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Governing by Numbers: Figuring out Democracy*

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Governing by Numbers: Figuring out Democracy* Accounting Organizations and SocieQ, Vol. 16, No. T. pp. 673-692. 199 1. 0361-3682.91 53.00+.00 Printed in Great Britain Pergamon Press plc GOVERNING BY NUMBERS: FIGURING OUT DEMOCRACY* NIKOLAS ROSE GoldsmithS College, University of London Abstract This review essay considers the relations between quantification and democratic government. Previous studies have demonstrated that the relation between numbers and politics is mutually constitutive: the exercise of politics depends upon numbers; acts of social quantification are politicized; our images of political life are shaped by the realities that statistics appear to disclose. The essay explores the specific links between democracy, as a mentality of government and a technology of rule, and quantification, numeracy and statistics. It argues that democratic power is calculated power, calculating power and requiring citizens who calculate a&outpower. The essay considers the links between the promulgation of numeracy in eighteenth- century U.S. and programmes to produce a certain type of disciplined subjectivity in citizens. Some aspects of the history of the census are examined to demonstrate the ways in which the exercise of democratic government in the nineteenth century came to be seen as dependent upon statistical knowledge and the role that the census had in “making up” the polity of a democratic nation. It examines the case of National Income Accounting in the context of an argument that there is an intrinsic relation between political problematizations and attempts to make them calculable through numerical technologies. And it considers the ways in which neo-liberal mentalities of government depend upon the existence of a public habitat of numbers, upon a population of actors who calculate and upon an expertise of number. Democracy, in its modem mass liberal forms, requires numerate and calculating citizens, numericized civic discourse and a numericized programmatics of government Numbers have an unmistakable power in modem mechanisms for conferring legitimacy on poli- political culture. The most casual reader of tical authority. Secondly, there are the numbers newspapers or viewer of television is embraced that link government with the lives of the within the rituals of expectation, speculation governed outside the electoral process. Opinion and prognostication that surround the public polls calibrate and quantify public feelings. pronouncement of politically salient numbers. Social surveys and market research try to Of course, there are many sorts of political num- transform the lives and views of individuals into bers in advanced liberal democratic capitalist numerical scales and percentages. Numbers societies. A superficial classification might dis- here act as relays promising to align the tinguish four. Firstly, there are the diverse exercise of “public” authority with the values numbers that are connected with who holds and beliefs of citizens. Thirdly, there are the political power in democratic nations. Electoral numbers that are deployed within the perpetual districts apportion persons according to numer- judgement that today is exercised over political ical criteria. Elections and referenda count authority and its stewardship of national life. votes. Executive powers are related to numerical The balance of payments, the gross national calculations of majorities and minorities. product and the money supply pass in and out Numbers here are an intrinsic part of the of favour as the measure of the success of ’ An essay review of Patricia Cline Cohen, A Calculating People the Spread of Numerary in Early America (1982) and William Alonso & Paul Starr (eds), The Politics ofNum6ers (1987). 673 671 INIKOLAS ROSE government in economic life, but modem knowledgeable pose. Here one could class political argument seems inconceivable with- debates such as that over the relative merits of out some numerical measure of the health of MO, Mi, Ma or Ms as politically salient measures “the economy”. The social economy is also of the money supply. There is a politics of use evaluated through its numericization. Poverty is and abuse, elaborated in particular by civil transformed into a matter of the numbers libertarians. Perhaps the example that has claiming social benefits. Public order is trans- attracted most recent debate concerns the muted into the crime rate. The divorce rate inclusion of questions concerning ethnicity in becomes a sign of the state of private morality the census. There is a politics of privacy, also and family life. The rate of spread of AIDS is an deployed by libertarians and those entranced index of the success of the government of by the vision of a “big brother” state. It seeks to sexual conduct. If sceptical vigilance over place a limit on the public collection of politics has long been a feature of liberal numbers on private persons, and their utiliza- political thought, it is today increasingly con- tion in making decisions about individuals. And ducted in the language of numbers. Fourthly, there is a politics of ethics. This questions the there are all the numbers that make possible morality of making certain political decisions in modern government itself. Tax returns enable terms of numbers, as in the debates over the an administration over individuals and private application of quantification to decisions over enterprises in the light of a knowledge of their resourcing health services and the conflicts financial affairs. Counts of population, of birth, over provision of different types of medical death and morbidity have become intrinsic to treatment, for example hip replacement versus the formulation and justification of govern- heart transplantation. mental programmes. Grants to local authorities In this essay, I wish to consider the contribu- and health agencies are distributed on the basis tion of two books, one recent, the other of complex numerical formulae applied to published some time ago, to our understanding arrays of numbers claiming to represent states of the numericization of politics and the politics of affairs in this or that part of the realm. The of numbers in the U.S. Patricia Cline Cohen’s rates at which pensions or social security study, published in 1982, is entitledA Calculat- benefits are paid, and when or whether they are ing People: the Spread of Numeracy in Early to rise, are calculated according to complex America (hereafter CP). It describes and seeks indices. Paradoxically, in the same process in to account for the relationship between the which numbers achieve a privileged status in growth of “numeracy” in the American popula- political decisions, they simultaneously pro- tion and the change and expansion of what she mise a “de-politicization” of politics, redrawing terms “the domain of numbers”, considering the boundaries between politics and objectivity such diverse episodes as the fad for number, by purporting to act as automatic technical weight and measure amongst a few seventeenth- mechanisms for making judgements, prioritiz- century Englishmen; the inauguration of colo- ing problems and allocating scarce resources. nial censuses; the debates over mortality in the Accompanying this “numericization of politics” eighteenth-century colonies; the history of has been a variety of “politics of numbers”. arithmetic education; the relations of statistics There is a politics of accuracy, perhaps most and statecraft in the early nineteenth century beguiling to political commentators and politi- and the debate over the 1840 U.S. Census. The cians themselves. An obvious example from the 1987 collection edited by William Alonso and U.K. is the debate over the possible “fudging” of Paul Starr entitled The Politics of Numbers the statistics on unemployment under Margaret (hereafter PN) emerges out of this trajectory. It Thatcher’s government. There is a politics of is one of a series entitled “The Population of the adequacy, beloved of specialists and those United States in the 1980s” aimed at “convert- political commentators seeking to strike a ing the vast statistical yield of the 1980 [U.S.] GOVERNING BY NUMBERS 675 Census into authoritative analyses of major with the persons, processes and problems that changes and trends in American life” (PN, p. they seek to govern. Numbers are integral to vii). This volume testifies to the ramification of the problematizations that shape what is to be numbers in the political life of contemporary governed, to the programmes that seek to give America. Its 14 essays examine the forces effect to government, and to the unrelenting shaping such diverse practices of quantification evaluation of the performance of government as economic statistics on growth, productivity that characterizes modern political culture. and military expenditure, official statistics What is particularly significant about the books of family income, national income accounts, by Cline Cohen and Alonso and Starr is that controversies over the census, the politics of they enable one to construct, albeit in a rough measuring ethnic@, population forecasting, the and preliminary manner, a hypothesis concern- relations of statistics to democratic politics, to ing the relation between numbers and demo- the relations of federal and state governments, cracy. It is upon this aspect of the relation and the ways in which technological develop- between government and numbers that I wish ments such as computer technology and social to focus in this essay. developments such as the privatization of The hypothesis can be simply
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