) Table 9.1. Summary of fourteen CED uses disclosed by the sample population (p. 127) 7 | Page List of acronyms and abbreviations ACLU American Civil Liberties Union ACPO Association of Chief Police Officers (Formally the NPCC) AFO Authorised Firearms Officer APP Authorised Professional Practice ARV Armed Response Vehicle AEP Attenuating Energy Projectile BWV Body Worn Video CAD Computer Aided Dispatch CAST Centre for Applied Science Technology CED Conducted Energy Device CEW Conducted Energy Weapon COP College of Policing DOMILL Defence Scientific Advisory Committee on the Medical Implications of Less-Lethal Weapons. DSO Designated Senior Officer ECD Electronic Control Device HOSDB Home Office Scientific Development Branch IOPC Independent Office for Police Conduct (formally the PCA and IPCC) IPCC Independent Police Complaints Commission MP Member of Parliament NDM National Decision Model NMI Neuro Muscular Incapacitation NPCC National Police Chiefs Council (formerly ACPO) NRT Neighbourhood Response Team NYPD New York Police Department PC Police Constable PCC Police Contact Centre PCA Police Complaints Authority PS Police Sergeant APS Acting Police Sergeant PPE Personal Protective Equipment PPW Personal Protective Weaponry QCMC Queensland Crime and Misconduct Commission 8 | Page QMUL Queen Mary University London RTC Road Traffic Collision SACMILL Scientific Advisory Committee on the Medical Implications of Less-Lethal Weapons SFO Specialist Firearms Officer STO Specially Trained Officer TTPOU Tactical Training and Public Order Unit US United States USA United States of America XDPM Extended Digital Power Magazine 9 | Page Dedication This thesis is dedicated solely, whole heartedly and unequivocally to my wife Elizabeth. Lizzy, without your help, guidance and unwavering support I would never have succeeded. Thank you for being my rock. Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to offer a sincere message of thanks to my supervisor Dr Paul Smith. Paul, thank you for your wisdom, direction and steadfast support throughout this process. Your constructive critique has been invaluable. Secondly, I would like to thank my two young children. Thomas, Eleanor, your mere presence and love has been instrumental to the completion of this project. I hope that one day, you will thumb through this thesis and think maybe you could do one of your own. Secure of course, in the knowledge that yours will be much better! Finally, Mum, Dad thank you for everything, I hope this makes you all proud. 10 | Page Abstract The police use of Conducted Energy Devices (CEDs) remains an under-researched and under- evidenced topic of ongoing socio-political concern. This thesis answers an urgent academic call to address a number of gaps in scientific knowledge