2014-2015

A study tour of the American Civil Movement for students in the Excel! Research Scholars Program at the

University of St. Thomas—Minnesota Students participating in the Journey for Justice Study Tour are Excel! Research Scholars.

Excel! Research Scholars Director: Cynthia J. Fraction, M.A. Graduate Assistant: Courtney Crowley

Mail: AQU 319 322 Aquinas Hall 2115 Summit Avenue St. Paul, MN 55105 stthomas.edu/excel

The Excel! Research Scholars Program is part of the Grants and Research Office.

David Steele, Ph.D. Director, Grants and Research Office

Publication layout/design: Kristin Walters

Photography: Kathryn Hubly (unless otherwise noted) 3 Message from the Excel! Research Scholars Director

4 Key Locations on the study tour

5-6 Reflections from staff on the tour

7-34 Student Research Papers: • Anisa Abdulkadir, “Implications of Legislatively Supported Racial Residential Segregation on Black Housing” • Priscila Barron Sanchez, “Key Legal Cases Surrounding the ” • Kamilah Ceaser, “SNCC and its Contributions to the Movement” • Tiana Daniels, “Canton, the Church, and Civil Rights” • Shannon Heitkamp, “Dr. Martin Luther Jr.’s Speeches: A Critical Analysis” • Maxine Johnson, “Diversity in the Movement” • Quinmill Lei, “What They Conveniently Forgot to Teach in History Class” • Raymond Nkwain Kindva, “The Struggle for Racial Equality in Birmingham, ” • Tyler Skluzacek, “Birmingham: Model City or Master of Disguise?” • Alexander Tsadwa, “State and Federal Clashes in the Midst of the Civil Rights Movement” Photo: As part of the Journey for Justice Study Tour, students crossed the , site of the “Bloody Sunday” protest Parting Thoughts in 1965. 35 37 Community Service & Experience Highlights from the 2015 study tour The Civil Rights Movement is an era which represents some of the most turbulent times in America’s history. All American citizens, be them American born or of immigrant status, regardless of race or religion, are inheritors of the outcomes of the significant work, sacrifices made and lives lost behind this Movement.

Journey for Justice: A Study of the American Civil Rights Movement is an academic enrichment study tour of the south. This is one of the many learning components of the University of St. Thomas Excel! Research Scholars Program. The Excel! Research Scholars Program is a post-baccalaureate achievement program designed to work with first-generation college students and students underrepresented by race in their graduate disciplines to help them be successfully competitive for graduate school admission and funding. The importance of this trip is to empower students to be informed voices about a Movement that served as the foundation for their overall and the opportunities they will benefit from once their education is complete.

University of St. Thomas Excel! Research Scholars, staff and faculty traveled for approximately 13 days during the month of January to meet foot soldiers, those who were on the front lines of the Movement. We touched the remains of and learned the stories about historic locations such as Bryant’s Grocery Store and the home of . We enjoyed fellowship in historic churches such as 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, AL and Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church in Selma, AL. We marched across the Edmund Pettus Bridge after learning and singing as we made our way down the infamous Highway 80 to Montgomery, AL. We boarded our bus at the historic site where she boarded the Montgomery city bus and we freely got off the bus where she was forcefully removed. Our trip was filled with rich scholarship from faculty at Ole Miss, Jackson State University, Tougaloo College, and , along with a host of state-of-the art museums that helped put history into context.

The tour afforded Scholars the opportunity to not only learn and enjoy the wealth of such an experience but to also give back just a little from what was given to them. Scholars packed and donated backpacks for three students in Canton, MS comprised of educational materials and gift certificates to Walmart. On the Martin Luther , also known as A Day of Service, we all participated in community service at the Ronald McDonald House in Birmingham, AL. And, throughout the trip we collected hotel toiletries that were donated to various charities in need throughout the Twin Cities.

This Journal represents student research and reflections regarding their experiences from the trip. What we all take away from such a wealth of opportunity is that much was done for us and yet much is left to do. Today we stand on the shoulders of a mighty group of people both from the south and the north who are expecting us to continue the work needed for the equal rights of all people.

It is with sincere pleasure that we have such an opportunity and it is my sincere hope that you find this journal as educational and heartwarming as we found our trip to be. In Memphis, students visited the Lorraine Motel, site of Martin Luther King Jr.’s assassination in 1968. They also visited the Mason Temple Church of God in Christ, where Dr. King delivered his famed “Mountaintop” speech on the eve of his . They visited several other sites as well.

In Oxford, MS students visited the University of , also known as Ole Miss. Students visited the university’s historic civil rights and slave archives, and stood on the famed steps of the Lyceum while visiting with faculty who were there in the days when actually registered for school. The tour made several stops throughout the Mississippi Delta such as Clarksdale where students stood on hallowed ground and learned about ’s Fourth Street Drug Store, which opened in 1950 in Clarksdale and became a hub for political and civil rights planning for three decades. Students also visited Money, MS to physically touch the actual site of the remains of the store that Emmitt Till once visited before his life was taken.

Through our partnership with COFO and Jackson State University, students toured and studied multiple locations such as Lynch Street, Farrish Street, the home of Medgar Evers, The Margaret Walker Center, Tougaloo College, and the Smith Robertson Museum.

In addition to learning freedom songs, students toured the City of Canton, MS, noting the home of legendary Sr. Thea Bowman and the famed Madison County Courthouse. In the famed historic Canton Freedom House students met with several foot soldiers as well as the honorable Mayor Arnel Bolden, as well as other notable foot soldiers.

The tour re-enacted the march from Selma to Montgomery. Students began their visit in Selma, AL at Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church. Later, students marched across the Edmund Pettus Bridge, visiting the numerous memorials of Bloody Sunday. Foot soldier Sam Walker, who participated in the march from Selma to Montgomery, has been our guide for three years, re-enacting the days of Selma’s greatest challenge.

Students attended church service at 16th Street Baptist Church and remembered a time when four innocent little , former members of this church, painfully lost their lives. In celebration of the MLK holiday the Scholars also had a chance to give back to Birmingham by participating in community service at the Ronald McDonald House.

Students walked from their hotel to catch their bus at the famous bus stop where Ms. Rosa Parks caught her bus the day she changed the face of American and segregated transportation. Later, students concluded their journey from Selma to Montgomery by standing at the doors of the Montgomery State Capitol.

4 REFLECTIONS from UST staff on the 2015 tour

TERON BUFORD

I attended a very Afro-centric school from around me, help foster dialogues around kindergarten through 8th grade. I’d spent uncomfortable subject matter, and the majority of my student life learning create a culture of mutual acceptance about my ancestry, the struggles endured and appreciation at the University of St. by Africans and African-Americans, the Thomas. perseverance they demonstrated during times of hardship, and the resiliency they Since returning from the trip, I have exuded in the face of seemingly hopeless begun a series of dialogues surrounding odds. As can be expected, when presented race and privilege in the office of with the opportunity to accompany the Admissions, am in the process of creating Teron Buford (left) and several Excel! Scholars to the southeast region of a training to address the issue of being other members of the study the to research the various an ally, and am working with a group of tour got a picture with Flonzie cities that played major roles in the Civil faculty and staff members to create an Brown Wright after she spoke Rights Movement, I didn’t hesitate to event on campus for prospective students with them in Canton, MS. confirm my spot. As the departure date that promotes dialogue around social neared, however, I became increasingly justice, , cultural awareness, more anxious about the idea of being and most importantly, inclusion and away from my wife and son for such an acceptance of all people regardless of their extended amount of time. In fact, just backgrounds and/or lived experiences. I a few days before leaving for the trip, I can honestly say that this trip has truly began second-guessing my decision; I even impacted my life greatly and encouraged thought to decline the offer at the last me to continue fighting the good fight. minute. I’m glad that I didn’t. Cynthia Fraction, the coordinator of this tour, used a saying a few times and I’ve Had I decided not to attend this trip I adopted it as my personal mantra: “If would have (quite literally) missed out not me, then who?” I don’t think a better on the opportunity of a lifetime. Not question has ever been asked and I hope to Katie Hubly (right) took a only did I get a chance to visit many of never find the answer. break from documenting the the cities and sites that have helped our tour in order to explore the nation to where it is today, I was also —Teron is the interim assistant director in afforded that opportunity to interact with of admissions and coordinator of Birmingham, AL. living monuments of history—many of multicultural recruitment for UST. the agitators, demonstrators, allies, and witnesses of the Civil Rights Movement are still alive today and were more than KATIE HUBLY happy to meet and share stories with the group. Such moments affirmed to me that, Another email sent. A new file complete. while the Movement may have seemed One more student sent on their way. to take place a lifetime ago, we are not as far-removed from atrocities such as As the Coordinator for the Undergraduate slavery, oppression, , and Research Grants Program at UST, I work segregation as we’d like to think. But, on a daily basis with undergraduate more importantly, meeting with those students. The work takes place behind key members of the Movement motivated the scenes, managing the day-to-day me to use my God-given abilities and operations which allow our students to Courtney Crowley (center) talents to better understand the world engage in mentored research on campus at in Birmingham, AL with Excel! Scholars Anisa Abdulkadir (left) and Tiana Daniels (right). during the summer and academic They woke up early to put in travel time experiences highlighted the painful legacy from UST staff on the 2015 tour semesters and which provide the platform on the bus. They took the initiative to of slavery, segregation, and discrimination for them to share their research on our engage in conversations with the foot in the United States. In addition, they campus as well as across the United States. soldiers, educators and political leaders underlined the strength, solidarity, and they met. They worked … hard. love that fueled one of our nation’s most The students who engage in these impactful movements. programs all begin in the same place, with And slowly, the transformation happened. questions, excitement and eagerness over The students who started their journey It would be an understatement to say the possibility of delving into the world of at 7:00 a.m. on a dark Sunday morning that this trip changed my life. In fact, research. As such, I witness the beginning returned with a passion for learning it changed my head, my heart, and stages of students becoming researchers. that is going to continue beyond those my purpose. I am a white woman. I I also witness the end of the process thirteen days in the Deep South and will grew up in a family that believed in … the proud student standing by their propel them to become strong leaders and “colorblindness” – or treating individuals research poster, eager to share what they’ve educators in their communities. The steps as equals, without regard to race, culture, discovered and learned. they’ve taken on this study tour are just or ethnicity. As an adolescent, I would the beginning. say things like, “I don’t see color. I just What I do not usually observe, however, see people.” At face value, colorblindness is the process it takes to go from excited, —Katie coordinates undergraduate seems harmless. After all, Dr. Martin eager student to proud new researcher. research grants administered through Luther King, Jr. wanted individuals to be the Grants and Research Office at UST. judged by content of their character rather That is, until January of 2015. She also took most of the photographs than the color of their skin. featured in this publication. It was then that I traveled with the Excel! Journey for Justice punctures Research Scholars Program participants colorblindness and shows why it does not to document the Journey for Justice Civil have a place within the United States. In America, race does matter. It determines Rights Study Tour of the South. Armed COURTNEY CROWLEY with my camera and lenses, I set out to educational opportunities, income-levels, capture the transformation of student to In the words of Nelson Mandela, “No one perceptions of worth, and so much more. budding researcher. is born hating another person because of Journey for Justice shows that the march the color of his skin, or his background, for civil rights did not end with Jim Crow. What I witnessed can only be described as or his religion. People must learn to hate, As a future student affairs professional, I the experience of watching embers being and if they can learn to hate, they can hope to apply what I learned through this slowly fed and stoked, until a spark ignites be taught to love, for love comes more trip in my work with college students. and what were once embers become a naturally to the human heart than its blazing fire. This group of students fully opposite.” Like the activists and change agents of the engaged in the materials, issues, people, civil rights era, I will stand up for justice, and places we encountered starting from January marked my second trip to the take action against inequality, and most day one. They listened, observed, took American South with the Excel! Research importantly be “color brave,” rather than endless notes, asked hard questions and Scholars Program. This year, we learned colorblind. delved into discussions whenever the about the transatlantic slave trade, visited opportunity presented itself. They did the Emmitt Till Museum, marched across —Courtney is the graduate assistant and not shy away from debating heavy issues the Edmund Pettus Bridge, and interacted writing specialist for the Excel! Research and instead attempted to grapple for with foot soldiers who fought on the Scholars Program. She will receive her understanding and for answers. They put frontlines of the Civil Rights Movement M.A. in Leadership in Student Affairs in late nights after full days of learning. during the 1950s and 60s. These from UST this May.

student research Students on this study tour are Excel! Research Scholars, and for that reason are asked to write a scholarly paper on a Civil Rights Movement- PAPERS related topic after their visit. The following pages contain ten of those papers from the 2014 and 2015 study tours. IMPLICATIONS OF LEGISLATIVELY SUPPORTED RACIAL RESIDENTIAL

Photo: Anisa and the other students SEGREGATION ON BLACK had the opportunity to view historical documents firsthand while at the HOUSING University of Mississippi archives. ATTAINABILITY IN THE UNITED STATES DURING 1954-1968 by ANISA ABDULKADIR

Racial segregation has long been viewed as an important aspect During the Jim Crow era, blacks and whites were prohibited from of racial inequality (Charles, 2003). Segregation has allowed interacting in public and private facilities in the South (Newman, for the unequal distribution of resources, especially, in black 2011). They occupied segregated schools, restaurants, theaters, communities. Prior to the Civil Rights Movement (1954-1968), restrooms, and waiting rooms. Spatial control of black Americans every aspect of black Americans lives and progression was limited their employment, habitation, and travel (Faegin, 1999). hindered due to segregation. Segregation was a “major barrier to As such, every aspect of black lives was negatively impacted due to equality,” inhibiting “the development of informal, neighborly segregation, particularly in their attempts to buy a home. relations,” permitting prejudice, and “[undermining] the social and economic well-being” of black Americans (Charles, 2003). In In the early 1950’s to late 1960’s, black Americans encountered sum, segregation allowed for the advancement of white Americans blatant racism and discrimination in their attempts to rent or at the cost of racial equity in the United States. buy a home. Segregation was attributed to the “lack of affordable housing in safe and economically prosperous suburban community” (Seitles, 1996). black Americans had limited choice with regards to the homes and neighborhoods in which they resided. Due to housing discrimination supported by legislature, many cities in the United States exhibited residential segregation. Utilizing scholarly research and personal experience, this paper aims to evaluate the impact of legislation and discrimination on residential segregation and address the repercussions on black communities in America.

THE ROLE OF LEGISLATION AND DISCRIMINATION IN RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION Photo: Items on display at the National Civil Rights Museum at the Lorraine Hotel in Memphis, Tennessee. Due to the mass migration of to central cities, housing ordinances and policies established separate The aftermath of desegregation is evident in many cities across the neighborhoods for whites and blacks. By 1960, 73 percent of United States. Several UST students and staff, including myself, black Americans resided in urban cities (Bowler, 1999). This experienced firsthand the repercussions of racial segregation migration occurred in congruence with white American migration during the Journey for Justice tour. We gained valuable from urban cities into suburbs, which is known as white flight. knowledge on the accomplishment of civil rights activists and Because of this, government officials allocated tax dollars to witnessed the condition of those living in a post-Jim Crow society. improve white suburbs, resulting in the neglect and deterioration

7 of black populated central suburban, white communities cities (Bowler, 1999). (Seitles, 1996).

In order to advance the The FHA was conceived and segregationist’s agenda, operated in a discriminatory the local, state, and federal fashion. It described itself government “reinforced as “the protector of all discriminatory norms white neighborhoods, and through various public aimed at “[keeping] Negroes policies” (Seitles, 1996). and other minorities from Legally enforced zoning buying homes in white ordinances divided cities neighborhoods” (Seitles, by race, and shifted the 1996). The FHA not only distribution of public denied non-white Americans resources. For example, loans and mortgages, they also zoning laws in Birmingham, attacked private developers Alabama resulted in in pursuit of integration segregated communities prior to and during the Civil with unequal public Rights Movement (Bowler, services. According to the 1999). Intimidation and Birmingham Civil Rights discrimination was utilized by Museum, Predominantly banking institutions to limit black communities lacked housing attainability for black streetlights, garbage Americans. collection, paved roads, sewers, and other public Due to redlining and similar services. In addition, black discriminatory practices, residents’ homes were Photos (submitted by Anisa): Some of the abandoned, boarded numerous black Americans located near creek beds houses that students saw in the Mississippi Delta during the were denied loans and and, at, times railroads study tour. mortgages. Consequently, (Birmingham Civil Rights they were unable to relocate to Museum). wealthier neighborhoods, build equity from potential homes, and their children were unable to Zoning laws were not the only method utilized by segregationists benefit from the residual wealth. to retain black Americans in impoverished communities; many government agencies and banking institutions developed a Black Americans were forced to remain immobile. Many families practice known as redlining. The Federal Housing Administration continued to reside in impoverished communities, as did their (FHA), which granted loans and mortgages, heavily partook in children and grandchildren. For example, many black families, redlining. Redlining is a method that discriminatingly rated the still living in the Mississippi Delta, are destitute. Some reside loan risk associated with borrowers in specific neighborhood; in inadequate housing, and many neighborhoods contain borrowers from working class black neighborhoods were abandoned, boarded houses (Image 1). “red-lined,” resulting in a diversion of funding from black communities, and directing funds towards more affluent, I observed the conditions of these neighborhoods while on our

8 Journey for Justice Civil Rights prospective homebuyers. study tour. For example, once More importantly, it we crossed the bridge from “forbade mortgage brokers the Mississippi Delta into from denying home Greenwood, MS, the change loans due to the race in housing conditions was of the borrower or the startling. Greenwood contained racial composition of the large, grandiose, plantation neighborhood” (Boustan, homes, a clear indication of 2013). residual wealth (Image 2). CONCLUSION Although state and federal legislation was in place to Various forms of advance eligible home loan discriminatory legislation and mortgage borrowers, endorsed residential racial racial inequality hindered the segregation in the United mobility of black Americans. States. Federal institutions As such, intergenerational followed and upheld mobility and wealth of black methods that restricted families was also obstructed. black residential mobility. Because of discrimination THE CIVIL RIGHTS implemented in legislation, MOVEMENT AND FAIR black Americans faced HOUSING barriers in attaining loans and mortgages, which The March on Washington, hindered their ability to which Dr. King described as purchase a home. Inability “the greatest demonstration to subdue these barriers for freedom in the history resulted in the stagnation of of our nation” may have residential mobility in black advanced the progress of Photos (submitted by Anisa): Some of the large, plantation communities. the Civil Rights Act of homes students saw after crossing the bridge from the Delta 1964 (Williams 202-203). into Greenwood, MS. Legislature such as the Inadvertently, the Civil Rights Civil Rights Act of Act of 1964 was a catalyst for fair housing legislation in the 1964 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968 is expected to protect United States. Title VI of the prohibited prospective homebuyers, and allow them to purchase a home discrimination on the basis of race, color, or national origin in without the threat of discrimination or intimidation. However, housing. Title VI exclusively protected recipients of assistance that is not always the case. Several decades after these laws were from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development enacted, black communities continued to face barriers due to (HUD). However, it initiated laws that protected individuals from discrimination. For example, the GI Bill, formally known as discrimination pertaining to housing attainability. the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1994, was intended to help World War II Veterans transition back into society. The Although black Americans received limited security against GI Bill granted eligible veterans tuition assistance, employment housing discrimination from the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the compensation, job training, low interest loans, and low-cost Fair Housing Act of 1968 and the Equal Credit Opportunity of mortgages. Eight out of ten men born in the 1920’s benefited 1974 provided additional protection. Together, these legislations from the GI bill (McKenna, 2008). The GI bill established prohibited owners and proprietors from discriminating against on “premises of both legal and de facto inequality” (Herbold,

9 Photo: A quote from Freedom Rider Jim Zwerg on display at the National Voters Rights Museum in Selma, AL. The were black civil rights activists who used bus tours to protest segregation. While traveling, they refused to comply with “whites only” restrictions in bus terminals, restrooms, lunch counters and beyond.

1995). Racial inequality and discrimination prevented black Americans from utilizing the same benefits as white Americans. The GI bill was Cutler, David, Glaser, Edward & Vidgor, built to foster white wealth while excluding black Americans. Jacob. 1999. The Rise and Decline of the American Ghetto. Journal of Political Black GIs experienced the deleterious effects of racial inequality Economy 107 (3): 455-506 in their attempts to benefit from the GI Bill. The Veterans Administration (VA), which GIs had to report to in order to apply Feagin, Joe. Excluding blacks and Others and receive benefits, was employed by individuals that had the From Housing: The Foundation of white authority to deny or grant benefits (McKenna, 2008). As a result, Racism. Cityscape: A Journal on Policy a substantial number of white veterans were granted benefits in Development and Research (1999) 4: 79-91. comparison to black veterans. Subsequently, those who received benefits were able to receive loans and mortgages for homes. Herbold, Hilary. Never a Level Playing Field: If a black veteran managed to secure a loan, “he faced higher blacks and the GI Bill. The Journal of black in payment requirements, higher interest rates, higher real estate Higher Education (1995) 6: 104-108 agent commission, and higher homeowner insurance premiums” than his white counterparts (McKenna, 2008). Due to staggering McKenna, Cyd. The Homeownership Gap: discrimination within VAs across the country, a significantly How The Post-World War II GI Bill Shaped less portion of black veterans were able to purchase homes. For Modern Day Homeownership Patterns for example, in Charlotte, North Carolina, only eight percent of black and white Americans. Massachusetts married, black veterans purchased homes compared to forty Institute of Technology, Department of Urban percent of married, white veterans (McKenna, 2008). Studies and Planning 2008 pp. 1-92. The implication of legislation that sustained racial segregation Newman, James. “Jim Crow.” The in the South continued to impact black communities even after Encyclopedia of Political Science. Ed. George desegregation. Some scholars believe that “today’s segregation is Thomas Kurian. Vol. 3. Washington, DC: CQ characterized by decentralized forces; whites pay more than blacks Press, 2011. 856-857. Gale Virtual Reference to live in predominantly white areas” (Cutler, Glaser, & Vidgor, Library. Web. 3 Feb. 2015. 1999). Such is true in the Mississippi Delta. To this day, some communities remain segregated in the United States and resources Seitles, Marc. The Perpetuation of Residential are divided unequally. Racial Segregation in America: Historical Discrimination, Modern Forms of Exclusion, and Inclusion Remedies. Journal of Land Use REFERENCES & Environmental Law 1996 pp. 1-31

Boustan, Leah. Racial Residential Segregation in U.S. Const. amend. XIII American Cities. The National Bureau of Economic Research (2013) 3129-339. Williams, David and Collins, Chiquita. Racial Residential Segregation: A Fundamental Bowler, Claire. Fair Housing in the United States. Cause of Racial Disparities in Health. Public Health Reports (2001) 116: 404-416. Charles, Camille. The Dynamics of Racial Residential Segregation. Annual Review of (2003) Williams, Juan. : America’s 29:167-207. Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965. New York, Penguin Books, 2013. Print

10 KEY LEGAL CASES SURROUNDING

Priscila is pictured here with Mr. Hollis THE CIVIL RIGHTS Watkins, one of the foot soldiers of the Civil Rights Movement, whom she met on MOVEMENT the study tour. a reflection by PRISCILA BARRON SANCHEZ

The United States’ Civil Rights Movement is critical to incredible and incredible non-violence. It is safe to say American history. It is arguable, however, that history is being we know what the front and back covers look like of the book oversimplified. When one recalls what teachers and textbooks on the Movement, maybe a few characters, some pictures, and taught, what is remembered is vague. The people, the events, the maybe even the titles of a few chapters. But we can hardly fathom struggles, all lose their substance. History is not always accepted as what it took to even be able to write the words in that book; the a ; therefore, rendering any past accomplishments and their thousands, if not millions, of authors who deserve credit and the effects as taken for granted. plethora of obstacles each and every single one of them faced.

Having had the privilege to travel the south visiting many of the Although I immensely appreciate the preservation of what few most prominent locations where the Movement took place truly bits we can see, I think it is important to not only recognize the shaped my personal understanding of the Civil Rights Movement. what behind the Movement—but understand the how. Law is a Along the way, people who were on the front lines of the heavily overlooked aspect of the Movement that might begin to Movement brought us into their past struggles with their stories. answer the latter notion. The legal battle that ensued constantly Landmarks placed us into the heart of the events. The anecdotes, throughout the Movement is only briefly mentioned. Only a memorials, and current activity recognized that this history was handful of court cases that triumphed for civil rights are actually very recent. knowledge. The associations that come with “Jim Crow,” of racial segregation and discrimination, and its subsequent dismantling We remember the names of certain foot soldiers as the parents are faint shadows compared to the stark reality. of the Movement. We remember the events that occurred with a general idea derived from their names. We even remember Do we know the driving forces behind these successes? Do we certain details, although scattered throughout our learnings, of credit the lesser known heroes of the Movement who fought fiercely in courts for their brothers and sisters on the streets? Would we recognize the hundreds of court cases, federal, state, and local alike that provided the stepping stones for a change in the oppressive structure enforced by law?

Photo: Smith Charles Hamilton Robertson School Houston, born in Jackson, MS September 3, (now a museum) 1895 is remotely was the first known as “The public school for Man Who Killed black students in Jim Crow,” playing Mississippi. a role in nearly

11 “Of course there’s every Supreme Court civil rights case from more the Court can sanctioned segregation including public 1930 to his death in 1950. Backed by a buildings, parks and recreation facilities, Harvard Law education, his master stroke do. I think… the hospitals, and restaurants. Another major was the clever plan to use the hypocrisy breakthrough came with the persuasion of the legal system, emphasizing the Court could stop of the Court to dismiss all prosecutions inherent inequality that defeated Plessy v. looking around of demonstrators who had participated Ferguson’s “.” Houston in civil rights sit-ins with Hamm v. City served as the first special counsel to the for excuses not to of Rock Hill (1964). The Legal Defense National Association for the Advancement and Educational Fund’s defendants even of Colored People (NAACP). The victory enforce the 14th included Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in Brown v. Board of Education was the result of his plans in motion. Houston’s Amendment as it The Legal Defense and Educational lasting effects posthumously rest on Fund was the legal driving force behind the shoulders of his mentee, Thurgood was intended to be a plethora of equal justice upholding Marshall. enforced.” cases and has remained consistent in their mission. For example, providing , born July 2nd 1908, -Thurgood Marshall litigation for Smith v. Allright (1943) was the grandson of a slave. Under his which essentially denied the use of racial leadership, the NAACP Legal Defense and discrimination as political tactic in voting; Educational Fund (LDF) was established. Griggs v. Duke Power Company (1971) Marshall is known for winning Supreme Court victories as an which ruled against racial discrimination in hiring; Shelley v. attorney, “breaking the color line” in housing, transportation, and Kraemer (1948) which held that courts could not enforce racial voting. In 1967, he became the first African American to serve covenants on real estate; Furman v. Georgia (1972) which ruled as a justice on the U.S. Supreme Court, nominated by President on the requirement for a degree of consistency in the application Lyndon B. Johnson. As justice, he promoted race conscious of the death penalty: McCleskey v. Kemp (1997) which policies, such as affirmative action, as retribution for the nation’s unfortunately ruled that “racially disproportionate impact” in the history and remnants of slavery and racial bias. He believed that Georgia death penalty indicated by a comprehensive scientific only integration would allow equal rights under the law to take study was not enough to overturn the guilty verdict without hold. showing a “racially discriminatory purpose,” and Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) which upheld the affirmative action admissions The mission of the Legal Defense and Educational Fund has policy of the University of Michigan Law School. consistently been “to achieve racial justice, equality, and an inclusive society.” In its first twenty years, the legal assault was Another notable legal organization formed at the height of the focused on the segregation of public education. When massive civil rights movement is known as “The Lawyers’ Committee violent resistance resulted from the Brown v. Board of Education for Civil Rights Under Law.” Over fifty years ago, on June 21, decision in 1954 to end public school segregation, the Legal 1963, President John F. Kennedy, Vice President Lyndon B. Defense and Educational Fund sued hundreds of school districts Johnson, and Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy met with 244 across the country to uphold the court’s promise. After the lesser prominent American lawyers in response to a “Call to the Bar” known, yet wildly successful cases of Cooper v. Aaron (1958) initiated by Bernard Segal among other lawyers who criticized the which held that states were bound by the Court’s decisions and defiance of elected officials to the “rule of law.” It was now clear, if had to enforce them even if they did not agree, Green v. County not before, that the fundamental rights of citizens could no longer School Board of New Kent County (1968) where the Court be selectively and racially denied. Attorney General Kennedy mandated that the school board must formulate new plans urged to the attorneys gathered to speak up, mobilize, and play a towards realistically converting to a desegregated system as their role in the civil rights crisis that upheld the struggle for justice of original ones were inadequate in compliance with Brown, and black Americans. The Committee began to issue public statements Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971) calling for peaceful compliance with court orders and voluntary which mandated that busing be provided in order to desegregate desegregation of public facilities, sending volunteer lawyers where schools, that the Court issued mandates requiring all aspects needed, and opened an office in June of 1965 in Mississippi of segregation to be eliminated “root and branch.” Successes which stood for twenty years advocating for desegregation and of the Legal Defense and Educational Fund’s litigation during transformation of the state. The committee is still working for the 1940s-1960s rest on the Court’s overturning of many state- equality in civil rights today.

12 SNCC AND ITS CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MOVEMENT a reflection by KAMILAH CEASER

On February 1, 1960 Ezell Blair, Jr., Franklin McCain, Joseph University in Raleigh, North Carolina to help focus, organize, and McNeil, and David Richmond, all freshmen college students train these young people, who had already shown, through their at North Carolina A&T State University in Greensboro, North own intuitive methods they were capable of making businesses Carolina, walked into a Woolworth’s store and attempted to be wake up and recognize the power of youth. Through the help of served at a segregated lunch counter. Although they were not Baker, a temporary committee called the Student served, the news of their bold protest gained national attention Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was formed. Baker strongly and spread like wild fire to students at other schools across the suggested that SNCC remain autonomous and not become the country. youth chapter of the SCLC. Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. did all he could to make sure their protests would remain nonviolent Suddenly, there were “sit-in” protests happening throughout the in action and spirit, by providing monetary backing and South and in the North; protesters began to picket and boycott individuals to teach non-violent protest methods to the students until treatment towards African Americans at Woolworth lunch who attended the Leadership Rally in Raleigh, N.C. counters changed in the South. America was not ready for the nonviolent demand for equality, but within six months of that The initial goal of the SNCC was to organize and execute first “sit-in,” Woolworth stopped their policy of segregated lunch nonviolent which is meeting discriminatory counters. practices head-on without using force. “...[T]he demonstrations expanded beyond lunch counter sit-ins. Protesters had wade-ins Seeing the wave at segregated pools, kneel-ins at all-white churches, sit-ins at of enthusiasm segregated movie theaters- protests at most every kind of public by America’s place.” One-by-one SNCC began to tally victory after victory all youth to defiantly won through nonviolent direct action. SNCC then set its sights challenge and on desegregating interstate transportation and voting registration. disobey the racist , In Ann Moody’s autobiography, Coming of Age in Mississippi , the (1970), she shares how she was recruited by SNCC members to Executive Director work on the voter registration drive while she was a student at of the Southern what was formerly known as Tougaloo Southern Christian College Christian in Jackson, Mississippi. According to Ms. Moody students who Leadership were active in the NAACP and SNCC often had poor grades, not Council, along because they could not handle the work, but because of the long with Reverend hours spent registering and teaching individuals to pass the voter Dr. Martin Luther poll tests. Moody goes on to say, “The SNCC workers who were Photo: A Congress of Racial Equality King Jr. called a employed full-time were only paid ten dollars a week. They could (CORE) publication, on display at conference April do more with that ten dollars than most people I knew could do the COFO Civil Rights Education 15-17, Easter with fifty.” The SNCC workers, African American and whites Complex at Jackson State University weekend, of (mostly from the North) lived and worked together fighting for in Jackson, Mississippi. 1960 at Shaw freedom and equality for all people. Moody stated, “I really got to

13 like all of the SNCC workers. idly by when work needed I had never known people to be done. It was the so willing and determined energy, tenacity, and bold to help others. I thought nature of these individuals , the director of Photo: An exhibit about the Mississippi Freedom Riders at that pushed the Civil Rights SNCC in Mississippi, was the COFO Civil Rights Education Complex at Jackson State. Movement forward when Jesus Christ in the flesh. A SNCC seemed to stall or lot of other people thought lack the courage to forge of him as J.C., too.” Although SNCC workers and volunteers ahead. There were often differences of opinion on what tactics were working together in harmony most whites, according to should be used and who should lead the charge; this was the case Moody, “[W]ere just waiting for the chance to kill them all off. in the in Georgia. I guess mostly the SNCC workers were just lucky. Most of them had missed a bullet by an inch or so on many occasions. Threats SNCC was fully immersed in voter’s registration in Mississippi didn’t stop them. They just kept going all the time.” According and in the Albany Movement in Georgia, which attempted to Meltzer, author of The black Americans: A history in their own to focus on institutionalized segregation in Albany. Although words (1984), “[The SNCC volunteers] risked their jobs, their SNCC had been working hard to set up nonviolent direct action , and their lives in the fight for first-class citizenship.” protests in Albany the locals wanted to bring Dr. King to town to garner more local participation and put the national spotlight SNCC was a nonviolent organization that worked side by side on Albany. It was during the Albany Movement that SNCC and with other organizations such as Southern Christian Leadership SCLC began to have power struggles with each other because Conference (SCLC), The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), some SNCC members worried that King’s approach and style Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) and National would hinder the locals’ perception that they could fight for their Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). rights without a national figure. SNCC would bump heads again When CORE was trying to fight the unconstitutional segregation during the March on Washington when was asked to of interstate travel facilities, in 1961, the Freedom Riders were tone down his speech by more conservative members of the Civil badly beaten, jailed, and on a later ride a bus was firebombed. Rights Movement because it was believed to be too critical of the When it seemed they could not continue the rides, SNCC Kennedy Administration and his Civil Rights legislation. stepped in and picked up where CORE left off until the Interstate Commerce Commission began enforcing the 1960 Supreme By 1965, SNCC began to fray at the seams as there was much Court ruling that segregation in these facilities is unconstitutional. infighting among members and disapproval regarding the SNCC field secretary Bob Moses became voter registration direction of the organization. Some felt nonviolent methods were director for the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO) no longer effective and a new route should be sought, and many which served as a central communications hub for all of the questioned if whites should really be a part of this struggle or Civil Rights organizations in the state of Mississippi. The hard not. These disputes finally came to a head in 1966 when Stokely work and dedication of SNCC and the many volunteers helped Carmichael was elected chair of SNCC and in time he moved to register African Americans during the “” of SNCC closer toward the idea of black solidarity through the cry October 1963. When COFO held a mock ballot more than of “” and expulsion of all white members from the 80,000 African Americans came to the polls to vote. Due to organization further alienated SNCC from Northern financial the overwhelming success of this event the Mississippi Freedom and moral support. This did not sit well with other Civil Rights (MFDP) was formed in 1964 to directly organizations who continued to call for unity among the people, challenge the Constitutionality of Southern Democratic Party and in time they too distanced themselves from SNCC. or “Dixiecrats” who through claiming they were a private club, would not allow African Americans to join. It took each Civil By the 1970s, this once powerful Civil Rights organization had Rights organization working together under the common goal to changed its name to Student National Coordinating Committee, make the MFDP party a reality. and lost its ability to mobilize the masses for change like it had in the past. SNCC had served its purpose “...[To] seeks [a] social SNCC’s stance and method of execution in the Civil Rights order of justice permeated by love…” and with that goal met, Movement was cutting edge and very grassroots. The leaders, or through the blood, sweat, and tears of her members, she was field secretaries, both men and women, were not a group to sit successful. For that, I am thankful.

14 CANTON, THE CHURCH, AND CIVIL RIGHTS by TIANA DANIELS

The during the Civil Rights Movement was a force Dubois described the Negro church as a “nation within a to be reckoned with. There is no other black institution capable nation” (Gaines 2010: 368). These scholars heavily scrutinized of boasting the political, social, and economic power of African the lack of collective commitment to civic action within the Americans larger than the black church (Gaines 2010: 366). The African American community. Churches remained separate and black church is defined as a collective, largely denominational conservative. It wasn’t until the Civil Rights Movement that body of churches comprised primarily of African American people multiple black churches shifted their role as solely spiritual healers who seek spiritual empowerment and social agency (Gaines to agents for social change (Gaines 2010: 369). The goal of this 2010:369). The black church served as a pivotal institution that paper is to examine the role black churches had during the Civil helped propel the Civil Rights Movement while keeping the Rights Movement, specifically in Canton, Mississippi. community together. Canton, Mississippi is a city with a rich civil rights history. The According to Gaines (2010), members of these churches were city of Canton served as the meeting grounds for many civil rights also concerned with racial consciousness, civic engagement, leaders such as Dr. Martin Luther King, , and communal worship. The black church fostered community, Medgar Evers, and more. During the 1950s and 60s, this city functioned as an was rich with black-owned restaurants, cafes, barber shops, movie educative space, theaters, department stores, drug stores, several local banks, city and promoted schools, doctors’ offices and other businesses (Wright 2000: 19). collaborative This city has served over twenty thousand residents. According efforts amongst to Wright (2000), Canton was the Mecca for surrounding other churches. communities in Mississippi. The black church also promoted Despite the city’s flourishing economy, another factor brought socio-political individuals into Canton, Mississippi for activism. The incredible mobilization for strength of the community through black churches attracted African Americans leaders to this city. Starting in 1949, a Catholic mission sponsored during the Civil and built a school for black children in the city of Canton (Wright Rights Movement 2000: 20). Their primary mission was to establish a school, a (Gaines 2010: church, and community recreational activities. With this school 366). Black came the development of more faith-based schools such as the churches, however, Holy Child Jesus Mission School. These schools played a pivotal weren’t always this role in producing some of Canton’s most prominent leaders. For Photo: Holy Child Jesus Mission political. Prior to example, Sister Thea Bowman found her passion for humanity was founded in 1946 as a school the Civil Rights and Christ while attending the Holy Child Jesus Mission School for African American children in Movement, Carter in the 1950s. Through Sister Thea Bowman’s suffering with cancer Canton, MS. Sister Thea Bowman G. Woodson and untimely death, she taught many how to live (Wright 2000: was a student there in the 1950s. and W.E.B. 23).

15 Churches in Canton did not only influence education during young people to retreat to. Often times parents were too afraid the Civil Rights Movement. Rather, the church served as a to leave their children at home alone so they would bring them community-based institution. For example, the Asbury United to the nightly church meetings. Community members realized Methodist Church, Holy Child Jesus the high number of children in adult Church and the Mt. Zion community meetings, so they established Baptist Church exposed various individuals small groups to care for them. One of the to church activities (Wright 2000: 27). groups organized was a youth choir to sing According to Wright (2000), denomination at the meetings, organized by Ms. Wright. did not matter during the Movement. The Pleasant Green Church of Christ Individuals would leave church and church Holiness, U.S.A. was another institution activities “feeling as though we could not that opened its doors to the children. make it another week no matter what our There, the children had weekly choir circumstances. [Individuals] were anxious rehearsal and they learned to sing all of for another week to pass to return to the historic freedom songs. This kept kids fellowship once again with [their] church off the street and gave them something family” (Wright 2000: 27). To the people positive to look forward to. In addition, it of Canton, the unification of churches felt made youth feel as if they were directly a like family. part of the Movement.

During the Civil Rights Movement this Photo: Foot soldier Flonzie Brown The role of the black church had an connection allowed for the community Wright told UST students about her incredible impact on the Civil Rights to thrive together during difficult times. experiences, including organizing Movement. The black church empowered Harris (1993) noted that it was important for a youth choir that taught freedom ordinary citizens to fight the oppression the black community to become less socially songs while providing a safe haven in their everyday lives (Gaines 2010: stratified in order to cultivate this communal for children during nightly church 377). It also provided the resources for power. Communal power was essential for meetings. these individuals to effectively mobilize the black church if it wanted to liberate black and develop resistance tactics. Canton, people. In Canton, however, not every local church was open to Mississippi continues to maintain the goal established during accepting the Movement. Some ministers saw the Civil Rights the Civil Rights Movement of building stronger families and Movement as only a . Consequently, these individuals communities. Today, the presence of the black church has the failed to realize that this was a moral issue for all of humanity ability to dismantle any obstacle the black community faces on a (Wright 2000: 57). national scale. The real question to pose is if black churches across the nation are ready to mobilize again, like the city of Canton, Individuals began to mobilize as more and more churches opened Mississippi, despite of denomination. their doors to civil rights activity. Black churches during this time provided black people with the skills and training they needed to improve their social mobility. Women, specifically, learned how to run for office, campaign, vote, and lead women’s conventions in REFERENCES Harris, F. E. 1993. respect to education, church, and other affiliations to which they Ministry for Social Crisis belonged (Gaines 2010: 372). The same holds true for Canton. Theology and Praxis Ms. Flonzie Goodloe, now Ms. Flonzie Brown Wright, was the Gaines, Robert W., in the black church first woman to run for the Election Commissioner’s position. She 2010, “Looking Back, Tradition. Macon, GA: ran as an independent but still won the position through intense Moving Forward: How Mercer University Press. organization and campaigning. Much of which was done through the Civil Rights Era community churches. This paved the way for other women within Church Can Guide the Wright, Flonzie Brown. the community to run for public office. Many of which have a Modern black church June 2000. Looking dominant presence within the community today. in Improving black Back to Move Ahead: An Student Achievement.” Experience of History, The black church was politically active in regards to local and The Journal of Negro A Journey of Hope. national elections. For the Kennedy election, church individuals Education 76(3): 366-79 Germantown, Ohio: would establish carpools, knock on doors, visit homes, and FBW & Associates, establish community meetings (Wright 2000: 71). Not only did Incorporated. the church serve as a political base but also it was a safe space for

16 DR. MARTIN LUTHER KING JR.’S SPEECHES: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS a reflection by SHANNON HEITKAMP

Before attending the Journey for Justice trip, I saw the Civil whites in the south. While a few national leaders may be the ones Rights Movement as a sequence of events that eventually had school teachers lecture about today, it took much more than a few enough collective power to achieve equal rights for African talented leaders to make change. Americans. It seemed that Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was the voice of the Movement and he, along with a number of civil rights Many of these gifted leaders shared a spiritual gift—the ability to activists, moved the nation forward. However, after having the employ rhetoric. Rhetoric in this case is defined as inspirational privilege of seeing many of the major sites of the Movement and speeches and instruction, to move and motivate others towards talking to prominent foot soldiers, those who were on the front change. Many of the leaders in the Movement with rhetorical lines of the Movement, it became clear me that the Movement talents were pastors and other religious leaders. This may have was much more complicated than unrelated moving parts. to do with a pastor’s innate spiritual fulfillment through doing a job they feel “called” to do. In Matthew 22 verse 14, in the Most striking to me is how complicated the entire Movement King James Version, the scripture says “many are called but few was—there was not one comprehensive “strategy” for change— are chosen.” There were many speeches made by local leaders. conversely, the Movement was comprised of numerous local Unfortunately, the majority of these speeches were not preserved. leaders who often fail to get the national However, one man’s speeches have stood recognition they deserve. One of the the test of time—Dr. Martin Luther most inspiring moments of the trip, What happens to a dream deferred? King. During the study tour, I had the for me, was when Ms. Flonzie Brown- Does it dry up pleasure of turning my attention to how Wright, the first African American speakers like Dr. Martin Luther King like a raisin in the sun? woman to hold a political office in were able to appeal large audiences to Canton, Mississippi, mentioned the Or fester like a sore-- rekindle hope and ignite passion for different types of activism. Ms. Brown- And then run? change. Wright mentioned a woman in her community that would take care of Does it stink like rotten meat? When studying the Movement, we her children when she had to attend Or crust and sugar over-- watched a portion of Martin Luther community meetings. Ms. Brown- like a syrupy sweet? King Jr.’s famous “I’ve Been to a Wright asserted that without mothers Mountaintop” speech which was and caretakers, many of the local leaders Maybe it just sags delivered in the Church of God in would not have the ability to make the like a heavy load. Christ in Memphis, Tennessee, on April impact that they had. 23, 1968. What strikes me about this Or does it explode? particular speech were the reactions Further, Dr. Leslie Burl McLemore, a from the crowd—women were openly well-known civil rights activist, political (A Dream Deferred weeping, men were looking on with leader and scholar from Mississippi, by: Langston Hughes) admiration, and children seemed giddy. emphasized the importance of fiscal Raising such reactions from a crowd— independence for leaders—for without especially a crowd that was no stranger a way to support themselves, leaders of the Movement would not to defeat and set-backs—was awe-inspiring. When we arrived in be able to overcome the oppressive economic system favoring the Mason Temple, I was completely overwhelmed in this Holy

17 Photo: UST students on the Journey for Justice study tour were able to visit the infamous Mason Temple Church of God in Christ, where Dr. Martin Luther King gave his “Mountaintop” speech on the eve of his assassination.

space. By touring many churches in the South, it became clear to me how churches were utilized as epicenters for the Movement. The Mason Temple in Memphis is now serving as a national conference location for the thousands of Church of God in Christ While Dr. King’s biblical imagery was a very powerful motivator faith members. It is easy to see and feel how the congregation, for his religious followers, his rhetorical devices were equally as then, was moved by Dr. Martin Luther King’s “Mountaintop” remarkable. Dr. King employed repetition as one of his most speech. powerful rhetorical strategies. Interestingly, he used the phrase “I would,” to express the conditional mood, which illustrates Dr. Martin Luther King’s “Mountaintop” speech was monumental how far we, as a nation, have come and how far we have yet to for multiple reasons. First, unknown to him, the speech was go. The conditional tense, as employed by Dr. King, indicates a given on the eve of his assassination. Some claim that Dr. King hypothetical situation; obviously Dr. King himself cannot travel predicted his imminent demise as a result of the significant final through time, yet his dream and message transcends time and words of his speech. Dr. King said: metaphysical boundaries. The repetition of the conditional tense exemplifies Dr. King’s message in lieu of the violent protesters Like anybody, I would like to live a long life. Longevity and, ultimately, his untimely death: “It is no longer a choice has its place. But I’m not concerned about that now. I between violence and nonviolence in this world; its nonviolence just want to do God’s will. And He’s allowed me to go or nonexistence.” Like Langston Hughes, Dr. King seems to be up to the mountain. And I’ve looked over. And I’ve asking: “What happens to a dream deferred?” Will his vision of seen the Promised Land. I may not get there with you. nonviolent protests and equality for all men transcend his mortal But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, life? will get to the Promised Land. And I’m happy, tonight. I’m not worried about anything. I’m not fearing any The last thirty seconds of the “Mountaintop” speech are arguably man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the the most famous of Dr. King’s oratories, shifting the intensity Lord (Washington 203). and mood of the entire speech. While the majority of the speech refers to the Sanitation Worker’s Strike, the current issue of the The power of this closing statement is still felt generations later. time, King shifts to his mortality and ultimately the immortality Dr. King’s untimely assassination made the power of these words of his dream—for many, a “dream deferred.” Dr. King employs reverberate still today. He seems to foreshadow the possibility a short and simple sentence—a significant deviation from his of his untimely death, but reassures the congregation that he is previous long, complex sentences. The shorter sentences gave the prepared for the possibility. True to his theologian training, Dr. congregation the time to process the powerful statements and, as King seems to draw parallels between his experience and the we look back today, allow us to grapple with the heavy load Dr. biblical figure, Moses. Claiming that he has seen the Promised King was burdened with. Land, yet he “may not get there with you,” brings to mind the prophet Moses, who led the Israelites out of Egypt. The Lord Mr. , one of the original members of the Student said to Moses, “This is the land I promised on oath to Abraham, Nonviolent Coordinating Committee or SNCC in Jackson, MS Isaac and Jacob ... I will let you see it with your eyes, but you will shared with us that when he heard Dr. King speak, he would not cross over into it.” Some interpretations argue that it was have done anything Dr. King said. Mr. Watkins said that even necessary for Moses to die so his followers could enter into the if Dr. King said to beat up white people, he would have done it. Promised Land. Dr. King’s prophetic analogy suggests that he, However, Dr. King and many other prominent orators used their like Moses, will never be able to enjoy the fruits of their labor. rhetorical skill to preach nonviolence. On April 4, 1968 Dr. King Both “[saw] the glory of the coming of the Lord” yet died before lost his life and while unable to celebrate the Memphis Sanitation entering into the Promised Land. Thus, Dr. King is regarded by Workers victory, Dr. King’s dream was far from “deferred” then many as a modern prophet of the Civil Rights Movement. and still yet today.

18 DIVERSITY IN THE MOVEMENT a reflection by MAXINE JOHNSON

Since 1870, with the passing of the Fifteenth Amendment, Women, now known as Miami University, in Oxford, Ohio. citizens of the United States were not to be denied the right to Once there, they were taught proper voter registration techniques, vote because of the color of their skin or previous servitude. nonviolent postures and demonstration techniques as well as how The right to vote has long since been referred to as the key to to teach children basic math, reading skills, and African American progression and the key to the advancement of any collective history. Many of the volunteers themselves had to be taught body. For African Americans, this meant a potential end to African American history since most had little to no knowledge institutionalized racism and a step towards attaining equal rights. of it previously. The volunteers were also sent letters warning Although the right to vote is clearly stated in the constitution, them of the conditions of the South with Jim Crow laws as well as violence and intimidation were often used to discourage and confirming they be fully prepared for what they were getting into, prevent many African Americans from voting. Leading up to and both financially and mentally. The jarring reality of the South throughout the Civil Rights Movement, the fight for equality had soon revealed itself to the volunteers. been an uphill battle filled with sacrifices that were, all too often, made with the lives of American citizens, most of whom were of In mid-June, the first 300 students arrived in Mississippi. Upon African American descent. their arrival they were met with news that , a local black Mississippian, Andrew Goodman and , The summer of 1964 was one of forward momentum. Organized two white men from New York, had disappeared shortly after by the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO) and led being said to have been released from jail into the arms of a primarily by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Klan Mob. They were arrested for alleged traffic violations after (SNCC) and the Congress on Racial Equality (CORE), black investigating a local church burning. It was weeks before the men Mississippians and over 1,000 white college students from all were found buried under a local dam after having been brutally over the country were united behind the goal of increasing voter beaten and murdered. The news shocked the country as well as registration in Mississippi. In 1962, two years prior to combining the volunteers who had yet to come to Mississippi. However, these their efforts, the number of eligible African Americans that were cruel and savage acts of violence only reinforced the importance registered to vote sat at a disheartening 6.7 percent. For the of their work and moved them forward with new volition. This progress made during the summer of 1964, this season of change event also called into question whether or not the country would became rightly known as the . have been as shocked and have paid as much attention to the event had it been all black men, which consequently sparked The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), with distrust between the workers of SNCC. a focus on equal rights and integration, aimed first and foremost at empowering the youth under a single banner for change. This distrust had been a factor in the community as well as in During the Freedom Summer, SNCC was said to have provided the organization long before the death of the three civil rights 90 percent of the funding and 95 percent of the headquarters activists. In a Freedom Summer orientation meeting, volunteers staff. Black leaders within SNCC interviewed and selected the were warned that they may be met with mixed feelings of white youth who were deemed suitable to volunteer their time in “gladness and fear […] with hope and with distrust.” This was Mississippi for the Freedom Summer. Prior to their volunteering, something they would have to overcome as a whole, both black white youth would travel to what was then Western College for and white students. The foundation of SNCC was strategically

19 Photo: Mr. Hollis Watkins, one of the original members of SNCC, shared his experiences with UST students on the 2013, 2014 and 2015 study tours. set up to help combat some of this fear as well as rejoice in the By the end of the summer, there had been an integrated attempt victories to be had. SNCC leaders understood the power of to gain equality. Together, volunteers and Mississippians portraying white and black activists as a whole with the use of continued to face , brutal beatings, arrests and , their integrationist philosophy. This philosophy included two but together, they “created political momentum for the voting principles: “we’re-all-in-this-together” and “very explicit attention rights act of 1965.” to black involvement at every level of decision making.” While on our Journey for Justice study tour of the south, we This integration strategy was successful in bringing attention to met many influential people including: key activists or foot the cause; however, as expected, working with white volunteers soldiers who participated in the Movement. Upon asking these was met with mixed feelings. Many believed that the volunteers significant foot soldiers about their experience with the integration from the north were wealthy, inexperienced, and naïve. The of the movement, I noticed both tension and appreciation for success of integration ultimately relied on the black vanguard the involvement and help of the white volunteers. However, leading the charge. They chose the most suitable volunteers to Ms. Flonzie Brown Wright, a long-time civil rights activist work with them as field secretaries or as representatives of the from Canton, Mississippi specializing in grass-roots organizing organization, and white volunteers were always held accountable stated that she, herself, housed eight students as did many in to black leaders within the organization. However, both races Mississippi at the time. She stated that “[the volunteers] went to jail with [them]” and were “threatened [by others] because they felt that they were doing the right thing.”

Ms. Wright even said that she pays “great tribute to all of those great [volunteers] who came down to help [them].” She has a lot of appreciation as well as many others we met along the trip; however, some did not appear to be as enthusiastic. Instead, some activists seemed to deflect the question on integration Photo: Ms. were concerned with how the role and chose to highlight prominent black activists. Flonzie Brown dynamics of this integration would Wright spoke work. Most white volunteers did not go Before and during the Civil Rights Movement, there were many with students expecting to be leaders, but instead to fill unsung heroes and “sheroes” from both sides of the color line, about other a dutiful support role during this time of who were not as well known for their tremendous work during the foot soldiers in change. Movement. Among them: people like Ms. , who died the Movement. while transporting activists who participated in the march from The Freedom Summer project established Selma to Montgomery, and Ms. Virginia Durr and her husband, fifty where young children were taught basic Mr. Clifford Durr a prominent attorney in Alabama, who were math and reading skills as well as African American history. uncompromising advocates for equality throughout their lifetimes, Unfortunately, Mississippians and northern volunteers were only and personal support to Mrs. Rosa Parks during the Movement. able to get 1,200 African Americans to register. The low number These are just a few of the many white people who fought against of voters emphasized the need for federal voting rights legislation. racial inequality and contributed to the progression of America.

20 WHAT THEY

CONVENIENTLY Photo: Quin poses with Excel! colleague Raymond Nkwain Kindva under the FORGOT TO Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, AL. TEACH IN HISTORY CLASS by QUINMILL LEI

The Journey for Justice study tour brought to light aspects of and civil rights leader who during a medical procedure to remove American history that, at least in my experience, were not taught a small cyst in her stomach, was also given an unauthorized in school. For example, in class, I was taught that President hysterectomy. This procedure resulted in permanent sterilization Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation freed all slaves in for Ms. Hamer (Mills, 1993). This made me very curious, why the United States in 1863. However, I was not taught that this was she given the unauthorized hysterectomy? Also, did her being executive order was actually intended as an African American have anything to do a war strategy for the Union to gain the with her experience? Unfortunately, the upper hand against the South during the more I delved into this topic, the more I American Civil War. It did not occur to became horrified with what I found and me that President Lincoln did not free all was never mentioned in history class. slaves out of the goodness of his heart or Fannie Lou Hamer was just one of the the realization that slavery was inherently many black women involuntarily sterilized wrong and evil, but rather to encourage during this time, which was known as enslaved blacks in the South to rebel against the American Eugenics Movement. This their former masters and fight for the paper seeks to explore how the American Union. American history is often portrayed Eugenics Movement influenced compulsory a certain way in textbooks, and as a result sterilization practices that were used during of my tour of the South, I now realize the the Holocaust and some of which are still magnitude of truth that was and perhaps is in practice in modern day American society. still being hidden from me to this day. According to the Oxford Dictionary, During the trip, I was taught about many eugenics is “the science of improving a important Civil Rights leaders and about human population by controlled breeding some lesser known, though equally as to increase the occurrence of desirable important, people from the Movement. Photo: Ms. Fannie Lou Hamer heritable characteristics” (2015). Sir One woman’s story especially captured my speaks at the Democratic National Francis Galton, who was also the half- interest. Her name was Fannie Lou Hamer. Convention in 1964. cousin of Charles Darwin—the father of She was an American voting rights activist (Photo by Warren K. Leffler, courtesy of the evolution, first coined the term “eugenics” Library of Congress.)

21 Photo: Quin at the Civil Rights Memorial in Montgomery, AL. The memorial honors those who died in the Civil Rights Movement. Their names are engraved on a round, granite table along with a timeline arranged like the hands of a clock. Water flows from the center of the monument, over the edges.

in 1869 in his book Hereditary Genius. Galton believed that since many human societies sought to protect the underprivileged and weak, these societies were at odds with the natural selection, which is responsible for extinction of the weakest. Therefore, he believed it was necessary to change these social policies in order to save society from a “reversion towards mediocrity” (Mackenzie, 1981). Eugenics first came about in the United States in the late 1800s to the early 1900s. In fact, in 1907 Indiana passed by Price and Darity (2010) concluded that North Carolina’s the first eugenics-based compulsory sterilization law in the world eugenic sterilization policy was racially biased and genocidal, as it (Eugenic Sterilization in Indiana, 1962). However, it was not until significantly reduced the size of the black population within the 1927 when a landmark Supreme Court case known as Buck vs. state. The systematic removal of black Americans had begun. Bell gave further fuel to the eugenics movement, as it declared sterilization of handicapped persons constitutional. In this case the Compulsory sterilization was an effective, albeit unethical, court ruled that the state of Virginia could legally sterilize teenager method to keep minority groups “in check.” Thousands of Carrie Buck, who had been sent to the Virginia State Colony for individuals were forced to be sterilized by means of intimidation Epileptics and was declared “feeble-minded” because her foster and scare tactics, such as threatening to pull welfare and medical parents believed her a moral delinquent (Lombardo, 2003). It was benefits. Alongside blacks, marginalized groups such as the following this ruling that the eugenics movement really took off mentally handicapped, the physically disabled, Native Americans, in the United States. By the 1960s, over 30 states in United States and Hispanics were also targets of involuntary sterilization (Stern, adopted compulsory sterilization laws, which caused more than 2005). 60,000 sterilizations of mentally disabled or ill individuals and those who belonged to minority groups (Permick, 1997). In addition to influencing racial medical practices, American eugenic laws and racial segregation practices influenced the much Black Americans experienced some of the nation’s highest forced larger National Socialist (Nazi) compulsory sterilization program. sterilization rates. In North Carolina alone, between 1929 and Between 1934 and 1945, this program resulted in approximately 1974, 7,600 people were sterilized. Eighty-five percent of those 350,000 compulsory sterilizations and was a stepping-stone sterilized were women and girls, while 40 percent were minorities to the Holocaust (Zygmunt, 2000). It is interesting to note (most of whom were black) (Kline, 2005). Throughout the that the Rockefeller Foundation, which is a famous American 1960s and 1970s, federally-funded welfare programs endorsed philanthropic organization and private foundation, helped the coercive sterilization of thousands of poor black women. develop and fund various German eugenics programs. Josef These programs threatened to terminate welfare benefits and Mengele, a Nazi physician infamous for his inhumane medical medical care unless blacks “consented” to sterilization procedures experimentation upon concentration camp prisoners, worked in (Roberts, 2000). It was no coincidence that black Americans one of these programs before he went to Auschwitz (Black, 2003). were targeted for involuntary sterilization. A study conducted

22 In addition, Harry Laughlin’s Model Sterilization laws, which 2011). Although American history may portray compulsory included as subjects for eugenic sterilization: the feeble-minded, sterilization as a thing of the past, unfortunately it is still alive and the insane, criminals, epileptics, alcoholics, blind persons, deaf in practice today. persons, deformed persons, and indigent persons, was used as a model for Adolf Hitler’s 1935 Nuremberg Racial Hygiene Laws According to a 2013 report from the Center for Investigative (Jackson & Weidman, 2005). Furthermore, the United States’ Reporting, doctors under contract with the California Racial Integrity Act and Jim Crow laws were also used by Hitler to Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation sterilized at least create racial laws against European Jews. Hitler studied American 148 women female inmates via tubal ligations from 2006 to eugenics laws. In fact, he tried to legitimize his antisemitism 2010 without required state approvals. In addition, according by hiding it in the more palatable pseudo-scientific façade of to state documents and interviews there are perhaps 100 more eugenics. Hitler used this tactic to recruit more followers among illegal sterilizations dating back to the late 1990s (Johnson, 2013). reasonable Germans by claiming that his beliefs were rooted in Federal and state laws ban inmate sterilizations if federal funds are science. Now although Hitler’s racial hatred of Jews came from his used (Johnson, 2013). However, in order to bypass this, California own mind, the intellectual outlines of the eugenics Hitler adopted used state funds instead. Thus, from 1997 to 2010, the state were made in America (Black, 2003). Essentially, the United of California paid doctors $147,460 to perform the procedure States racial laws and eugenics movement became the template for (Johnson, 2013). Former inmates and prisoner advocates maintain many of Nazi ’s policies. that prison medical staff coerced the women, targeting those deemed likely to return to prison in the future. Although it is not It was not until after 1945 and the fall of that publicized, involuntary sterilization is still in practice today. America began to portray their eugenics practice in a new light. The Nazis had taken it to an extreme; therefore, the United States American history textbooks are unlikely to contain the nation’s could not have any publicized ties to such a horrific event as dark past, and continued practice of eugenics. However, it is the Holocaust. It would seem that America should abandon its important to bring these issues to light in order to move forward compulsory sterilization mandates; however, that was not the case. towards a brighter and less racially divided future. Once again, In fact, it is estimated that from 1973-1976, approximately 3,406 without learning about history, we are doomed to repeat it. Native American women were sterilized without permission in the Just as minority groups were taken advantage of during the United States (Garcia, 2013). Moreover, during a 70-year period eugenics movement, today vulnerable populations such as prison (1909-1979), the state of California alone performed a third of all inmates are susceptible to medical malpractice. The incident in government-funded sterilizations in the United States, which was the California prison system was just one institution that was approximately 20,000 sterilizations—the majority of which were caught doing misconduct. If this was able to happen in such a Latinos and blacks (Stern, 2005). America was not ready to give prominent state, imagine how many other possible organizations up its sterilization habits, instead it hid its wrongdoings from the and establishments are currently conducting similar practices and public eye. just have yet to be caught. It becomes our moral duty as a society to end these outdated malpractices and to protect our own rather By the late 1900s, compulsory sterilization rates were very low and than sweep them under the carpet. The time for change was out of the public domain, however they still existed. The Human yesterday, and we as morally obligated citizens must act now to Betterment Association stopped tracking sterilizations in 1963. enact lasting policy and social change. The final number of sterilizations it issued was 63,678 (Begos,

23 REFERENCES

Photo: Quin and Bauman, Zygmunt Johnson, Corey G. Web. Retrieved the other UST (2000). Modernity and (2013). “Female from http://www. students had the the Holocaust. Cornell Inmates Sterilized oxforddictionaries. opportunity to walk University Press in California Prisons com/us/definition/ over the Edmund Black, Edwin. (2003). without Approval.” The american_english/ Pettus Bridge in War Against the Weak. Center for Investigative eugenics accessed Feb. Montgomery, New York, NY: Dialog Reporting. July 2013. 11, 2015. AL. The bridge Press. Web. Retrieved from is the site of the http://cironline. Pernick, M. S. (1997). 1965 “Bloody Begos, Kevin. (2011). org/reports/female- Eugenics and Public Sunday” conflict, “The American Eugenics inmates-sterilized- Health in American in which armed Movement after World california-prisons- History. American officers attacked War II.” Indy Week. without-approval-4917 Journal of Public Health, peaceful civil rights June 2011. Web. accessed Feb. 11, 2015. 87(11), 1767-1772. protesters who Retrieved from http:// Price, G. N., & Darity, were attempting to www.indyweek. Kline, Wendy (2005). W. A. (2010). The march to the state com/indyweek/the- Building a Better Race: Economics of Race and capitol. american-eugenics- , Sexuality, and Eugenic Sterilization in movement-after-world- Eugenics from the Turn North Carolina: 1958 war-ii-part-3-of-3 of the Century to the - 1968. Economics and accessed Feb. 11, 2015. Baby Boom. University Human Biology, 8(2), of California Press 261-272. Eugenic sterilization in Lombardo, P. A. (2003). Indiana. (1962). Indiana Roberts, Dorothy. 2000. Law Journal, 38, 275. Facing carrie buck. The “Black Women and the Garcia, Saudi. (2013). Hastings Center Report, Pill.” Family Planning 33(2), 14-17 Perspectives. Volume “8 Shocking Facts about 32, Number 1. March Sterilization in U.S. Mackenzie, Donald. 2000. Web. Retrieved History.” Policy Mic. July (1981). Statistics in from http://www. 2013. Web. Retrieved Britain, 1865-1930: The guttmacher.org/pubs/ from http://mic.com/ Social Construction of journals/3209200.html articles/53723/8- Scientific Knowledge. accessed Feb. 12, 2015. shocking-facts-about- Edinburgh: Edinburgh sterilization-in-u-s- University Press. Stern, A. M. (2005). history accessed Feb. 12, Mills, K. (1993). This Sterilized in the Name 2015. Little Light of Mine: of Public Health: Race, The Life of Fannie Lou , and Jackson, John P. & Hamer. Dutton. Reproductive Control Weidman, Nadine M. Oxford Dictionary in Modern California. (2005). Race, Racism, (2015). American Journal of and Science: Social Public Health, 95(7), Impact and Interaction. “Eugenics.” Oxford 1128-1138. Rutgers University Press. University Press.

24 THE STRUGGLE FOR RACIAL EQUALITY IN BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA by RAYMOND NKWAIN KINDVA

In May 1956, Alabama politicians outlawed the National the (KKK) and other terror groups. Victory Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in over racial segregation in Birmingham was mainly due to the order to protect racial segregation that thrived in the state. Fred work of the ACMHR and its allied organizations. However, Shuttlesworth—a minister at the Birmingham Bethel Baptist these accomplishments were due, in large part, to the efforts of Church—founded and headed the Alabama Christian Movement Birmingham’s African American working class. for Human Rights (ACMHR) in an attempt to counter the move (Williams, 2013, The Eyes on the Prize, 1991). The NAACP Birmingham’s racist past was a consequence of the policies was the leading organization in the fight for racial equality in the enforced by the city’s most influential industries that affected United States at that time and had achieved victories in several African American workers. Since the core of Birmingham’s cities where Jim Crow laws were prevalent (Williams, 2013). workforce consisted mostly of African American workers (e.g., The organization based its actions on legal battles in which teachers, mineworkers, house cleaners) by the 1930s (Wilson, they argued sections of the law that strengthened their cases. As 1992), racial inequality was a strategy used to control laborers and such, the banishing of the NAACP was a huge blow to About 55% of the men who work in the mines of Alabama are Negroes. The African Americans living in Birmingham and affected operators finding themselves defeated on the industrial field, resorted to any opposition towards drastic methods. The scenes were shifted gradually and the columns of the racial inequality in the city. press began to teem with appeals to the prejudices and passions of men, However, the absence of the and they injected the race question, claiming that the United Mine Workers NAACP did not significantly of America were advocating social equality of the Negro and the white man. weaken the fight against racial Anyone who is a student of Dixie Land knows what effect this has upon the inequality. This is because people of the South...as everyone knows, the entire South is slumbering with Reverend Shuttlesworth that racial hatred, ready to break out in widespread conflagration...Yet, it and the ACMHR built on was necessary in order that the operators would not be defeated...If these the NAACP’s victories and captains of industry...are able to destroy the dignity of labor and crush the laid the groundwork for the integration of Birmingham’s hopes and aspirations of the men who toil by bringing up this ghastly segregated public spaces. spectra of race hatred and social equality; then whenever a trade unionist desires improved conditions of employment; whenever he is unwilling to It should be noted that unlike accept the dictations and tyranny of the employers, all that will be necessary Albany where resistance to to defeat him will be to inject the race question into the industrial cause, and racial integration was carefully that will suffice (Wilson, 1992). implemented (Williams, 2013), Birmingham brutally cracked down on opposition to racial segregation, earning the maintain the white hierarchy. The hiring of white mine operators nickname, “Bombingham” thanks in part to the activities of who controlled labor in the mines was done by white employees

25 As free and independent citizens of the United States of America, we express publicly our determination to press forward persistently for freedom and , and the removal from our society of any forms of second-class citizenship.... We Negroes shall never become enemies of the white people. But America was born in the struggle for Freedom from Tyranny and Oppression. We shall never bomb any homes or lynch any persons; but we must, because of history and the future, march to complete freedom with unbowed heads, praying hearts, and an unyielding determination. - Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights (The Eyes on the Prize, 1991)

who feared that the increasing size of the African American raise money outside the plant for the workforce would threaten job opportunities (Norrell, 1986). The and later for the ACMHR (Krochmal, 2010). African American creation of labor unions did little to help the plight of African workers who opposed racial inequality risked losing their jobs. American laborers. Most unions did not allow the integration For instance, Ruby Jackson Gainer—president of the United of African American workers and those that did were met with Public Workers of America (UPW) and the Jefferson County opposition from the wealthy and influential employers. Negro Teachers Association—and Maenetta Steel, a local UPW member, were removed from duty by the Birmingham school The United Mine Workers (UMW) was district after they testified against the one of the biracial unions in Birmingham school district in a case for fair wages. with almost half of its members being Gainer and Steel fought back and filed a African American (Wilson, 1992). In suit against the school district (Krochmal, 1908, however, the Tennessee Coal, Iron 2010). In 1949, the Alabama Supreme and Railway Company (TCI) refused Court ruled to reinstate the women 18 to renew the union’s contract that led months after their jobs were terminated to an unsuccessful protest termed the (Krochmal, 2010). Birmingham District Protest of 1908 (Kelly, 2001). The union voiced its In 1956, the ACMHR became the frustrations with industries’ hierarchy, in leading civil right activist group in particular, TCI used race to subdue the Birmingham after the banning of the demands of workers as described by John P. NAACP. The group was characterized White, then vice-president of UMW. by the principles of non-violence and The use of race by Birmingham’s largest was led by Reverend employers was partly due to benefits and other ministers. Between 1956 and obtained from racial discrimination 1963, the ACMHR had established a (Blackmon, 2008). In the case regarding network of approximately sixty churches Green Cottenham, who was arrested that hosted meetings and provided for being homeless and sentenced to an support and manpower for the various unspecified term of hard labor, industries ACMHR boycotts and demonstrations such as TCI used convicts to work in mines (Birmingham Historical Society located at the outskirt of Birmingham Newsletter, 2006). that had deplorable and unsafe working conditions (Blackmon, 2008). Green The ACMHR organized its first steps Cottenham was one of the many African to confront racial segregation in American convicts that was arrested and Photo: This statue of Reverend Fred Birmingham’s public transportation sentenced to hard labor for minor crime in a Shuttlesworth is located in front of sector. Boycotts were organized against process termed “convict leasing” (Blackmon, the Birmingham Civil Rights Museum the city’s bus lines in December 1956. 2008). According to Blackmon, convict in Birmingham, Alabama. Given Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth’s leasing became one of Alabama’s largest involvement in the demand for the hiring sources of funding as it provided free labor to of African American policemen, his house the industries at a prize. near the Bethel Baptist Church was bombed by the KKK in an attempt to discourage the protest. However, the bus protests Still African Americans fought for their freedom and equal rights continued and in March 1957, Revered Shuttlesworth challenged given the decades of racism that had held them back. Informal the racially segregated interstate trains by boarding a train with networks of black workers were often created to help raise segregated waiting rooms to Atlanta (U.S. National Park Service, funds for active demonstrations. For example, Lloyd Harper, an 1992), knowing very well that state rules did not challenge federal American Cast Iron Pipe Company (ACIPCO) worker, helped laws and regulations.

26 Photo (left): The “Four Spirits” sculpture in Kelly Ingram Park is a memorial to the four girls who were killed when the 16th Street Baptist Church was bombed in 1963.

Photo (right): Detail of the children’s faces in the “I Ain’t Afraid of Your Jail” sculpture at Kelly Ingram Park.

The ACMHR attempted its boldest move when it decided to In 1961, a mob attacked the Freedom Riders on Mother’s desegregate the white-only high schools, Phillips High School and Day in the city. Mob violence was also one of the reasons why Woodlawn High School (U.S. National Park Service, 1992). In “Bombingham” was considered the most violent city in terms of response to the attempt, the KKK kidnapped and castrated Judge opposition to segregation. From 1957 to 1963, eighteen unsolved Edward Aaron as a message to the ACMHR and its leaders. This bombings had occurred in Birmingham’s African American did not stop Reverend Shuttlesworth who had gotten a reputation neighborhoods (Williams, 2013). The failure of the police to in the African American community as a courageous leader and stop violence against violent mobs provided the ideal ground for was nicknamed, “Wild Man from Birmingham” (McWhorter, Dr. King and the SCLC to launch mass demonstrations against 2013). Reverend Shuttlesworth attempted to enroll his daughters segregation. When Dr. King was arrested after staging a protest in in the Phillips High School and was attacked by a mob that the city, the demonstration began losing supporters as Dr. King stabbed his wife. Luckily for him, the police intervened. Reverend was placed in solitary confinement (Williams, 2013). However, Shuttlesworth’s legal battles and unwavering fight against racial , , and segregation caught the eye of Dr. Martin Luther King. Given the of the SCLC organized the Children’s Crusade. African American failure of the demonstrations in Albany to yield legal victories children, ranging from six to eighteen years old, were recruited against segregation in the city, Reverend Shuttlesworth invited Dr. and trained. These kids boycotted school and marched to King and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) downtown Birmingham where they encountered Eugene Connor to Birmingham given that ACMHR had become affiliated with and the city police. On the first day of the protest, the children SCLC (Williams, 2013). In his words, Reverend Shuttlesworth were arrested but it was the second day that brought national told Dr. King, “ I assure you, if you come to Birmingham, this headlines about the violence in the city. While using hoses and (civil rights) movement can not only gain prestige, it can really police dogs, the police attacked protesters during demonstration shake the country” (Williams, 2013). His words eventually came in the city including children. The event was so impactful that true after the SCLC and ACMHR joined forces and organized President Kennedy sent the head of the Justice Department’s demonstrations in the city. Civil Rights Division to the city to curb the violence and restore some peace. That did not stop angry segregationists and the KKK Birmingham’s city officials were not impressed by the to launch attacks against African Americans. Dr. King’s home at opposition to racial segregation by African Americans and anti- the Gaston Motel was bombed and the Sixteenth Street Baptist segregationists. As characterized by Eugene “Bull” Connor, the Church was bombed in September, 1963 that killed four young city’s public safety commissioner at that time said, “If the North girls (Williams, 2013). The violence in Birmingham did encourage keeps trying to cram this thing down our throats, there’s going to President Kennedy to send a civil rights bill to Congress in June, be bloodshed.” Birmingham pro-segregationists organized rallies 1963 in an effort to dismantle segregation (Williams, 2013). to support segregation and joined groups such as the KKK and the White Citizens’ Council (U.S. National Park Service, 1992). It is often said that one always learns from its past in order to Members of the KKK were notorious in the use of violence avoid mistakes in the future and the memorials erected at the towards anti-segregationists. Kelly Ingram Park, the Birmingham Civil Rights Museum

27 REFERENCES

1. Birmingham in Birmingham, Historical Society, Alabama. The Journal (2006). Celebrate of American History, the 50th of the 73, 669-694. Movement. Birmingham 7. The Eyes on The Historical Society Prize Civil Rights Newsletter. Retrieved Reader (1st ed.). from http:// (1991). New York, www.bhistorical. NY: Penguin Books. and the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church serve as a reminder org/pdf/BHS_ of Birmingham’s mistakes in tackling racial injustice. The first Newsletter_05_06. 8. United States exhibitions in the Birmingham Civil Rights Museum immortalize pdf. Department of the the African American workers’ struggles in the segregated Interior, National Birmingham. The museum also displays the role of labor unions, 2. Blackmon, D. A. Park Service in particular, the UMW that allowed integration of African (2008). Slavery by (1992). The Civil American workers and organized strikes asking for fair wages another name: the Rights Movement and better working conditions. The statue of Reverend Fred re-enslavement of in Birmingham, Shuttlesworth in front of the museum also remembers the work Black Americans from Alabama, 1933-1979. of a leader who courageously challenged racial segregation and the Civil War to World (Report No. NPS Form was targeted many times by pro-segregationists and the KKK. The War II. New York, 10-900-b). Retrieved courage of the children involved in the Children’s Crusade is also NY: Anchor Books. from http:// remembered by a couple of memorials. “I Ain’t Afraid of Your www.nps.gov/ Jail” is a beautifully-crafted memorial that depicts two children, 3. Kelly, B. (2001). nr/publications/ a boy and a , facing what Race, class and sample_nominations/ looks like jail bars. Given power in the civilrightsbirmingham the arrests of children who Alabama Coalfields, mps.pdf participated in the mass 1908-1921. Urbana, protests, this memorial IL: Univ. of Illinois 9. Waller, J. (2000). conveys the determination Press. Prejudice across of the African American America. Jackson, children who broke out of 4. Krochmal, MS: University Press the obstacles brought about M. (2010). An of Mississippi. by racial segregation by unmistakably demanding change. Last but working-class vision: 10. Williams, J. not least, the painted glass Birmingham’s foot (2013). Eyes on the window—portraying Jesus soldiers and their civil prize: America’s civil Christ on a crucifix—erected rights movement. The rights years, 1954- above the Sixteenth Street Journal of Southern 1965. New York, NY: Baptist Church serves as a History, 76(3), 923- Penguin Books. reminder of the evil effects 960. of racial segregation and how 11. Wilson, B. M. it divided people based on race. The words “You do it to me” can 5. McWhorter, (2006). Structural be attributed to Birmingham’s violence against African Americans D. (2013). Back imperatives behind and serves as a lesson of forgiveness and peace. to Birmingham. racial change Bloomington, IL: in Birmingham, Although it can be argued that racial inequality still exists Indiana University Alabama. Antipode, in Birmingham, the city can claim it has African Americans Press. Retrieved 24, 171-202. employed in positions of authority that were once restricted to from http:// whites. In 1979, Richard Arlington Jr. became the first African www.jstor.org/ 12. Worthman, P. B. American mayor of the city while Leroy Stover became its first stable/10.2979/ (1969). Black Workers African American police officer in 1966. Birmingham’s schools transition.110.15 . and Labor Unions have been integrated and healthcare became the city’s largest in Birmingham, industry as characterized by the University of Alabama being the 6. Norrell, R. J. Alabama. 1897-1904. city’s biggest employer. Hopefully, the city will emerge as the exact (1986). Caste in Steel: Labor History, 10, opposite of a city characterized by a history of segregation and Jim Crow Careers 375-408. violence.

28 BIRMINGHAM, AL: Tyler and the other students were able to experience what it’s like to pick cotton MODEL CITY while on the study tour. OR MASTER OF DISGUISE? by TYLER SKLUZACEK

When traveling through the southeastern United States, I noticed Unlike many successful cities whose success is rooted in tourism that the city of Birmingham, AL had more aesthetic appeal than and recreation, the city of Birmingham has historically held nearby cities. Virtually none of the city’s buildings seemed moldy large stakes in rail, steel, medicine, and education (Metropolitan or decrepit, but were rather new and well-kempt. I quickly grew Development Board, 2014). This paper will investigate curious of this city’s seemingly innate ability to withstand the test Birmingham’s industrial cores in order to shed light on the city’s of time, unlike its counterparts. The cities of Memphis, Jackson, ability to flourish unlike many and even Montgomery each had sections of their respective cities other cities in the United simply rotting away. Commonplace among these areas were States southeast. Additionally, water-logged houses with roofs caved in, homeless populations on this paper notes how street-corners and beneath bridges, and many businesses boarded- Birmingham hides its up and abandoned. Each of these cities had some level of success from the casual-observer, in one economic area or another, but none of them had the and how the other cities in economic development as noticeable as Birmingham’s. Initially, I the south could use current was guilty of assuming that the city of Birmingham is a Utopian economic bases to enhance southern economy. The vast differences between Birmingham and their economy 10-20 years other southern cities, however, raise the question as to whether into the future. Birmingham is actually a model economy or if it can somehow hide its poverty behind pretty infrastructure. RAIL AND STEEL

The University of St. Thomas Excel! Research Scholars met with Three small farm cities Birmingham local, Dr. Horace Huntley. This conversation combined in 1871 to form the has pushed me to the conclusion that Birmingham seems city of Birmingham, Alabama. economically successful at the surface due to its active attempts According to the Birmingham to bring white-collar industry to its center to combat what has Metropolitan Board (2014), Photo: Birmingham resident been coined ‘white flight’—the movement of white-collar workers Birmingham was founded in its and foot soldier Dr. Horace out of metropolitan areas. If white-collar workers leave the city, current location because of its Huntley speaks with the they take a majority of the tax base with them, causing the city strategic geographical location students from UST. to suffer. Astonishingly, Birmingham has avoided this trend. relative to the rest of the South.

29 Many railways ran through Birmingham, making it an instant hospital. According to the Alabama Department of Labor (2013), economic hub of the United States. In Map 1, one can see that UAB is the second-largest employer in Alabama, with a workforce the 1919 railway network of Birmingham directly connected to of about 18,750 in 2012. The medical school alone has created a states in the North, South, East and West. During its infant years, number of Alabama-native doctors (and many non-native) who Birmingham was coined The Magic City and The Pittsburgh of stay in the city of Birmingham to conduct research and practice the South because of its rise to a steel-industry powerhouse from medicine (UAB School of Medicine, 2014). nothing during a short span between the late 1800s and early 1900s. From the steel, Birmingham manufactured a number of In addition to University healthcare, Birmingham has actively rail-beams and railcars used across the United States as the nation pulled a cluster of bio-medical firms into its city-limits, expanded its railroad infrastructure. including the likes of Surgical Care Affiliates, Diagnostic Health Corporation, and HealthSouth. In addition, Birmingham’s own In the 1960s, Birmingham began the process of weaning itself Caremark RX was founded in 1993, leading to more medical from heavy reliance on the steel industry as it diversified into startups within the city since. Today, the bio-medical industry other industries such as business, medicine and banking. The city continues to define the economic face of Birmingham, and has had closed most of its mines due to governmental regulation and continued to grow since its introduction in the 1970s. increased international competition, but few coal mines remain open today (19). The unionization of African-American labor The city of Memphis, TN is following Birmingham’s huge from rural Alabama could no longer be employed at dirt-cheap footsteps in medicine. In 1962, Danny Thomas founded the prices in unsafe working conditions, so Birmingham slowly lost St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital in Memphis. Though its comparative advantage in steel-production to similar industrial many more St. Jude’s hospital extensions have opened across the cities in the Midwest and Northeast (Brodkin, 1998). Therefore, United States, St. Jude’s of Memphis remains a hub of children’s Birmingham’s economy had to diversify in order to keep pace with medical research in the United States. Additionally, the city of the elite economic performance of states in the North. Jackson, MS has the University of Mississippi medical center with children’s hospitals, a women and infant hospital, and a critical care (trauma) hospital (UMC, 2014). With over 2,800 active students per year in their health training programs, the city of Jackson, MS expects to further expand its medical industry.

EDUCATION

Birmingham has stood as the eye of the storm that is education in the South. The city has a reputation of running the best high schools, colleges, and universities in the area. Impressively in 2005, Newsweek declared Birmingham’s Jefferson County IB School the best high school in the United States (2005). Contributing to the rise of Birmingham’s educational success has been the steady increase in its library-system. The Birmingham Public Library has 21 branches, and provides the community with Map 1. 1919 Railway map of Birmingham, AL. education and entertainment from toddler-age to retirement- University of Texas Library (2010). age. The expansion of public education and the library system in Birmingham is partially due to the wide local tax base relative to MEDICINE nearby cities (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012). This allows the public schools better funding to afford educational niceties such as In the 1970s, Birmingham’s economy shifted its emphasis from building renovations, faculty retention, curriculum enhancements, mining and the rails to bio-technology and medical research. and opportunities for gifted and talented students. Many of the mines near Birmingham began to close, creating a need for new output-channels in the area. The University of Birmingham also attracts a large number of college and university Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) serves as the premier research students. Other than its largest institution, UAB, Alabama

30 Photo: Tyler at the Martin Luther King Jr. Day parade and celebration in Birmingham, AL.

is also home to Samford University, the Birmingham School group of people has a higher income, the overall cost of living of Law, Miles College, and a number of community colleges. increases. In fact, Birmingham has the highest cost of living of The city of Birmingham has enough culture and internship/ any metropolitan area in Alabama (Dept. of Labor Statistics). This research opportunities to attract an increasing college-population. means prices are higher; forcing those with fixed, low-wage jobs Students interested in healthcare research, banking, law, business, to consume less. This phenomenon, when paired with housing and engineering can find relevant, top-notch internships and discrimination, actually forces low-income, blue collar workers to careers in Birmingham (UAB, 2014). The city of Birmingham can the dankest parts of the city—or worse—out of the city. As the also fulfill the cultural needs of students with its music, museums, city de-industrializes, many low-income jobs are replaced with eateries, and parks. With the Alabama Ballet, Symphony high-income jobs, causing the quality of life for many low-skill Orchestra, and Opera all located in Birmingham, students will workers to fall. never have a shortage of shows to attend. A number of record- labels perform at the Birmingham-Jefferson Convention Complex Other southern cities—Memphis, Jackson, and Montgomery— and Birmingham CrossPlex. Whether top-notch collegiate may not necessarily have the aesthetic appeal that Birmingham education is a cause or effect of economic flourishment in the has, but they have budding industries that could push them to area, the students’ positive effects on the city around them is Birmingham’s economic prowess in the future. Memphis’ music significant nonetheless. industry has peaked in the late 1900s and early 2000s, but the improved media for musical streaming (e.g. Spotify and Pandora) MODEL CITY OR MASTER OF DISGUISE? have created an increased demand for musical production. Memphis and Nashville have the third highest professional Since Birmingham was founded as a steel and rail city in the musician total of all areas in the United States, so this could 1800s, income inequality has increased steadily in the United easily boost their economy in the coming decades (Lamere, States South (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012). Increasing 2012). Jackson is seeing growth and expansion in its educational income-inequality forces white-collar people to leave urban areas, and medical facilities. The area surrounding Jackson, however, moving much of the industry and tax-base into the suburbs where has expanded vastly over the past 10-20 years, pulling large blue-collar workers cannot afford to live. When this occurs, the industries—such as Nissan located more north in the Canton, high-income, white-collar workers take much of the tax base Mississippi area. with them—taxes that would be used to pay for roads, building renovations, and upgraded municipalities. Incredibly, the city For the city of Birmingham, Alabama, there is much room for of Birmingham has negated many negative effects of suburban their economy to grow. Banking and telecommunications are migration, and has actually seen business-centric populations two of the newest industries making waves in the area as both moving back into the city. As the rail and steel industries have industries look to expand over the next decade. The economic been phased out (but by no means eliminated), Birmingham has outlook in Birmingham has gracefully shifted from blue-collar expanded its white-collar jobs in city-proper. to a balance of both blue and white, which is a stark contrast to most inner-cities of the United States South. But the casual It is apparent, like in any major city, Birmingham does still have observer should be wary—covering the symptoms of poverty and its share of challenges, however, most in the form of intra-city oppression does not equate to solving these problems for any city. income inequality. Because people, by nature, prefer to live Birmingham’s neighbors may not necessarily resemble Utopian in homogeneous housing communities (i.e. similar incomes, economies at this time, but they definitely have an industrial basis races, religions, etc.), the city of Birmingham has poor parts that could support future economic growth. that stand in stark contrast to its wealthier parts (UAB). This can be supported through economic theory, because if one

31 Photo: The Birmingham, AL skyline shows some of the current major industries in Birmingham, such as banking and healthcare.

Alabama Department Bureau of Labor Statistics. Lamere, Paul. (May University of Mississippi of Labor Statistics. (Dec (Dec, 2012). “Alabama 2012). “What is the Medical Center Website. 2013). “Occupational Occupational Statistics.” Most Musical City in the (Jan. 2014). “Medical Statistics and Other Alabama Bureau of United States?” Music Center.” The University Employment Data.” Labor Statistics (BLS). Machinery – interface of of Mississippi Medical music and technology. School Admissions Office. Brodkin, K. (July 01, Huntley, H. (Jan. 2015). 1998). Race, Class, Address to Excel! Scholars UAB School of Medicine and Gender: The of the University of St. Website. (Oct. 2014). Metaorganization of Thomas. Birmingham, AL. “Welcome to the UAB American Capitalism. School of Medicine.” Transforming Kantrowitz, B. (May University of Alabama Anthropology, 7, 2, 46- 2005). “The 100 Medical School REFERENCES 57. Best High Schools in Admissions. America”. Newsweek Periodical.

“INSPIRED TO Dear COFO, CREATE CHANGE” I am incredibly grateful that you were able to have such an educational influence on our time here in Jackson and Canton. As you’ll see throughout this publication, the students on the Journey for Justice One part of our trip that really resonated with me was when we met with study tour had the opportunity to meet the mayor of Canton and foot soldiers from the Civil Rights Movement. I and speak with people who played an left feeling educated, humbled, and inspired to create change in my own active role in the Civil Rights Movement. community. Tyler wrote the following thank you note after their visit to Jackson. It illustrates Moreover, I would like to thank COFO for spending our time here in Canton one of the main purposes of the trip and and Jackson with us, and providing a story behind so many pieces of these the overall Excel! Research Scholars great cities. Program: to help first-generation college students and/or those from traditionally When I return to Jackson one day, my first stop will be COFO. under-served backgrounds to continue on to graduate school—and to make a Regards, difference in our world. Tyler J. Skluzacek

32 STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENT CLASHES IN THE MIDST OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS Alexander is pictured here with Mr. Hollis Watkins, one of the original members MOVEMENT of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).

by ALEXANDER TSADWA States in America have a certain level of autonomy when it Jim Crow laws were enacted between 1876 through 1965 at state comes to making their own laws. This puts the U.S. federal and local levels. They followed the 1800–1866 Black Codes, government at odds with states sometimes, which was the case which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties with Southern states during the Civil Rights Movement. After of African Americans with no pretense of equality. However, Jim the Reconstruction period (1865-1877), laws that enforced racial Crow laws were consistently challenged between the years 1954 segregation, called Jim Crow laws, were enacted by thirty-three and 1965, the peak of the Civil Rights Movement. One of the states between the late-19th and mid-20th century. Segregation larger victories against Jim Crow came when the U.S. Supreme came in the form of bans on interracial relationships, separate Court ruled segregation of public schools as unconstitutional water fountains, separate bathrooms and codes of conduct like in Brown v. Board of Education in Topeka, KS in 1954. This case gave the Civil Rights Movement momentum because it was a federal verdict that opposed a crucial part of segregation laws. Desegregating schools would result in not only breaking down color barriers but providing non-white citizens with many more opportunities to achieve success as well.

The clash between state autonomy and federal law was very visible during the first attempts at integrating schools. The cases of the in 1957 and James Meredith in 1962 are some of the greatest examples of this. In both cases, an attempt to integrate a school was made, resisted by the school and supported by the NAACP and the U.S. federal government.

Another area where state and federal Photo: Segregated drinking fountains on exhibit at the laws clashed was on the issue of voting rights for black Americans. Smith Robertson Museum in Jackson, MS. The Fifteenth Amendment, ratified in 1870, prohibits the federal government or state governments from denying U.S. citizens the forbidding black people from sharing a sidewalk with whites and right to vote based on race. However, many states were still hostile restricting black men from eating in certain restaurants. Each state toward black people attempting to vote. Poll taxes and differed in how many Jim Crow laws they implemented and how tests were created to keep black people from being able to vote. strictly they enforced them. The states in the deep south, most notably Mississippi and Alabama, were notorious for having the Though poll taxes and literacy tests were obvious efforts to keep strictest segregation laws in the country. black people from voting, the federal government did not seek to enforce the Fifteenth Amendment of the constitution in the

33 states that implemented these policies. It was up to the citizens of these areas to raise enough awareness to the issue and gain the federal government’s support. In Mississippi and Alabama, voter registration policies were very effective in keeping black people from being politically involved. Overcoming these obstacles required black people to inform each other on what their rights were as U.S. citizens, develop networks to effectively organize marches and protests, and develop Citizenship Schools to educate each other in order to pass the required tests to be a registered voter. Photo: Civil Rights demonstrators outside the White House in 1965. (Photo by Warren K. Leffler, courtesy of the Library of Congress.) Gaining voting rights was especially difficult in Mississippi because many communities in the state were rural and isolated. Large urban areas in the South with a majority black population Commissioner of Madison County. This political victory were better environments for large-scale activism because the black was crucial because she gained the power to make the voter citizens in these places could not be overlooked. Examples include registration process fair. As Election Commissioner, she was Memphis and Montgomery, places where the collective voice of responsible for organizing and monitoring elections, as well the black community was stronger during the height of the Civil as training poll workers. Her presence as a black woman with Rights Movement. Though Mississippi lacked large urban areas some political authority in Madison County encouraged other like Memphis and Birmingham, people in towns like Clarksdale voting-eligible black citizens in the county to register. On three and Canton, MS still established organizations such as local separate occasions, Ms. Wright sued the Elections Board for voters’ leagues and the Regional Council of Negro Leadership failing to qualify black political candidates and poll workers. which proved to be very successful. She implemented a jury selection process after the lawsuits, making more room for newly registered black voters to regulate Another challenge to obtaining voting rights in Mississippi was the election process—another testament to her influence in the the economic reality of many black people in the state. The community. majority of Mississippians lived in rural areas, many black people were sharecroppers or tenant farmers in those days. People Equally important in getting black citizens to vote was the with these occupations depended on the owners of the land and Regional Council of Negro Leadership (RCNL). Headed by wealthier white owners, for their pay. Being outspoken about , Bob Moses, T.R.M. Howard and Medgar Evers, the voting rights and mistreatment of black people could have RCNL encouraged entrepreneurship among black people as well resulted in a loss of employment. Economically independent as political involvement. What made the RCNL strong was the people became important leaders in communities during the Civil economic independence that the leaders of the group had. Since Rights Movement. these men did not rely on businesses or farms owned by white citizens, they had the ability to be vocal about civil rights without Local organizations helped many people gain the right to vote and fear of losing their jobs. It certainly was not safe to be a leading changed the composition of their local governing body. A great civil rights activist in Mississippi, during these turbulent times, example of this is the election committee in Canton, Mississippi but those who formed the RCNL did it successfully because of in the 1960s. Ms. Flonzie Brown-Wright, a graduate of Tougaloo their self-sufficiency. College, moved back to Canton in 1962 after spending several years in California. She was unaware of how serious the issue of As a result of groups like the RCNL and people like Ms. Flonzie voting rights was in her hometown of Canton, MS and decided to Brown-Wright pushing the black community into the political get politically involved. Ms. Wright attempted to register to vote process, the black community’s voice in Mississippi was heard. in 1964, but was denied by the registrar. She was subjected to the During the movement, this allowed leaders like Dr. Martin Luther unfair tests required for blacks to become registered voters and King, Jr. and Bob Moses to lead effective marches. Today, the was yelled at when she asked why she failed her test. efforts of these leaders have made Mississippi the state with the most black representatives in Congress. 1968, Ms. Wright ran for and won a seat as Election

34 THE POWER OF RELIGION AND THE CHURCH parting thoughts from Excel! Research Scholars Director Cynthia J. Fraction

Dr. Gloria Wade-Gayles, author of “My Soul is a Witness: African of not only the church in the Movement, but also this church in American Women’s Spirituality,” does an extraordinary job of particular. Dr. McLemore shared with us that during the height explaining the importance of spirituality and its relevance to of the Civil Rights Movement, many African American churches African Americans. In her 1995 book she says that the Spirit or were hesitant to open their doors to important meetings such as spirituality defies definition—a fact that speaks to its power as those held by the National Association for the Advancement of much as it reflects its mystery. Spirituality enters into a different Colored People (NAACP). Many church pastors, at that time, type of life dimension where Wade-Gayles defines it as being like needed their outside employment to survive; serving only as a wind. It cannot be seen, but like the wind it surely does exist and senior pastor was often not financially feasible. So, to subsidize we bear witness to its presence and its power (p.2). It’s something their income, ministers often worked for white employers. Given we cannot hear, yet we hear ourselves speaking and singing and the time in history, nearly all of these white employers opposed testifying because it moves, inspires, and directs us to do so. How the Movement. For a minister to hold meetings in their churches has this undefined, yet ever-existing presence or feeling manifested easily put them at risk of losing their jobs. Some ministers also itself in the lives of African Americans yesterday and still today? worried about losing their ability to maintain their churches. Church members feared attending churches that were holding When studying the struggles of the Civil Rights Movement, I meetings, because they were concerned they would also lose their sometimes ask the question, “How did African Americans then— jobs due to the affiliation. But, Haven United Methodist Church and how do they now—survive the racial challenges faced in was different. Haven United Methodist Church prides itself America?” The fighting of Jim Crow laws, the lynching of family on having maintained its strength during turbulent times. Dr. members and friends, the inequalities of daily life, the racism and McLemore indicated that due to the national church structure of discrimination that continues to plague America simply based on the United Methodist Church, the minister at that time was able the color of one’s skin is constantly in question. to serve as a full-time pastor with support from the congregation and the denomination. At one point, the Clarksdale, Mississippi The church is often seen as the epicenter—or at least one of the NAACP office was located across the street from Haven United main arteries—of the Civil Rights Movement. More than a place Methodist. While the church still stands proudly today at 404 where people worshiped, it was also a source of strength and a Yazoo Avenue in Clarksdale, MS, many of the other buildings do chief ingredient for helping to successfully move America forward. not. The NAACP office and the pharmacy owned and operated by While on our journey throughout the south, we traveled for 13 pharmacist Amzie Moore, who also served as the president of the days. During these days we visited seven places of worship. NAACP, were burned to the ground. Cements slabs today serve as their memory. Our first stop was at the Mason Temple Church of God in Christ in Memphis, TN. Standing in the midst of the very location Woodworth Chapel, located on the campus of Tougaloo College where Dr. Martin Luther King delivered his last speech was in Jackson, Mississippi, was our next stop. When visiting this most powerful. Seats surrounded every wall of the Temple with Chapel one cannot overlook the exquisite Queen Anne religious flags from practically every country represented, just as Dr. King architectural design. Originally erected in 1901 and made almost would have liked to see. When watching Dr. King deliver what entirely of wood, the Chapel has been preserved to its finest detail. is commonly known as the Mountain Top speech on April 3, Most importantly, the Chapel played a significant role in the Civil 1968, you could see the fatigue in his face from the many years Rights Movement with respect to the events that influenced the of fighting a powerful fight for the freedom and equality of all state of Mississippi and the nation. Many prominent leaders in people. Sitting in just one seat of the Temple, looking directly the Civil Rights Movement such as Medgar Evers, Fannie Lou onto the pulpit, it mattered not what one’s religious affiliation Hamer, George Washington Carver, Booker T. Washington, might be, because freedom was the main purpose of the fight for , Robert Kennedy, and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. civil rights. In this house of God we were all welcome and free. spoke from the Chapel’s pulpit. During the struggles of the Civil Rights Movement, Tougaloo College served as a refuge and an Our journey took us next to Haven United Methodist Church, organizational focus for the Movement. The Chapel has come in Clarksdale, MS where we were met by the Rev. Ozell Landfair, to be recognized as the central gathering place in Mississippi for Sr., Dr. Leslie Burl McLemore and a host of proud members of those working to secure equal rights for African Americans. this church and city. Located in the heart of the Mississippi Delta, the fine members of this congregation emphasized the importance Brown Chapel African Methodist Episcopal Church in Selma,

35 Reference: Wade-Gayles, G. (Ed). (1995). My soul is a witness: African American women’s spirituality. Boston: Beacon. Alabama is perhaps one of the most notable churches to the Civil birthday with the city of Birmingham, Alabama. The celebration Rights Movement. Brown Chapel A.M.E. was the starting point consisted of children from area high schools marching throughout of the Selma-to-Montgomery marches in 1965 and it served as the the city once again, with the same pride but this time with no fear. meeting place of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference They honored the work of Dr. King, notable civil rights leaders during the Selma Voting Rights Movement. The nearby Edmund such as Fred Shuttlesworth, and the children of Birmingham, Pettus Bridge is a landmark that is remembered for its history Alabama. These children honored the memory of all who died as the place where numerous heroes and sheroes of a variety of so that they might have the right to walk on a public sidewalk races, religions, and ages gathered to march in support of the or sit in a church service and thank God for their lives and the constitutional right for all American citizens to vote. On “Bloody opportunities that they have today. On that day, we attended Sunday,” March 7, 1965, over 50 of those nonviolent protesters church service at 16th Street Baptist. The Rev. Timothy Glenn were hospitalized after being blocked, beaten, and forced to turn from Fort Worth, Texas was one of the guest ministers. Prior around by Alabama state troopers. Several others died in incidents to hearing his inspirational sermon, we walked to the front of related to the march. During our visit to the sanctuary to give just a little historic locations in Selma, AL, we walked something in a monetary offering, a across this same bridge. Cars honked and small sacrifice compared to those who people heckled at us. They knew we were gave their lives during the Movement. walking in honor of these historical events. What we learned is that nothing is When crossing this bridge, I couldn’t help too small but rather to give from the but think about those who didn’t have the heart is what is expected and that no same experience as me. As I approached monetary value can define the gift of the end of the bridge, I saw nothing giving. We also learned that more than but cars and businesses with fear of no $300,000 dollars was donated to help potential harm to be done to me. For repair the church after the bombing on those in the Movement, “Bloody Sunday” September 15, 1963. was far different. When walking back to our seats we On Sunday, January 19 we had the couldn’t help but see the vibrant, pleasure of worshiping with the multi-colored stained glass window congregation of Dexter Avenue Baptist of Jesus Christ located up above, Church in Montgomery, AL. Dr. King behind the balcony seats. Known as accepted his first call to pastor at Dexter the Wales Window, this south-facing Avenue Baptist Church, as its twentieth window was designed and donated pastor, on May 14, 1954. When he arrived by Welsh artist John Petts along at Dexter—this was his first and only full- with several children from Wales. time pastorate—he had just completed The window depicts a black Christ the residential requirements for his Doctor Photo: The Wales Window, which was with his arms outstretched. The right of Philosophy in systematic theology from given to 16th Street Baptist Church after hand symbolizes the oppressed, his Boston University. Upon completing his four girls were killed during a racially- left is asking for forgiveness for the doctoral thesis during the first five months motivated bombing in 1963. (Photo credit: oppressor. of his pastorate, he was awarded the degree Wendy McFadden, used with permission.) of Ph.D. on June 5, 1955. We concluded our tour in Atlanta, GA at Ebenezer Baptist Church where the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, AL will long Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. began his life and was baptized remember Sunday, September 15, 1963 at 10:22 a.m. It is this as a child. He later delivered his trial sermon to the congregation date and time that all of America should pay tribute to four at the tender age of 19 and was ordained as a minister. In 1960, little girls: Denise McNair (age 11); Addie Mae Collins (age 14); Dr. King, Jr. returned to Atlanta, GA and became the co-pastor of Cynthia Wesley (age 14) and Carole Robertson (age 14)—all Ebenezer with his father, known as “Daddy” King. He remained victims of the church’s bombing, a senseless crime that took place in that position until his death in 1968. As a final farewell to due to the extensive racial unrest within the city of Birmingham his spiritual home, Dr. King, Jr.’s funeral was held at Ebenezer. and the south overall. These four little girls, along with a host of Outside of the church, he and his lovely wife Ms. Coretta Scott young people, will always be remembered and memorialized for King have been laid to rest. At this time—after a very long, the 1963 Birmingham Children’s Crusade. It was at that time robust, emotionally eventful, celebratory and spiritually uplifting that children were being attacked by water from high-pressure fire journey—I was humbled to be able to stand at this altar and the hoses, bit by Doberman Pinschers and German Shepherds, beaten resting place of both of these astonishing individuals. For the first with Billy clubs, and dragged through the streets by those who time in my life, I was able to simply say thank you and thank had been appointed to protect and serve. God, for a job well done, remembering that while we are, in the words of Dr. King, “free at last”, there is still much work to be Our journey gave us the opportunity of celebrating Dr. King’s done.

36 1

In 2015, students on the Journey for Justice Study Tour were immersed in a number of unique experiences, including:

• Visiting the home of Medgar Evers in Jackson, MS • Standing amidst the remains of the Bryant Grocery Store in Money, MS • Speaking with foot soldiers who were actually on the front lines of the Civil Rights Movement 3 4 • Learning freedom songs • Seeing the actual materials from slavery and the Civil Rights Movement to include brochures, slave letters, etc. • Touring two slave freedom houses; one in Memphis, TN and the other Canton, MS • Marching across the Edmund Pettus Bridge

7 8 1 2

5 6

In 2015, as a part of the Journey for Justice Study Tour of the American Civil Rights Movement students had the opportunity to give back just a little of what has been given to them. Students presented three backpacks with educational materials that they collected and purchased to be shared with children of all ages in Canton, MS. In Birmingham, AL all participants engaged in various community service projects at the Ronald McDonald House. And to give back to the Twin Cities, they all collected toiletries throughout the trip that were shipped back and distributed to the Harriet Tubman Women’s Shelter in Minneapolis.

9 Photos (L-R from top): 1. Students pick cotton in the Mississippi Delta; 2. Ray and Anisa donate a backpack full of educational materials that they collected to share with an elementary student in Canton, MS.; 3. Dr. Jennifer Ford, head of Archives & Special Collections at the University of Mississippi, shares historical documents with the students; 4. Dr. Donald Cole, Assistant Provost and Assistant to the Chancellor for Multicultural Affairs at the University of Mississippi, speaks to the Scholars; 5. A slave quilt on display at the Smith Robertson Museum; 6. Anisa packs lunches for families staying at the Ronald McDonald House in Birmingham, AL; 7. Teron and the Scholars walk across the Edmund Pettus bridge, site of Bloody Sunday in 1965; 8. Pamela D.C. Junior, Museum Manager at the Smith Robertson Museum in Jackson, MS, speaks to the students; 9. Mr. Bernard Wheeler of T-Star Limousines, our bus driver for the past two years, was another key member of the tour. Students in the Excel! Research Scholars Program are eligible to participate in the annual Journey for Justice Study Tour of the American Civil Rights Movement. The Excel! Research Scholars Program is part of the University of St. Thomas Grants & Research Office. For more information, please contact us at 651-962-5960 or at [email protected].

Cynthia J. Fraction, M.A., Excel! Research Scholars Director Courtney Crowley, Graduate Assistant & Writing Specialist (2014-Present)

Grants & Research Office Director: David F. Steele, Ph.D. Aquinas Hall, Third Floor 2115 Summit Avenue St. Paul, MN 55105

stthomas.edu/gro

grants research OFFICE