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Watershed Deforestation and Down- Estuary Transformations Alter Sources, Transport, and Export of Suspended Particles in Panamanian Mangrove Estuaries

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Watershed Deforestation and Down- Estuary Transformations Alter Sources, Transport, and Export of Suspended Particles in Panamanian Mangrove Estuaries Ecosystems (2014) 17: 96–111 DOI: 10.1007/s10021-013-9709-5 Ó 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York Watershed Deforestation and Down- Estuary Transformations Alter Sources, Transport, and Export of Suspended Particles in Panamanian Mangrove Estuaries I. Valiela,1* M. Bartholomew,1 A. Giblin,1 J. Tucker,1 C. Harris,1 P. Martinetto,2 M. Otter,1 L. Camilli,3 and T. Stone4 1Marine Biological Laboratory, The Ecosystems Center, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, USA; 2Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientı´ficas y Te´cnicas, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, CC573 Mar del Plata, Argentina; 3Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, USA; 4Woods Hole Research Center, Falmouth, Massachusetts 02540, USA ABSTRACT We identified eight Panamanian watersheds in particulate matter were mostly erased by within- which conversion from wet tropical forest to pas- estuary transformations. Isotopic signatures of C, N, tures differed and assessed the effects of degree of and S in particulate matter demonstrated strong deforestation, and down-estuary transformations, land-sea couplings, and indicated that the direction on the suspended particulate matter discharged from of the coupling was asymmetrical, with terrestrial the watersheds, entering, traversing through man- and estuarine sources delivering particulate materi- grove estuaries, and emerging into coastal waters. als to coastal waters and sediments. Mangrove Deforested watersheds discharged larger concen- estuaries therefore both act as powerful modulators trations of suspended particulate matter, with lower of human activities on land, while also exporting % C and N, higher mineral content, and heavier particulate materials to sea. isotopic signatures into fresh reaches of estuaries. Down-estuary, sediment entrainment increased Key words: land–sea coupling; mangrove forests; non-organic content of particulates, and watershed- stable isotopes; coastal sediment; carbon; nitrogen; derived imprints of deforestation on composition of sulfur; tropical wet forest. Received 26 June 2013; accepted 29 July 2013; INTRODUCTION published online 5 September 2013 Electronic supplementary material: The online version of this article The widely reported deforestation of tropical (doi:10.1007/s10021-013-9709-5) contains supplementary material, watersheds (Wassenaer and others 2007; Scanlon which is available to authorized users. and others 2007; Downing and others 1999)isa Author Contribution: IV and AG conceived the work, obtained the funding, drafted the paper, and guided all the field and analytic work; MB major agent of ecosystem change in tropical lati- worked on statistical analyses and graphics; JT, CH, PM, and LC were in- tudes, with regional- and global-scale effects on volved in the field work and chemical analyses; MO did the mass spec- climate (Gash and others 1996; IPCC 2007; Davin trometry and elemental analysis; TS was responsible for the remote sensing work; all authors reviewed and edited the many versions of the text. and Noblet-Ducoudre 2010), regional precipitation *Corresponding author; e-mail: [email protected] and water supply (Bosch and Hewlett 1982; 96 Fate of Particulates in Panamanian Estuaries 97 Vorosmarty and others 2000; Sun and others 2006; terrestrial and estuarine materials support marine Scanlon and others 2007) and carbon sequestration food webs has been widely argued, with diverse (Wolf and others 2011). results from mass balance and stable isotope studies Deforestation may alter discharges of water and (Jennerjahn and Ittekkot 2002; Dittmar and others nutrients from watersheds. Where plant biomass is 2006; Kristensen and others 2008). If indeed there lower, there is less transpiration, and lower surface are mechanisms that couple terrestrial watersheds area for evaporative loss (Lewis and others 1999; to streams and estuaries, and to coastal waters, Lewis 2002), which favor greater water discharge. deforestation of tropical forests could have conse- Lower biomass may also have varied effects on quences for the receiving down-gradient ecosys- interception, sequestering, and transport of sedi- tems. ments and nutrients down hydrological gradients To understand land–sea couplings and possible to receiving waters (Williams and Melack 1997; effects of deforestation of tropical watersheds on Williams and others 1997; Cleveland and others down-gradient mangrove estuaries and adjacent 1999; Neill and others 2001; Zhang and others coastal waters, we investigated the fate of materials 2001; Bruijnzeel 2004; Nosetto and others 2005;Li transported and transformed as they coursed and others 2007; Bahn and others 2010). through coupled land–estuary–coastal ecosystems in Discharges of materials from deforested water- the Pacific coast of Panama. By initial surveys, we sheds could have further consequences because followed the lead of earlier papers (Martinelli and tropical streams in most circumstances grade into others 1999; Ralison and others 2008), and identi- mangrove-lined estuaries, and these ecosystems fied eight watershed-mangrove estuaries whose could themselves be affected. The notion of wet- watersheds were subject to different degrees of land lands, including mangrove estuaries, as compo- use, in our case, conversion from forest to pastures nents of coastal landscapes essential in the coupling (Figure 1) by targeted artisanal-level burning, and of land and sea, whereby energy-rich exports of where pastures were maintained by machete-based Figure 1. Distribution of the watersheds included in this study [Pi: Rio Pixvae, Mo: Rio de la Mona, Ma: Rio Manglarito, Li: Rio Limon, Lu: Rio Luis, Sa: Rio Salmonete, and Ch: Rio Chamuscado, all in panel 1, and Gr: Rio Grande, in panel 2]. The numbers in parentheses indicate the % of the watershed area in each watershed that was forested. Location of the study areas in the broader Panama region is shown in the inset on top right. 98 I. Valiela and others Table 1. Selected Properties of the Watershed–Stream–Estuary Systems (Rios) Included in This Study Rio Area (ha) Maximum Maximum Maximum Mean % Forest elevation (m) length (m) slope (%) angle (°) cover Pixvae 1,429 629 6,410 9.8 5.6 73 de la Mona 1,575 462 6,468 7.1 4.1 47 Manglarito 239 340 3,626 9.4 5.4 91 Limon 665 382 4,220 9.1 5.2 92 Luis 1,007 382 5,109 7.5 4.3 73 Salmonete 197 330 3,814 8.7 4.9 29 Chamuscado 2,229 599 8,229 7.3 4.2 66 Grande 9,639 662 15,109 4.4 2.5 23 Data obtained from Aster Satellite imagery acquired February 7, 2006 for Rio Grande, and from Quickbird imagery acquired April 5, 2003 for the rest of the Rios. Data on area and % forest cover, plus additional data on land covers, appeared in Valiela and others (2012, 2013). Tide range in all these rios averages 4 m, and owing to the steep topography, freshwater residence times within the rios is about a day; depths within the rios vary with location and tide state, over a range of less than 1 to less than 10 m., and depth increases sharply seaward of the estuary mouth. removal of invasive or re-growing woody plants. sea (Mare´chal and others 2009). To evaluate effects These eight watershed–estuary systems constituted a of deforestation, we compared measurements ta- landscape-level experimental setting in which we ken from the eight Panamanian stream–estuary could assess consequences of different degrees of systems whose watersheds suffered different de- terrestrial watershed deforestation on land–sea grees of deforestation. We report concentrations, coupling. Further details of land covers and defor- fates, and export of particulates in water, and assess estation were included in Valiela and others (2012, sources and transformations by measuring con- 2013, and in press) and additional features of the centration, % nitrogen, % carbon, and stable iso- watersheds are added in Table 1. topic signatures of suspended material. To Previous studies on the Pacific coast of Panama document down-estuary changes we sampled the revealed that inter-annual increases in rainfall water column of each stream–estuary along the associated with La Nin˜ a severely altered salinity re- entire range from fresh to seawater within estuaries gimes (Valiela and others 2012), and altered fate and and beyond the mouth of the estuaries. To capture transport of dissolved nutrients. Nutrient retention possible inter-annual or seasonal variation, we re- within-watersheds was high, and forested water- peated the sampling at the end of the dry and wet sheds discharged larger concentrations of dissolved seasons, during 2009–2012. inorganic nitrogen to streams than pasture-domi- nated watersheds. The imprint conferred by degree of deforestation on export of dissolved materials exported was detectable in fresh reaches of the METHODS streams, but was erased by active down-estuary Study Sites biogeochemical transformations (Valiela and others 2013). In spite of the substantial transformations, The watershed-estuaries included in this study and net interception within watersheds and estuar- (Figure 1) are located in the Veraguas Province of ies, the export of dissolved nutrients to adjacent Panama, and discharge into the Pacific Ocean. We coastal sea from mangrove estuaries was still signif- selected the eight coupled watershed–estuary sys- icant because of the extremely nutrient depauperate tems (rios) because they offered a range of con- condition of the coastal waters of the region. versions from forest to pasture land covers, with In this paper,
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