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10 Wilderness Ecosystems

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10 Wilderness Ecosystems 10Wilderness Ecosystems Introduction 191 Identifying wilderness ecosystems 203 Man's Historic Role in Wilderness 191 Characterizing wilderness ecosystems 204 Ecosystems and Their Characteristics 192 Successional characterization of ecosystems 204 Dynamics of Ecosystems 195 Levels of detail for inventorying and monitoring 208 Human influences on ecosystem dynamics in wilderness 197 Literature Cited 210 Natural versus man-influenced ecosystems 2tX1 Ecological Knowledge in Interpreting and Managing Wilderness 202 Introduction ecosystem considerations. (See chapter 12.)Manage- ment of large ungulates (bighorn sheep,elk, or caribou) This chapter considers major features of wilderness or predators, such as grizzly bears,inevitably must be ecosystems of concern to managers and contrasts them based on ecosystem concepts. (See chapter 11.) Even the with ecosystems significantly altered by modern man. limits of human use under the naturalness constraint of The emphasis is on the dynamic nature of ecosystems, the Wilderness Actphysical carrying capacityrests their strong internal linkages and the ways various on ecosystem concepts. (See chapter8.) Finally, the human activities have affected and continue to affect the entire notion of regulated human use and management "naturalness" of wilderness ecosystems. Only when of wilderness so as to not distort naturalness, the idea of ecosystem dynamics, including interrelationships with man as an integral but not dominant partof wilderness, man, are fully understood can an assessment of the is an ecosystem concept. consequences of alternative management strategies be Some readers without natural science backgrounds made. may find this chapter difficult readingfor it contains a Some readers may think that ecosystem concepts are cram course in ecology. However,the basic ecological only marginally related to wilderness management concepts discussed are essential forunderstanding the because so much of the previous material concerns implications of the subsequent chapters on fire and people management. However, there is a large body of wildlife. literature to remind us that ignorance of ecosystem conceptsinternal linkages among environment, plant, and animal, and successional dynamicslies at the root Manc Historic Role in Wilderness of many wilderness and park management problems. One point should, perhaps, be dealt with at the Concern about fire-control policies throughout much of outsetis man an integral component of the wilder- the West (e.g., Kilgore 1973, Habeck 1970, and Habeck ness? Are man and his influences natural or unnatural? and Mutch 1973) and in the Lake States (Heinselman The answer to this is clearly relative rather than absolute. 1973, Wright 1974, and Frissell 1973) is based on Primitive man unquestionably played a role in shaping This chapter was written by Jerry F. Franklin, the wilderness landscapes of North America induding Principal Plant Ecologist, Pacific Northwest Forest those formally recognized today as components of the and Range Experiment Station, Corvallis, Oreg. National Wilderness Preservation System. He burned and hunted, raised crops, and built settlements. With rare 191 exceptions (man's role in extinction of Pleistocene for a natural process such as wildfire or predation mammals may be one of these), however, aboriginal Because of the pervasive and powerful nature of the man did not exist in sufficient numbers nor did he have forces we generate (and sometimes command) it is the technology to control and direct the forces ofnature. critical that we understand their effects as a guide to He was an influencing factor, but only one ofmany, and minimizing them and, in the case of management, use negative feedback mechanisms existed which kept his these forces to mimic natural forces or processes no populations and impacts in check For example, when longer present. resources were exhausted or depleted or when climatic changes occurred, primitive man generally diedor moved on He could not dominate his environmentnor Ecosystems and Their Characteristics could he delay or alter these negative feedbacks. An ecosystem includes all the organisms of an area, Thissituationhas changed with theriseof their environment, and a series of linkages or interactions technological civilization Current human technology has between them. As Odum (1971) summarizes, "The grown extremely powerful and, in the short term, is ecosystem is the basic fundamental unit in ecology, since capable of buffering man from the effects ofstrong it indudes both organisms...and abiotic environments, negative feedback. "Natural" human influences might be each influencing the properties of the other and both considered those which have been elements in the necessary for the maintenance of life ...... long term evolution of the presettlement ecosystems The abiotic environment includes climatic conditions present for hundreds, thousands, and even tens of such as temperature and moisture regimes and inorganic thousands of years. The impacts of modern man are not substances supplied by mineral soil. The organisms this type. The wilderness ecosystems we are concerned indude autotrophs and heterotrophs. Autotrophic with herethose in designated wildernessdid not organisms are the green plants which provide the evolve under the influence of these forces and are not ecosystem's entire energy base by fixing solar energy and adapted to them. Uncontrolled, modern man's influen- using simple inorganic substances to build up complex ces alter the historical direction and rate of ecosystem organic substances. Heterotrophic organisms (animals, evolution The contrast between primitive and modern microbes, and fungi, for example) utilize these complex man in the ability to control and alter natural forces and substances as a food base and rearrange or decompose ecosystems is so great it does not require elaboration them. Heterotrophs can be divided into (1) ingestors Modern technology has allowed us to impact every single (macroconsumers, biophages) that feed on live mate- point on the globe (consciously or unconsciously) and rialsbear, deer, squirrels, butterflies, and slugs, for influence even the most basic and powerful natural example, and(2)decomposers(microconsumers, forces such as climate. Finally, our technology allowsus to saprophages) such as bacteria, fungi, and some insects avoid, delay, or control the negative feedback mecha- that feed on dead material such as leaf litter, fallen logs, nisms which kept primitive man in check. Nature will and feces. probably exact her full price for each act of modern man A wilderness ecosystem has a series of attributes but the feedback is typically neither as direct nor as rapid which are fundamentally the same as those in any other (at least in so far as we perceive it) as it was for primitive ecosystem. First, at a given point in time there is a man In most instances we have overcome the negative particular compositon and structure. That is, there is an feedback of nature with modern technology, at least in array of plant and animal species in various proportions. the short run Each biological component contains given amounts of To conclude on this point it can perhaps be said that biomass or energy, nutrients, and other materialsthe man is a natural part of wilderness but, because of their compartments or states recognized in computer models recent origin, strength, pervasiveness, and ability to of ecosystems (fig. 10-2). The elements are spatially buffer rapid feedback, the technological forces at his arranged to produce an ecosystem we recognize as forest control are not. We cannot accept modern manor or meadow or savanna. more specifically the forces he controlsas a "natural" Within this ecosystem variouspro cesses- component of wilderness. In an historical context, they photosynthesis, transpiration, consumption (by inges- are not natural. Legally, tolerance to them is restricted by ters), decompositionare going on These processes are the Wilderness Act. Nevertheless, modern technology is driven by environmental factors (the driving forces of impacting the wilderness and wifi increasingly do so. We ecosystem models) such as moisture supply, tempera- will use technology to manage wildernessto perpetu- ture, and sunlight. Not all processes are carried out ate or create desired conditions, sometimes to substitute exclusively by organisms, however; weathering of parent 192 ,$ø. Figure 10-1.Many different kinds of ecosystems are represented currently in, or pending designation in, the National Wilderness Preservation System. These ecosystems range from the semiarid lands of the Gila Wilderness, N. Mex.(lower left),the deciduous forests of the Presidential Range-Dry River Wilderness, NH, (lowerright), to the muon-like landscape of Craters of the Moon Wilderness, Idaho(upper left) 193 PRIMARY PRODUCTION STEMS AND BRANCH EP IPHYTE5 1. 1 7.0 CURRENT FOL(LArC 0.4 FINE ROOTS 0.05 TO 20 2.3 0.6 P OUL 2.9 i-I CONSUMERS I- L LAN(iL 10.05 ROOTS I 9 - - - - 1.4- I LOG LITTER SMALL WOOD FOLIAGELITTER DEAD ROOTS 5.0 LITFER 1.4 0.9 0.4 1. 0.7 0.4 L85 R FINE LITIERTER ANDAND R R R MICROFLORA 3.65 0 1.5 L 85 R ROOTING ZONE ORGANIC MAilER 0 SUBSOIL R' RESPIRATION DECOMPOSITION ORGANIC MATFER Figure 10-2.Any ecosystem, such as a forest or meadow, contains a number of individual components çxsessing given amounts of biomass, energy, nutrients, or other materiaL Each of these components is linked to others in the same system. materials, erosion, and evaporation are examples of influences
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