TRADE IN MOLLUSKAN RELIGIOFAUNA BETWEEN THE SOUTHWE STERN UNITED STATES AND SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA by WILLIAM HOYT SMITH A DISSERTATION Pres ented to the Department of Anthropology and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2002 --------------- ---- ii "Tr ade in Molluskan Religiofauna Between the Southwestern United States and Southern California ," a dissertation prepared by William Hoyt Smith in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the Department of Anthropology. This dissertation has been approved and accepted by: Dr . C. a ining Committee Committee in Charge : Dr. C. Melvin Aikens Dr. Jon Erlandson Dr. Don Dumond Dr. Leland Roth Dean of the Graduate School L iv An Abstract of the Dissertation of William Smith for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy the Department Anthropology to be taken June 2002 Title: TRADE IN MOLLUSKAN RELIGIOFAUNA BETWEEN THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES AND SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA Approved: Dr. C. Melvin Aikens This dissertation describes prehistoric trade between Native American groups of the North American Southwest and southern California. Archaeologic and ethnographic sources have been used to create a major new quant ive database on Southwest-southern California trade. I draw on this data base to characterize the routes and intensity of exchange, as well as speci objects involved in native trade networks. facts made of Olivella and Halio s shells were traded eastward from the southern California Channel Islands into the Anasazi, Mogollon, and Hohokam regions of the Southwest in south Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico. This trade spanned nearly a thousand years, with a major temporal watershed at about AD 900. s research documents v the intensity the trade along with changes in the importance of various trading centers over time. The stresses the icular importance of an west-east route into the Southwest from southern California, and of a south-north route between Hohokam and Anasazi areas of the Southwest. In exploring motivational factors ss the I importance of trade to the maintenance social elites in two regions, the importance of cosmological ideas in mot ing trade, and the role of marine faunal species and ritualization in the process of defining what was valued and traded. vi CURRICULUM VITA NAME OF AUTHOR : William Hoyt Smith PLACE OF BIRTH : Torrance , California DATE OF BIRTH : June 5, 1949 GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon University of Arizona Oregon State University The Evergreen State College DEGREES AWARDED: Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology, 2002, University of Oregon Ma ster of Arts in Anthropology, 1994 Oregon State University Bachelor of Arts in Anthropology, 1974 , The Evergreen State College AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST : Mesoamerican Prehistory and Archaeology Ame rican Southwest Prehistory and Archaeology European Prehistory and Archaeology Southern California Prehistory and Archaeology Aegean Bronze Age Culture and Archaeology Shamanism/Faunal Ritualization Zooarchaeology Archaeomalacology Prehistoric Jewelry/Ornamentation Maritime Archaeology vii Linguistic Anthropology - Greek, Maya , Spanish The Evolution of Written Language PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Instructor, Modern Greek Language and Culture at The Evergreen State College . 1976-1977 Instructor, Graduate Teaching Assistant in Cultural Anthropology, (Comparative Cultures) Oregon State University . 1992-1993 Instructor, Linguistic Anthropology at Pima Community College , Tucson, Ari zona . 1995-1996 Instructor, Anthropology courses at Cheme keta Community College , Salem, Oregon . Courses taught: Human Biol ogy/Evolution; Archaeology/World Prehistory; Cultural Anthropology; Linguistic Anthropology; Archaeology Field School . 1998-present . viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation would not have come about without the commitment , interest, and expertise of a great number of people . I wish to express my love and appreciation to my parents Raymond and Rosetta Smith, my wife Dawn Smith, my daughter Amber Smith, and Paul Smith . ,· My graduate committee, composed of Dr . Mel Aikens , Dr. Jon Erlandson , Dr . Don Dumond, and Dr . Leland Roth, has consistently shown extra ordinary scholarship, encouragement and expert guidance during this lengthy proj ect . Sincere thanks and great gratitude is due to Professor Mel Aikens . His combination of patience, humility, energy , and anthropologic expertise contributed greatly to any success that may be associated with this paper . Over a period of several years, Dr . Erlandson has carefully guided me in a rewarding academic study of the corpus of literature concerning the archaeology and ethnology of the southern California coast and islands . This study, and our numerous conversations were a necessary preparation for the completion of this document . I am deeply grateful for his time , guidance, and advice. have been very honored to I ix have an anthropologic personage such as Dr . Don Dumond as a member of my graduate committee . After experiencing his Middle Ame rican Prehistory course several years ago, and interactions during my Ph .D. studies, I have come to respect his level of knowledge and professionalism. His guidance and advice concerning my academic endeavors have consistently been impeccable . I also wish to express my thanks to Dr . Leland Roth for agreeing to be the external member of my committee . I extend my sincere appreciation to Dr . Steadman Upham who encouraged and helped me to pursue research involving elites, shamanic mot ivation , and trade . Special thanks to Dr . Henry Koerper for his generous assistance, advice and encouragement . Thanks to my colleagues Dr . Rene Vellanoweth and Torben Rick who contributed valuable information and advice, concerning the archaeology and artifacts of the southern California coast and islands . Thanks to Scott Fitzpatrick for the conversations concerning Pacific molluskan use and ritualization . Appreciation and thanks to the Lost City Museum in Overton , Nevada for the generous cooperation shown in X allowing private access to their artifact collections . I also wish to thank the staff of the Arizona State Museum Anthropology Library for their helpful assistance . I would like to express gratitude to Professor Stan Olsen, Dr . Gwinn Vivian , and Art Vokes of the University of Arizona for their help, encouragement, and instruction . Special thanks and acknowledgement are due to Mr . Jason Gaddy for his technical expertise and invaluable assistance in the completion of this work. I wish to acknowledge and thank Professor Richard Chaney who encouraged me in this endeavor . The people previously mentioned, and so many notable others, have played crucial roles in my life and career process that will never be forgotten . xi TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION ....................... ................. 1 The Rationale for a Focus on Molluskan Religiofauna ......................... 5 A Brief Cultural History of the Southwest ......... 7 A Brief Cultural History of the Southern California Coast and Desert Regions ............ 12 AD 900: An Important Watershed Date ..... ........ 15 Previous Research on the Shell Trade Between Southern California and the Southwest .......... 18 Prospect� .......................................... 25 II . A QUANTITATIVE PERSPECTIVE ON THE SHELL TRADE BETWEEN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA AND THE SOUTHWEST .............26 An Updated and Expanded Shell Artifact Data Set .............................2 9 Trends in Regional Abundances of Traded Ha liotisr Ol ivella and Sp ondyl us Before and After AD 900 ........................33 The Hohokam Cultural Area .........................33 Trade in Ha liotis ................. ... ......... 33 Trade in Ol ivella .......... ...... ........ .... 36 Trade in Sp ondyl us ............... ........... ..40 Hohokam Summary ...................................43 The· Anasazi Cultural Area .........................47 Trade in Ha liotis ....................... ......4 7 Trade in Ol ivella ... .........................50 Trade in Sp ondyl us .................. ......... 53 Ana sazi Summary ...................................55 The Mogollon Cultural Area ........................60 Trade in Ha liotis ..... ... ............. ... ...61 Trade in Ol ivella .................... .....63 Trade in Sp ondyl us ................ .... ........ 66 Mogollon Summary ..................................69 The Southern California Cultural Area ..... ........72 Trade in Ha liotis ..... ...... .................7 5 xii Trade in Ol ivella .............................79 Trade in Sp ondyl us ...... ........ .. ...........81 Southern California Summary .......................82 Summary of Regional Patterns and Change in Intensity of the Shell Trade over Time ...............................86 Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Shell Trade Locations Before and After AD 900 ..............................87 Hohokam Trade Locations .......................92 Anasazi Trade Locations .......................97 Mogollon Trade Locations .................... 103 Some Major Southern California Shell Trade Locations . 10 9 Summary of Changes over Time in Regional and Local Shell Trade Locations ............................. 113 Beginning of the Trade Pathway .... ... .......... 117 Conclusi on: Some Reaffirmations and New Perspectives on the California- Southwest Shell Trade ....................... 122 III . TRADE GOODS , ROUTES , AND MIDDLEMEN .... .........