AP Biology--ENDOCRINE SYSTEM OUTLINE
Total Page:16
File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb
Load more
Recommended publications
-
Glossary - Cellbiology
1 Glossary - Cellbiology Blotting: (Blot Analysis) Widely used biochemical technique for detecting the presence of specific macromolecules (proteins, mRNAs, or DNA sequences) in a mixture. A sample first is separated on an agarose or polyacrylamide gel usually under denaturing conditions; the separated components are transferred (blotting) to a nitrocellulose sheet, which is exposed to a radiolabeled molecule that specifically binds to the macromolecule of interest, and then subjected to autoradiography. Northern B.: mRNAs are detected with a complementary DNA; Southern B.: DNA restriction fragments are detected with complementary nucleotide sequences; Western B.: Proteins are detected by specific antibodies. Cell: The fundamental unit of living organisms. Cells are bounded by a lipid-containing plasma membrane, containing the central nucleus, and the cytoplasm. Cells are generally capable of independent reproduction. More complex cells like Eukaryotes have various compartments (organelles) where special tasks essential for the survival of the cell take place. Cytoplasm: Viscous contents of a cell that are contained within the plasma membrane but, in eukaryotic cells, outside the nucleus. The part of the cytoplasm not contained in any organelle is called the Cytosol. Cytoskeleton: (Gk. ) Three dimensional network of fibrous elements, allowing precisely regulated movements of cell parts, transport organelles, and help to maintain a cell’s shape. • Actin filament: (Microfilaments) Ubiquitous eukaryotic cytoskeletal proteins (one end is attached to the cell-cortex) of two “twisted“ actin monomers; are important in the structural support and movement of cells. Each actin filament (F-actin) consists of two strands of globular subunits (G-Actin) wrapped around each other to form a polarized unit (high ionic cytoplasm lead to the formation of AF, whereas low ion-concentration disassembles AF). -
2 Surgical Anatomy
2 Surgical Anatomy Nancy Dugal Perrier, Michael Sean Boger contents 2.2 Morphology 2.1 Introduction . 7 The paired retroperitoneal adrenal glands are found 2.2 Morphology ...7 in the middle of the abdominal cavity, residing on 2.3 Relationship of the Adrenal Glands to the Kidneys ...10 the superior medial aspect of the upper pole of each 2.4 Blood Supply, Innervation, and Lymphatics ...10 kidney (Fig. 1). However, this location may vary 2.4.1 Arterial . 10 depending on the depth of adipose tissue.By means of 2.4.2 Venous ...10 pararenal fat and perirenal fascia,the adrenals contact 2.4.3 Innervation ...11 the superior portion of the abdominal wall. These 2.4.4 Lymphatic . 11 structures separate the adrenals from the pleural re- 2.5 Left Adrenal Gland Relationships ...11 flection, ribs, and the subcostal, sacrospinalis, and 2.6 Right Adrenal Gland Relationships ...14 latissimus dorsi muscles [2].Posteriorly,the glands lie 2.7 Summary ...17 References . 17 near the diaphragmatic crus and arcuate ligament [10]. Laterally, the right adrenal resides in front of the 12th rib and the left gland is in front of the 11th and 12th ribs [2]. Each adrenal gland weighs approximately 2.1 Introduction Liver Adrenal gland The small paired adrenal glands have a grand history. Eustachius published the first anatomical drawings of the adrenal glands in the mid-sixteenth century [17].In 1586, Piccolomineus and Baunin named them the suprarenal glands. Nearly two-and-a-half centuries later, Cuvier described the anatomical division of each gland into the cortex and medulla. -
Anatomical Variations in the Arterial Supply of the Suprarenal Gland. Int J Health Sci Res
International Journal of Health Sciences and Research www.ijhsr.org ISSN: 2249-9571 Original Research Article Anatomical Variations in the Arterial Supply of the Suprarenal Gland Sushma R.K1, Mahesh Dhoot2, Hemant Ashish Harode2, Antony Sylvan D’Souza3, Mamatha H4 1Lecturer, 2Postgraduate, 3Professor & Head, 4Assistant Professor; Department of Anatomy, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal University, Manipal-576104, Karnataka, India. Corresponding Author: Mamatha H Received: 29/03//2014 Revised: 17/04/2014 Accepted: 21/04/2014 ABSTRACT Introduction: Suprarenal gland is normally supplied by superior, middle and inferior suprarenal arteries which are the branches of inferior phrenic, abdominal aorta and renal artery respectively. However the arterial supply of the suprarenal gland may show variations. Therefore a study was conducted to find the variations in the arterial supply of Suprarenal Gland. Materials and methods: 20 Formalin fixed cadavers, were dissected bilaterally in the department of Anatomy, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal to study the arterial supply of the suprarenal gland, which were photographed and different variations were noted. Results: Out of 20 cadavers variations were observed in five cases in the arterial pattern of supra renal gland. We found that in one cadaver superior supra renal artery on the left side was arising directly from the coeliac trunk. Another variation was observed on the right side ina cadaver that inferior and middle suprarenal arteries were arising from accessory renal artery and on the right side it gave another small branch to the gland. Conclusion: Variations in the arterial pattern of suprarenal gland are significant for radiological and surgical interventions. KEY WORDS: Suprarenal gland, suprarenal artery, renal artery, abdominal aorta, inferior phrenic artery INTRODUCTION accessory renal arteries (ARA). -
Actions of Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide on the Rat Adrenal Zona Glomerulosa
51 Actions of vasoactive intestinal peptide on the rat adrenal zona glomerulosa J P Hinson, J R Puddefoot and S Kapas1 Molecular and Cellular Biology Section, Division of Biomedical Sciences, St Bartholomew’s and The Royal London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary and Westfield College, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK 1Oral Diseases Research Centre, St Bartholomew’s and The Royal London School of Medicine and Dentistry, 2 Newark Street, London E1 2AT, UK (Requests for offprints should be addressed to J P Hinson) Abstract Previous studies, by this group and others, have shown that The response to VIP in adrenals obtained from rats fed vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) stimulates aldosterone a low sodium diet was also investigated. Previous studies secretion, and that the actions of VIP on aldosterone have found that adrenals from animals on a low sodium secretion by the rat adrenal cortex are blocked by â diet exhibit increased responsiveness to VIP. Specific VIP adrenergic antagonists, suggesting that VIP may act by binding sites were identified, although the concentration the local release of catecholamines. The present studies or affinity of binding sites in the low sodium group was not were designed to test this hypothesis further, by measur- significantly different from the controls. In the low sodium ing catecholamine release by adrenal capsular tissue in group VIP was found to increase catecholamine release to response to VIP stimulation. the same extent as in the control group, however, in Using intact capsular tissue it was found that VIP caused contrast to the control group, the adrenal response to VIP a dose-dependent increase in aldosterone secretion, with a was not altered by adrenergic antagonists in the low concomitant increase in both adrenaline and noradrenaline sodium group. -
Adrenal Metastasis from an Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma - a Case Report and Review of Literature
IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences (IOSR-JDMS) e-ISSN: 2279-0853, p-ISSN: 2279-0861.Volume 15, Issue 10 Ver. VII (October. 2016), PP 20-22 www.iosrjournals.org Adrenal Metastasis from an Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma - A Case Report and Review of Literature Prof. Subbiah Shanmugam MS Mch1, Dr Sujay Susikar MS Mch2, Dr. H Prasanna Srinivasa Rao Mch Post Graduate2 1,2Department Of Surgical Oncology, Centre For Oncology, Government Royapettah Hospital & Kilpauk Medical College, Chennai, India Abstract: Adrenal metastasis from esophageal carcinoma is quite uncommon. The identification of adrenal metastasis and their differentiation from incidentally detected benign adrenal tumors is challenging especially when functional imaging facilities are unavailable. Here we present a case report of a 43 year old male presenting with adrenal metastasis from an esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. The use of minimally invasive surgery to confirm the metastatic nature of disease in a resource limited setup has been described. Keywords: adrenal metastasis, adrenalectomy, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma I. Introduction Adrenal metastases have been reported in various malignancies; most commonly from cancers of lung, breast but uncommonly from esophageal primary. The diagnostic difficulties in the identification of adrenal secondaries are due to the small size of the lesion, difficulty in differentiating benign from malignant adrenal lesions based on computed tomography findings alone and the anatomical position of adrenal making it difficult to target for biopsy under image guidance. The functional scans (PET CT) not only reliably differentiate metastatic adrenal lesions, but also light up other areas of metastasis. Such information is definitely needed before deciding on the intent of treatment and the surgery for the primary lesion. -
Epigenetic Modulating Chemicals Significantly Affect the Virulence
G C A T T A C G G C A T genes Article Epigenetic Modulating Chemicals Significantly Affect the Virulence and Genetic Characteristics of the Bacterial Plant Pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris Miroslav Baránek 1,* , Viera Kováˇcová 2 , Filip Gazdík 1 , Milan Špetík 1 , Aleš Eichmeier 1 , Joanna Puławska 3 and KateˇrinaBaránková 1 1 Mendeleum—Institute of Genetics, Faculty of Horticulture, Mendel University in Brno, 69144 Lednice, Czech Republic; fi[email protected] (F.G.); [email protected] (M.Š.); [email protected] (A.E.); [email protected] (K.B.) 2 Institute for Biological Physics, University of Cologne, 50923 Köln, Germany; [email protected] 3 Department of Phytopathology, Research Institute of Horticulture, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +420-519367311 Abstract: Epigenetics is the study of heritable alterations in phenotypes that are not caused by changes in DNA sequence. In the present study, we characterized the genetic and phenotypic alterations of the bacterial plant pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc) under different treatments with several epigenetic modulating chemicals. The use of DNA demethylating chemicals unambiguously caused a durable decrease in Xcc bacterial virulence, even after its reisolation from Citation: Baránek, M.; Kováˇcová,V.; infected plants. The first-time use of chemicals to modify the activity of sirtuins also showed Gazdík, F.; Špetík, M.; Eichmeier, A.; some noticeable results in terms of increasing bacterial virulence, but this effect was not typically Puławska, J.; Baránková, K. stable. Changes in treated strains were also confirmed by using methylation sensitive amplification Epigenetic Modulating Chemicals (MSAP), but with respect to registered SNPs induction, it was necessary to consider their contribution Significantly Affect the Virulence and to the observed polymorphism. -
Affect Breast Cancer Risk
HOW HORMONES AFFECT BREAST CANCER RISK Hormones are chemicals made by the body that control how cells and organs work. Estrogen is a female hormone made mainly in the ovaries. It’s important for sexual development and other body functions. From your first monthly period until menopause, estrogen stimulates normal breast cells. A higher lifetime exposure to estrogen may increase breast cancer risk. For example, your risk increases if you start your period at a young age or go through menopause at a later age. Other hormone-related risks are described below. Menopausal hormone therapy Pills Menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) is The U.S. Food and Drug Administration also known as postmenopausal hormone (FDA) recommends women use the lowest therapy and hormone replacement dose that eases symptoms for the shortest therapy. Many women use MHT pills to time needed. relieve hot flashes and other menopausal Any woman currently taking or thinking symptoms. MHT should be used at the Birth control about taking MHT pills should talk with her lowest dose and for the shortest time pills (oral doctor about the risks and benefits. contraceptives) needed to ease menopausal symptoms. Long-term use can increase breast cancer Vaginal creams, suppositories Current or recent use risk and other serious health conditions. and rings of birth control pills There are 2 main types of MHT pills: slightly increases breast Vaginal forms of MHT do not appear to cancer risk. However, estrogen plus progestin and estrogen increase the risk of breast cancer. However, this risk is quite small alone. if you’ve been diagnosed with breast cancer, vaginal estrogen rings and suppositories are because the risk of Estrogen plus progestin MHT breast cancer for most better than vaginal estrogen creams. -
A Study on the Variations of Arterial Supply to Adrenal Gland
K Naga Vidya Lakshmi and Mahesh Dhoot / International Journal of Biomedical and Advance Research 2016; 7(8): 373-375. 373 International Journal of Biomedical and Advance Research ISSN: 2229-3809 (Online); 2455-0558 (Print) Journal DOI: 10.7439/ijbar CODEN: IJBABN Original Research Article A study on the variations of arterial supply to adrenal gland K Naga Vidya Lakshmi* and Mahesh Dhoot Department of Anatomy, RKDF Medical College Hospital & Research Centre, Bhopal, India *Correspondence Info: Dr. K Naga Vidya Lakshmi, Room No: 208, Staff Quarters, RKDF Medical College Campus, Jatkhedi, Bhopal, India E-mail: [email protected] Abstract Introduction: Adrenal glands are richly vascular and get their arterial supply by means of three arteries namely superior, middle, inferior suprarenal arteries. The inferior phrenic artery gives off the superior branch, while middle branch arises directly from the abdominal aorta, and the inferior suprarenal branch is given off by the renal artery. Materials And Methods: The study was conducted in 15 formalin fixed cadavers obtained from the department of Anatomy and are carefully dissected to observe the arterial supply of both right and left adrenal glands. Observations: It has been noted that variations were observed in four cases out of 30 adrenal glands, two cases showed variations on right side and in two cases variation is seen on left side. First case on the right side, both MSA and ISA are given off by ARA. In the second case on right side IPA is given off by RA and from the junction of these two arteries MSA was given. In third case on left side MSA is given by the coeliac trunk and ISA is from ARA, in fourth case on left side ISA is originated from ARA. -
Biology Work Through the Tasks on the Following Pages
Biology Key skills developed in this work: • Locating, selecting, organising and presenting information from a variety of sources • Translating information from one form to another • Manipulating numerical and other data • Using information to identify patterns, report trends and draw conclusions • Giving reasoned explanations for phenomena, patterns and relationships Research work: https://www.futurelearn.com/subjects/science-engineering-and-maths-courses/biology-and- biotechnology Website links: https://www.cambridgeinternational.org/programmes-and-qualifications/cambridge- international-as-and-a-level-biology-9700/ https://www.senecalearning.com/ https://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/a-level/ https://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/biology Appropriate additional reading: • The Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins • Silent Spring by Rachel Carson • I Contain Multitudes by Ed Yong • • Nature.com • Newscientist.com • Scientificamerican.com Work through the tasks on the following pages Tasks to complete: A: Examination Questions Units of measurement 1) Complete the diagram below to show: names of the units of measurement, unit symbols, and mathematical operations for converting between units. 2) Complete the table below to show the corresponding values in nanometres, micrometres and millimetres for the measurements given in each row. The first row has been completed for you. Add in the correct unit symbols for each answer you give. Nanometre Micrometre Millimetre 5 0.005 0.000005 1 1 1 3 7 0.5 Magnification and Resolution 1) Define the following terms: Term Definition Magnification Resolution 2) Visible light has a wavelength of 400-700 nm. Calculate the best resolution achievable with a light microscope? Show your working out: 3) The diagram below shows the general structure of a plant cell when viewed under and electron microscope. -
HORMONES and SPORT Insulin, Growth Hormone and Sport
13 HORMONES AND SPORT Insulin, growth hormone and sport P H Sonksen Guy’s, King’s and St Thomas’ School of Medicine, St Thomas’ Hospital, London SE1 7EH, UK; Email: [email protected] Abstract This review examines some interesting ‘new’ histories of blood rather than urine samples. The first method has a insulin and reviews our current understanding of its window of opportunity lasting about 24 h after an injec- physiological actions and synergy with GH in the regu- tion and is most suitable for ‘out of competition’ testing. lation of metabolism and body composition. It reviews the The second method has reasonable sensitivity for as long as history of GH abuse that antedates by many years the 2 weeks after the last injection of GH and is uninfluenced awareness of endocrinologists to its potent anabolic actions. by extreme exercise and suitable for post-competition Promising methods for detection of GH abuse have been samples. This method has a greater sensitivity in men than developed but have yet to be sufficiently well validated to in women. The specificity of both methods seems accept- be ready for introduction into competitive sport. So far, ably high but lawyers need to decide what level of there are two promising avenues for detecting GH abuse. scientific probability is needed to obtain a conviction. Both The first uses immunoassays that can distinguish the methods need further validation before implementation. isomers of pituitary-derived GH from the monomer of Research work carried out as part of the fight against recombinant human GH. The second works through doping in sport has opened up a new and exciting area of demonstrating circulating concentrations of one or more endocrinology. -
A Case of Bilateral Aldosterone-Producing Adenomas Differentiated by Segmental Adrenal Venous Sampling for Bilateral Adrenal Sparing Surgery
OPEN Journal of Human Hypertension (2016) 30, 379–385 © 2016 Macmillan Publishers Limited All rights reserved 0950-9240/16 www.nature.com/jhh ORIGINAL ARTICLE A case of bilateral aldosterone-producing adenomas differentiated by segmental adrenal venous sampling for bilateral adrenal sparing surgery R Morimoto1, N Satani2, Y Iwakura1, Y Ono1, M Kudo1, M Nezu1, K Omata1,3, Y Tezuka1,3, K Seiji2,HOta2, Y Kawasaki4, S Ishidoya4, Y Nakamura5, Y Arai4, K Takase2, H Sasano5,SIto1 and F Satoh1,3 Primary aldosteronism due to unilateral aldosterone-producing adenoma (APA) is a surgically curable form of hypertension. Bilateral APA can also be surgically curable in theory but few successful cases can be found in the literature. It has been reported that even using successful adrenal venous sampling (AVS) via bilateral adrenal central veins, it is extremely difficult to differentiate bilateral APA from bilateral idiopathic hyperaldosteronism (IHA) harbouring computed tomography (CT)-detectable bilateral adrenocortical nodules. We report a case of bilateral APA diagnosed by segmental AVS (S-AVS) and blood sampling via intra-adrenal first-degree tributary veins to localize the sites of intra-adrenal hormone production. A 36-year-old man with marked long-standing hypertension was referred to us with a clinical diagnosis of bilateral APA. He had typical clinical and laboratory profiles of marked hypertension, hypokalaemia, elevated plasma aldosterone concentration (PAC) of 45.1 ng dl− 1 and aldosterone renin activity ratio of 90.2 (ng dl − 1 per ng ml − 1 h − 1), which was still high after 50 mg-captopril loading. CT revealed bilateral adrenocortical tumours of 10 and 12 mm in diameter on the right and left sides, respectively. -
Thyroid Hormones in Fetal Growth and Prepartum Maturation
A J FORHEAD and A L FOWDEN Thyroid hormones and fetal 221:3 R87–R103 Review development Thyroid hormones in fetal growth and prepartum maturation A J Forhead1,2 and A L Fowden1 Correspondence should be addressed 1Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Physiology Building, to A L Fowden Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK Email 2Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK [email protected] Abstract The thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), are essential for normal Key Words growth and development of the fetus. Their bioavailability in utero depends on " thyroid hormones development of the fetal hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid gland axis and the abundance " intrauterine growth of thyroid hormone transporters and deiodinases that influence tissue levels of bioactive " maturation hormone. Fetal T4 and T3 concentrations are also affected by gestational age, nutritional and " neonatal adaptation endocrine conditions in utero, and placental permeability to maternal thyroid hormones, which varies among species with placental morphology. Thyroid hormones are required for the general accretion of fetal mass and to trigger discrete developmental events in the fetal brain and somatic tissues from early in gestation. They also promote terminal differentiation of fetal tissues closer to term and are important in mediating the prepartum maturational effects of the glucocorticoids that ensure neonatal viability. Thyroid hormones act directly through anabolic effects on fetal metabolism and the stimulation of fetal oxygen Journal of Endocrinology consumption. They also act indirectly by controlling the bioavailability and effectiveness of other hormones and growth factors that influence fetal development such as the catecholamines and insulin-like growth factors (IGFs).