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Wild Goose Chase WILD GOOSE CHASE: THE COMMUNAL SCIENCE OF WATERFOWL MIGRATION STUDY IN NORTH AMERICA, 1880-1940 A thesis presented by Molly Clare Wilson to The Department of the History of Science in partial fulfillment for an honors degree in History and Science Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts March, 2006 ABSTRACT Wild Goose Chase: The Communal Science of Waterfowl Migration Study in North America, 1880-1940 Molly Clare Wilson Bird migration study is a field shaped by its unusual demands; the tension between the moving study object and the stationary data collector led to the creation of observation networks, standardized and managed in varying ways. I consider three figures in early waterfowl migration studies, Frank Chapman, Jack Miner, and Frederick Lincoln, each of whom is emblematic of a particular philosophy of public participation. The layering of their aims and rhetorics brings out the discipline’s complicated epistemology and growing pragmatism as wildlife conservation and land use policy became an increasingly pressing concern. Keywords: ornithology, observation, migration, hunting, wildlife, conservation ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My advisor, Luis Campos, has followed this project with me from beginning to end, helping me unfold, anchor, and organize my ideas along the way. Sarah Jansen provided invaluable encouragement and insight throughout the research and writing process. Peter Buck helped me pull the sense of my argument out of an enthusiastic but jumbled pile of facts, and John Mathew assisted me in refining my focus as my chapters changed shape and substance. Brigitte Rollier and Joëlle Defay at the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle de Nice gave me time, space, and archives access to begin my research over the summer. Jeremiah Trimble and Alison Pirie at the Museum of Comparative Zoology lent me their time and expertise, and Fred Burchsted at Widener Library gave me invaluable pointers for research in ornithological history. Christie Riehl and Andrew Karas were as generous with their writing advice and revision suggestions as with their friendship. I would not have enjoyed this project nearly as much as I did without the contagious excitement of Christine Delucia, who shared her work on Faulkner and migration with me; the thoughtful theory of Robin Brown; and the good counsel and welcome company of Lauren Brandt, who joined Jack Miner’s fan club early on. Fran Moore patiently listened to my every trial and tribulation. Anne Porter taught me the lessons a would-be scholar most needs to learn: how to nourish the joys of research, ride out the botherations, and take heart despite it all. And I am so fortunate to have had Anna Bingham, a stellar intellectual companion and kindred spirit, by my side through four years in History of Science. I dedicate this thesis to Elizabeth Cowie, zoologist, philosopher, politician, and birdwatcher. She is as much my friend and my inspiration as she is my grandmother. TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction: Community, coordination, and flight dreams............................... 1 1. “Everyone is born with a bird in his heart”: Frank Chapman, writer and educator....................................................................................................................... 9 Chapman’s scientific homecoming ............................................................. 11 From shotguns to opera-glasses................................................................... 15 Measuring the “feathered tide”: early migration studies ........................ 20 An army of observation ................................................................................ 23 2. Honk if you love Jesus: Jack Miner, evangelist and popularizer.................... 31 A young hunter’s transformation................................................................ 33 Winged missionaries..................................................................................... 35 From banded bird to data point................................................................... 40 “Kingsville, Ontario is the hub of America”.............................................. 43 3. “A duck for every puddle”: Frederick Lincoln, accountant and surveyor.... 50 A movable feast: waterfowl as natural resource ....................................... 51 Fair game: hunting regulation...................................................................... 57 Flyways, refuges, and bringing migration down to earth ....................... 62 Conclusion: “We have learnt from the birds and continue to learn”................. 73 Works Cited ................................................................................................................ 78 TABLE OF FIGURES Fig. 1. The American Ornithologists’ Union .......................................................... 30 Fig. 2. Jack Miner........................................................................................................ 48 Fig. 3. Miner’s map of Canada goose migration.................................................... 49 Fig. 4. Frederick Lincoln............................................................................................ 71 Fig. 5. Lincoln’s map of the Mississippi Flyway.................................................... 72 Introduction: Community, coordination, and flight dreams Nils “had never dreamed that it could be so fresh and bracing as it was up in the air; or that there arose from the earth such a fine scent of resin and soil.” A popular children’s book from 1906 puts this boy, shrunk to elfin size, on the backs of migrating geese one spring. Holding fast to the goose’s neck and watching the patchwork of fields stretch into Arctic wildness “was just like flying away from sorrow and trouble and annoyances of every kind that could be thought of.”1 An older migration flight of fancy comes from Francis Godwin’s 1638 The Man in the Moone. The adventurer Domingo Gonsales harnesses geese to his ship, “mindfull of their usuall voyage,” as it was “the season that these Birds were wont to take their flight away, as our Cuckoes and swallowes doe in Spaine towards the Autumne.”2 As of one mind, the geese head straight up into the sky and away from the earth, winging through space with their human passenger until they reach their destination: the moon. “As I now well perceived,” remarks Gonsales, geese, swallows, and nightingales “spend the time of their absence from us, even there in that world.”3 Today we are quite sure there are no geese on the moon. A hundred years ago, though, the tundra where the Canada goose (Branta canadensis) breeds might 1 Lagerlöf, Selma. The Wonderful Adventures of Nils. Mary Hamilton Frye, trans. (New York: Doubleday, 1915), 23. 2 Godwin, Francis. The Man in the Moone: or, A Discourse of a Voyage Thither (London: John Norton, 1638). Available at <http://purple.home.texas.net/etexts/Moone/default.htm>. 3 Ibid. as well have been another planet; no human could follow the birds’ route, either by shrinking to elf-size or by tagging birds with today’s radio transmitters. When ornithologists first began to launch large-scale studies attempting to map the movements of birds, communication between relatively immobile observers was the only way to guess at migration routes. Humans were making progress in the quest to move people and information through space as quickly and universally as possible. By the turn of the century, trains, automobiles, ships, and airplanes were ushering in an era of transportation, enabling a certain degree of mobility and information exchange but stopping short of allowing ornithologists all the freedom of the birds they studied. Comparisons between human achievement and nature were inevitable, and the barriers encountered by machines heightened the allure of animal migration study. “There are mountaintops so high and so steep that man has never succeeded in climbing them,” wrote ornithologist Frank Chapman. “But the birds may use them as resting-places and soar about in the sky far above them. I think we may safely say that the bird is not only the greatest of aviators, but that he is also the greatest of travelers,” he finished. “Not even man can excel him.”4 The ornithologists of the late 19th and early 20th century were faced with the challenge of bridging the disjuncture between fascination and fact collection. “Although the coming of the birds in the spring and their departure in the fall are among the most apparent of natural phenomena about us, and must be 4 Chapman, Frank M. The Travels of Birds (New York: Appleton, 1916), 3. noticed by everyone, it is quite another matter when it comes to the details of their movements,” wrote migration scientist Leon Cole in 1909.5 Of course, technologies such as Doppler radar and signal-emitting tracking bands enable us to gather information about birds that early 20th-century ornithologists never would have thought possible: precise flight speeds, changing shapes of flocks, exact routes of flight and interactions with weather patterns. Yet most of our information about migration comes from banding, a technique pioneered systematically in the early 1900s. The history of banding is inseparable from the history of migration studies. Banding is quite simple: one person puts a numbered tag on the leg of a bird, and whoever finds the tagged bird reports back. But a bird band is more than a strip of metal, more, indeed, than a numbered strip of metal, or even a numbered strip of metal with a return address – it is part of an epistemic system. Each band applied to a bird represents
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