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The Endocrine System

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The Endocrine System The Endocrine System (exocrine vs endocrine glands) all major endocrine glands are richly supplied with blood capillaries no clear distinction between nervous and endocrine systems 2. most, if not all, organs produce hormones “officially” the endocrine system consists of several major glands =neuroendocrine system and many minor glands they are intimately interrelated 3. Hormones are secreted in response to specific stimuli ! complement each other 3 mechanisms: neural, humoral, hormonal ! two ends of a single spectrum A. Humoral The Neuroendocrine System Nervous System Endocrine System hormones secreted in direct response to changing localized effects: cell to cell widespread effects: throughout body blood levels of certain chemicals in blood targets: neurons, muscle cells or glands targets: all organs and tissues transmission by nerve impulses transmission as hormone through blood uses chemical signals only cell to cell uses only chemical signals affect endocrine gland directly immediate response (ms to seconds) gradual response (seconds to hours) short lived (ms to minutes) longer lived (minutes to days) B. Neural Both both involved in coordination & control hormones secreted due to direct nervous stimulation both produce biologically active chemicals some parts of brain are glands/some glands are nervous tissue some responses begin as nervous reflex and end as hormonal responses C. Hormonal General Characteristics of Hormones Anterior Pituitary = master gland secretes several hormones that control the secretion of 1. a chemical is considered a hormone if it is secreted other endocrine glands and transported in the blood ! Tropic Hormones same chemical can also be a neurotransmitter, or lymphokine, etc 4. Many endocrine glands secrete more than one hormone the major hormones are secreted from ductless glands directly into blood hormones can be secreted independently of one another Human Anatomy & Physiology: Endocrine System; Ziser, 2010.4 1 Human Anatomy & Physiology: Endocrine System; Ziser, 2010.4 2 5. hormone effects are highly specific to “target ! synergistic effects organ” = presence of 1 enhances effects of other ! requires specific binding site (receptor proteins) ! antagonistic effects even though every hormone comes in contact with every cell = 1 counteracts effects of other receptor can be on the surface of the target cell or inside the ! permissive effects target cell = one hormone “primes” target organ for another target cells respond only to specific hormones hormone; 8. Hormones don’t accumulate in blood 6. At the cellular level each hormone can affect a target cell in only a few ways: those that bind to target cells are destroyed a. can change in cell membrane permeability ! half-life ~ seconds – 30 minutes eg. change in secretory activity of a cell excess are continually cleared by liver and kidney b. can alter metabolic pathway(s) therefore for prolonged effect eg. enzymes activated or inactivated ! hormones must be continuously secreted ! make new products ! cease making product c. can change rate of cell division eg. speed up or slow down Maybe different effects in different target cells for same hormone 7. Most cells have receptors for more than one type of hormone hormones can interact with each other Human Anatomy & Physiology: Endocrine System; Ziser, 2010.4 3 Human Anatomy & Physiology: Endocrine System; Ziser, 2010.4 4 Major Endocrine Glands ! in women: stimulates follicles to begin growing to ovulation Pituitary Gland (=Hypophysis) ! in men: stimulates development of seminiferous tubules and sperm cells small but extremely important structure d. Leutinizing Hormone (LH) attached to a stalk (infindibulum) at base of hypothalamus ! in women: final maturation of follicle housed in sella turcica of sphenoid bone stimulates formation of corpus luteum consists of two separate glands [a temorary endocrine gland of pregnancy] Anterior Pituitary Gland promotes secretion of progesterone master gland ! in men: stimulates interstitial cells to secrete secretes tropic (or trophic) hormones: hormone = testosterone a. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) if pituitary gland is removed by radiation or surgery, need hormone treatment rest of life or some other glands will ! stim development and secretions from shut down thyroid gland in addition to tropic hormones, Ant Pit also secretes some other (nontropic) hormones: b. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) e. Growth Hormone (GH) ! normal growth and development of adrenal cortex promotes growth of bone and soft tissue c. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Human Anatomy & Physiology: Endocrine System; Ziser, 2010.4 5 Human Anatomy & Physiology: Endocrine System; Ziser, 2010.4 6 ! stim protein synthesis Posterior Pituitary Gland amt of GH secreted decreases with age hormones released by direct nervous stimulation of HYPERSECRETION of GH posterior pituitary during childhood ! gigantism during adulthood ! acromegaly a. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH, =vasopressin) enlargement esp of bones of hands, feet, jaws and cheeks (=against production of urea) HYPOSECRETION of GH ADH is released whenever receptors indicated during childhood ! dwarfism dehydration ie. decreases urine output f. Prolactin (PRL; = Lactogenic Hormone) conserves water affects female: b. Oxytocin ! induces breast development during (=swift childbirth) pregnancy stimulates contraction of uterine muscles ! initiates milk secretion after childbirth during labor prl release is stimulated by suckling causes milk ejection into ducts as result of no significant functions in males nursing infant [let down reflex] triggered by neural stimulus: suckling functions in “societal memory”: affects ability to recognize & trust others [deficiency may be correlated with autism] Human Anatomy & Physiology: Endocrine System; Ziser, 2010.4 7 Human Anatomy & Physiology: Endocrine System; Ziser, 2010.4 8 Pineal Gland Thymus located behind the midbrain and 3rd ventricle a temporary endocrine gland attached to roof of third ventricle behind sternum, below thyroid not sure of all its functions in humans but seems to regulate cyclic activities large in fetus and child maximum size at puberty Rene Descartes (1596-1650) thought it was the seat of degenerates in adult (replaced with fat) the human soul is light sensitive ! monitors photoperiod functions as endocrine gland and as part of immune system a. Melatonin secretes thymosin and related hormones main hormone it secretes is melatonin light suppresses production ! stimulates development of lymphatic organs dark stimulates production ! induces maturation and development of WBC’s !secretion rises at night, fluctuates seasonally particularly T-lymphocytes and with changing day length in lower animals it helps regulate cyclic activities: hibernation estrous migration In humans: ! may help regulate menstrual cycle ! inhibits onset of puberty in males may be related to seasonal affective disorder and PMS Human Anatomy & Physiology: Endocrine System; Ziser, 2010.4 9 Human Anatomy & Physiology: Endocrine System; Ziser, 2010.4 10 Thyroid Gland HYPERSECRETION of Thyroid Hormones !Graves disease the largest endocrine gland in adults up to 30% increase in Metabolic Rate ! appetite surrounds trachea just below larynx weight loss nervous irritability consists of 2 lobes !usually described as butterfly HYPOSECRETION of Thyroid Hormones shaped During growing years ! cretinism Hormones: low metabolic rate retarded growth and sexual devel often mentally retarded a. Thyroid Hormones (T3, T4) As adult ! Myxedema activated by TSH from Ant Pit loss of mental and physical vigor weight gain contain Iodine atoms thickened skin 98% of body’s Iodine is in the thyroid gland b. Calcitonin inadequate iodine in diet ! goiter decreases blood Ca++ / promote bone thyroid hormones help to regulate metabolism deposition by in all cells: inhibiting osteoclasts stimulating osteoblasts ! increases metabolic rate & ATP production ! increase oxygen consumption and bld O2 levels ! promotes maturation and development of the its effects are significant only in children, nervous system negligable effect in adults ! increases protein synthesis !help maintain normal reproductive function HYPOSECRETION of Calcitonin many environmental stimuli can inhibit can cause ricketts in children (but usually due to Ca++ or Vit D deficiency) secretions of this gland: cold temp, physical stressors, noxious stimuli Human Anatomy & Physiology: Endocrine System; Ziser, 2010.4 11 Human Anatomy & Physiology: Endocrine System; Ziser, 2010.4 12 Parathyroid Glands Pancreas small round bodies attached to the posterior surfaces both an exocrine and endocrine gland of the thyroid gland exocrine (98% of mass of pancreas): usually 4 or 5, but varies secretes digestive enzymes a. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) endocrine (<2% of mass of pancreas): helps maintain homeostasis of blood calcium contains clusters of endocrine cells antagonist to calcitonin = Islets of Langerhans (~1 Million clusters; each up to several 1000 cells) raises blood Ca++ levels: humoral regulation: monitors blood glucose conc & amino acid levels !promotes Ca++ absorption by kidney tubules and intestine mainly secretes: insulin regulate blood sugar levels ! stimulates osteoclasts to dissolve bone glucagon since bone contains both calcium and phosphorus this releases both into blood both are proteins Calcium homeostasis is important in: a. Insulin neuromuscular function blood clotting synapses levels rise immediately after a meal to activate certain enzymes affects cell membrane permeability
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