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Inhalation of Hazardous Air Pollutants from Environmental Tobacco Smoke in US Residences

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Inhalation of Hazardous Air Pollutants from Environmental Tobacco Smoke in US Residences Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology (2004) 14, S71–S77 r 2004 Nature Publishing Group All rights reserved 1053-4245/04/$25.00 www.nature.com/jea Inhalation of hazardous air pollutants from environmental tobacco smoke in US residences WILLIAM W. NAZAROFF,a,b AND BRETT C. SINGERb aDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA bEnvironmental Energy Technologies Division, Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, USA In the United States, 48 million adults smoke 3.5–5 Â 1011 cigarettes/year. Many cigarettes are smoked in private residences, causing regular environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure to roughly 31 million nonsmokers (11% of the US population), including 16 million juveniles. (Upper bound estimates are 53 million exposed nonsmokers including 28 million juveniles.) ETS contains many chemical species whose industrial emissions are regulated by the US federal government as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). In this paper, average daily residential exposures to and intakes of 16 HAPs in ETS are estimated for US nonsmokers who live with smokers. The evaluation is based on material-balance modeling; utilizes published data on smoking habits, demographics, and housing; and incorporates newly reported exposure-relevant emission factors. The ratio of estimated average exposure concentrations to reference concentrations is close to or greater than one for acrolein, acetaldehyde, 1,3-butadiene, and formaldehyde, indicating potential for concern regarding noncancer health effects fromchronic exposures. In addition, lifetimecancer risks fromresidential ETS exposure are estima ted to be substantial (B2–500 per million) for each of five known or probable human carcinogens: acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, benzene, acrylonitrile, and 1,3- butadiene. Cumulative population intakes from residential ETS are compared for six key compounds against ambient sources of exposure. ETS is found to be a dominant source of environmental inhalation intake for acrylonitrile and 1,3-butadiene. It is an important cause of intake for acetaldehyde, acrolein, and formaldehyde, and a significant contributor to intake for benzene. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology (2004) 14, S71–S77. doi:10.1038/sj.jea.7500361 Keywords: exposure, health risk, indoor air quality, passive smoking, second-hand smoke, toxic air contaminants. Introduction Environmental Protection Agency, 2003a) and as toxic air contaminants by California (Air Resources Board, Cigarette smoking is an important source of indoor air 2003). HAPs are species that are known or suspected pollution. Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) carcinogens, or that have been shown to cause other serious has been linked to an increased risk of many adverse health health effects, such as reproductive problems or birth defects. outcomes, including lung cancer, asthma onset and exacer- Characterization and control of HAPs has focused on bation, and acute respiratory illness (National Cancer outdoor sources. However, because of the close proximity Institute, 1999). Concerns have led to restrictions on smoking between smokers and nonsmokers, and because of the slow in public places, including state regulations that severely limit dilution of pollutants emitted into indoor spaces, the workplace smoking in California, Delaware, Maine, Con- inhalation intake per unit emission is 100 or more times necticut, New York, and Florida. However, regulatory higher for ETS than for typical outdoor sources (Smith, approaches have limited utility for reducing ETS exposures 1993; Lai et al., 2000). in private residences. Instead, public education may be best This paper reports an analysis of exposures to specific suited to reduce exposures, possibly augmented by techno- ETS-constituent HAPs for nonsmokers who live with logical interventions. smokers. Using concentration guidelines and risk factors, Tobacco smoke comprises a large number of chemical individual HAPs in ETS that pose relatively high risks are constituents, partitioned to various degrees between the gas identified. The significance of cumulative population intake is and condensed phases. Among the constituents of ETS are also explored in relation to intake fromambient air pollution. chemical compounds that are regulated as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) by the US federal government (US Methods 1. Address all correspondence to: Prof. W.W. Nazaroff, Department of Overview of Approach Civil and Environmental Engineering, 633 Davis Hall, University of The approach combines a material balance model with California, Berkeley, CA 94720-1710, USA. Tel.: þ 1-510-642-1040; Fax: þ 1-510-642-7483. published data for key input variables: cigarette consumption E-mail: [email protected] patterns, emission factors for HAPs from ETS, residence Nazaroff and Singer Inhalation of HAPs fromETS in US residences volume and air-exchange rates, and population statistics. The ETS exposure data during 1988–1991 on a nationally exposed population of interest is nonsmokers who live with representative cross-section of 7074 juveniles (aged 2 months smokers. A primary goal is to provide an estimate of the to 16 years) and 9744 adults (aged 17 years and over). In mean daily exposure to and inhalation intake of specific this study, exposure to ETS at home was assumed to occur if HAPs by members of this exposed population. The any household member smoked, a condition that was assessment only considers the indoor exposure of nonsmo- reported for 42% of nonsmoking juveniles and 17% of kers caused by the cigarette smoking of household members. nonsmoking adults (Pirkle et al., 1996). Applying these The cumulative intake by the entire population so exposed is proportions to the year 2000 total US population of estimated. Health risk information is considered so as to nonsmoking juveniles (66 million, aged 16 years or less) identify specific contaminants, among those assessed, which and nonsmoking adults (150 million, aged 17 years and over) pose the greatest health risk. The health concerns considered yields an estimate of 53 million nonsmokers who would be here are long-termrisks associated with chronic exposure, exposed to ETS in their homes, of whom 28 million are including cancer, rather than acute concerns such as odor and juveniles. We take this estimate to represent an upper bound, irritation. since it does not exclude homes with smokers who do not smoke indoors. Cigarette Smoking Habits in the United States As part of the BRFSS in 1996, data were collected on the The prevalence of smoking among noninstitutionalized US prevalence of households with current adult cigarette smokers adults was determined from the Behavioral Risk Factor and any children and adolescents in the home (Centers Surveillance System(BRFSS), a state-based, random-digit- for Disease Control and Prevention, 1997). The same dialed telephone survey. Current smokers are defined as those investigation collected information on whether smoking was who reported having smoked more than 100 cigarettes during permitted in some or all areas of the home. This study their lifetime and who currently smoke every day or on some estimated that the number of juveniles (age o18 years) days. We combined state-by-state, gender-specific informa- exposed to ETS at home was 15 million, equal to 22% of all tion fromBRFSS with census data to estimate that 47.7 US juveniles at that time. The total US population of million adults (24.9 million males) smoke cigarettes in the US juveniles in 2000 was 73 million and 22% of this total is (US Census Bureau, 2000; Centers for Disease Control and 16 million. Correcting the NHANES III adult data in Prevention, 2001), an overall adult smoking prevalence of the same way, the proportion of nonsmoking adults regularly 22.8%. exposed to ETS in their own homes would be estimated to be The quantity of cigarettes consumed by smokers was 9%, which corresponds to 15 million people. Thus, estimated from 1997 records reporting an adult, per capita, this estimate suggests that 31 million nonsmokers are tax-paid sales rate of 117 packs/year (Tobacco Institute, regularly exposed to ETS in their own homes because they 1997). Assuming this rate applies to the 2000 US adult live with smokers, and 16 million of those exposed are population of 209 million, we estimate an annual consump- juveniles. We take this to represent a central estimate of the tion of about half a trillion (4.9 Â 1011) cigarettes by US current size of the exposed population. Note that Schuster smokers, which corresponds to 1.4 packs ( ¼ 28 cigs) per day et al. (2002) reported that 21 million US children lived in per adult smoker. Lower estimates of total consumption are households in which smoking regularly occurred by occu- obtained fromsurveys such as BRFSS that ask people about pants or visitors, a value that is consistent with our two their smoking habits. In a nationwide study from the late estimates for juveniles. 1980s, self-reported cigarette consumption was only 72% of tax-based estimates (Hatziandreu et al., 1989). Applying this Exposure-Relevant Emission Factors factor to the data here would indicate a lower bound estimate Important input into this analysis is the effective rate at which on annual cigarette consumption of 3.5 Â 1011 cigs/year by HAPs are emitted in ETS when a cigarette is smoked. US smokers, or 20 cigs/day/smoker. Recent (2002) tax- Emission factors have been measured for many ETS based data indicate US sales of 20.4 billion cigarette packs constituents in special test chambers. However, recent work per year, suggesting an intermediate consumption rate of indicates that airborne concentrations of some ETS consti- 4.1 Â 1011 cigs/year (National Center for Tobacco-Free tuents can be significantly affected by sorptive interactions Kids, 2003). with indoor surfaces (Singer et al., 2002, 2003). Sorption can reduce concentrations and short-termexposures, relative to How Many People are Exposed to ETS at Home? those predicted using an emission factor measured under low- We next seek to estimate the number of nonsmokers who are sorption conditions (e.g., an unfurnished metal chamber).
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