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Notes

INTRODUCTION

1. Charles Esdaile, The Wars of (New York, 1995), ix; Philip Dwyer, “Preface,” Napoleon and , ed. Philip Dwyer (, 2001), ix. 2. Michael Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 1799–1815 (London, 1996), 3. 3. An exception to the Franco-centric bibliography in English prior to the last decade is Owen Connelly, Napoleon’s Satellite Kingdoms (New York, 1965). Connelly discusses the developments in five satellite kingdoms: , , Holland, , and . Two other important works that appeared before 1990, which explore the internal developments in two countries during the Napoleonic period, are Gabriel Lovett, Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain (New York, 1965) and , Patriots and Liberators: Revolution in the , 1780–1813 (London, 1977). 4. Stuart Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration of Europe (London and New York, 1991), 8–13. 5. Geoffrey Ellis, “The Nature of Napoleonic ,” Napoleon and Europe, ed. Philip Dwyer (London, 2001), 102–5; Broers, Europe under Napoleon, passim.

1 THE FORMATION OF THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE

1. Geoffrey Ellis, “The Nature of Napoleonic Imperialism,” Napoleon and Europe, ed. Philip Dwyer (London, 2001), 105. 2. Martyn Lyons, Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the (New York, 1994), 43. 3. Ellis, “The Nature,” 104–5. 4. On the and and international relations, see Tim Blanning, The French Revolutionary Wars, 1787–1802 (London, 1996); David Chandler, The Campaigns of Napoleon: the Mind and Method of History’s Greatest Soldier (London, 1966); Owen Connelly, Blundering to Glory: Napoleon’s Military

212 Notes 213

Campaigns (Wilmington, DE, 1987); J. R. Elting, Swords Around a Throne: Napoleon’s Grande Armée (New York, 1988); Charles Esdaile, The Wars of Napoleon (London, 1995); Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols (Eng. trans., London, 1969); Gunther Rothenberg, The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon (London, 1977); Alan Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte (New York, 1997); Paul Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848 (Oxford, 1994), 100–516. 5. The chapter does not discuss the Iberian campaign, which is covered in detail in the chapter on Spain. 6. Tim Blanning, The Origins of the French Revolutionary Wars (New York, 1986). 7. Blanning, The French Revolutionary Wars, 179; Schroeder, The Transformation, 172. 8. Esdaile, The Wars, 14; see also Lefebvre, Napoleon, I, 175. 9. Schroeder, The Transformation, 284. 10. Brendan Simms, The Impact of Napoleon: Prussian High Politics, Foreign Policy and the Crisis of the Executive, 1797–1806 (Cambridge, 1997), 159–303. 11. Schroeder, The Transformation, 320–3; Lefebvre, Napoleon, I, 274–5. 12. Gunther Rothenberg, Napoleon’s Great Adversaries: The Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army, 1792–1814 (Bloomington, IN, 1982). 13. Gunther Eyck, Loyal Rebels, Andreas Hofer and the Tyrolean Uprising of 1809 (New York, 1986); Lee Harford, “Napoleon and the Subjugation of the Tyrol,” CRE, 1989, 704–11. 14. Cited in Schom, Napoleon, 491. 15. Robert Epstein, Napoleon’s Last Victory and the Emergence of Modern War (Kansas, 1994); Frederick Schneid, Napoleon’s Italian Campaigns, 1805–1815 (Westport, CN, 2002), 59–100. 16. Enno Kraehe, Metternich’s German Policy, I: The Contest with Napoleon, 1799–1814 (Princeton, NJ, 1963), 122–4.

2 THE JANUS FACE OF NAPOLEON’S RULE: REFORM AND EXPLOITATION

1. Stuart Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration of Europe (London, 1991), 8–13. 2. Stuart Woolf, “French Civilization and Ethnicity in the Napoleonic Empire,” Past and Present, 124 (1989), 106. 3. Napoleon I, Correspondance de Napoléon I publiée par l’ordre de l’empereur Napoléon III, 32 vols (, 1858–70), 15 November 1807, vol. 16, no. 13361, 166–7. 4. Geoffrey Ellis, “The Nature of Napoleonic Imperialism,” Napoleon and Europe, ed. Philip Dwyer (London, 2001), 104–6. 5. Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration; Philip Dwyer, “Introduction,” Napoleon and Europe (London, 2001), 8. 6. Ellis, “The Nature,” 102–5. 7. John Davis, Conflict and Control: Law and Order in Nineteenth-Century Italy (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1988), 23. 8. Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration, 87–90. 9. Michael Broers, “Policing the Empire: Napoleon and the Pacification of Europe,” Napoleon and Europe, ed. Philip Dwyer (London, 2001), 153–68. 214 Notes

10. Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration, 199–206. 11. Michael Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 1799–1815 (London, 1996), 99, passim, map, 181; id., “Napoleon, , and : Acculturation and the Boundaries of Napoleonic Europe,” The Historical Journal, 44, 1 (2001), 135–54. 12. Broers, Europe under Napoleon, passim. 13. Ellis, “The Nature,” 103. 14. Ibid., 104. 15. On resistance to the Napoleonic regime in Europe, see Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 101–25; Charles Esdaile, “Popular Resistance to the Napoleonic Empire,” Napoleon and Europe, ed. Philip Dwyer (London, 2001), 136–52; Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration, 226–37. 16. Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols (Eng. trans., London, 1969 and 1974), II, 209. 17. Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration, 156–65. 18. Charles Esdaile, The Wars of Napoleon (London, 1995), 99. 19. Louis Bergeron, under Napoleon (Princeton, NJ, 1981), 40. 20. D. M. G. Sutherland, France, 1789–1815: Revolution and Counter Revolution (New York and Oxford, 1986), 413. 21. Jacques Godechot, Les institutions de la France sous la Révolution et l’Empire (Paris, 1968), 655. 22. Eli Heckscher, The : An Economic Interpretation (1922; reprinted Gloucester, MA, 1964), 295–302; Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration, 146–9. 23. Correspondance de Napoléon, 23 August 1810, vol. 21, no. 16824, 60–1. 24. Helmut Berding, Napoleonische Herrschafts und Geselschaftspolitik in Königreich Westfalen, 1807–1813 (Göttingen, 1973), 148; Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration, 182–4; Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 94–5; Geoffrey Ellis, Napoleon (London and New York, 1997), 137–9. 25. Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration, 183–4. 26. Esdaile, The Wars, 103. 27. Paul Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848 (Oxford, 1994), 308. 28. Heckscher, The Continental System, 245. 29. François Crouzet, “Wars, Blockade and the Economic Change in Europe, 1792–1815,” Journal of Economic History, 24 (1964), 572. 30. Lefebvre, Napoleon, II, 120–1. 31. Roger Dufraisse, “Blocus Continental,” Dictionnaire Napoléon, ed. Jean Tulard (Paris, 1987), 232; Heckscher, The Continental System, 228–9.

3 FRANCE

1. Martyn Lyons, France under the Directory (Cambridge, 1975). 2. Jacques Godechot, Les institutions de la France sous la Révolution et l’Empire (Paris, 1968), 558–70. 3. Isser Woloch, Napoleon and His Collaborators: The Making of a Dictatorship (New York, 2001), 120–55. 4. Martyn Lyons, Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution (New York, 1994), 67. Notes 215

5. Claude Langlois, “Un Plébiscite de l’an VIII: documents d’une falsification,” an English translation, Napoleon and His Times: Selected Interpretations, ed. Frank Kafker and James Laux (Florida, 1989), 63. 6. Godechot, Les institutions, 557. 7. Woloch, Napoleon and His Collaborators, 94–6. 8. Jean Tulard, Napoléon ou le Myth du Sauveur (Paris, 1987), 165. 9. Louis Bergeron, France under Napoleon (Princeton, NJ, 1981), 88–97. 10. Jacques Godechot, The Counter-Revolution: Doctrine and Action, 1789–1804 (Princeton, NJ, 1971), 364. 11. D. M. G. Sutherland, The Chouans: The Social Origins of Popular Counter- revolution in Upper Brittany (Oxford, 1982). 12. D. M. G. Sutherland, France, 1789–1815: Revolution and Counter-Revolution (London, 1985), 349–50. 13. Isser Woloch, “The Napoleonic Regime and French Society,” Napoleon and Europe, ed. Philip Dwyer (London, 2001), 69. 14. Louis Bergeron and Guy Chaussinand-Nogaret, “Les Masses de Granit”: cent mille notables du 1er Empire (Paris, 1979). 15. Tulard, Napoleon, 243. 16. Sutherland, France, 1789–1815, 389. On the old nobility, see Geoffrey Ellis, Napoleon (London and New York, 1997), 141–51. 17. Bergeron, France, 64; Claude Ducourtial-Rey, “Legion d’Honneur,” Dictionnaire Napoléon, ed. Jean Tulard (Paris, 1987), 1054–61. 18. Lyons, Napoleon Bonaparte, 172. 19. Tulard, Napoléon, 330. 20. Ibid., 331. 21. Lyons, Napoleon Bonaparte, 172. 22. John McManners, The French Revolution and the Church (New York, 1969). 23. William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution (Oxford, 1990), 144. 24. Quote from Bonaparte is from Lyons, Napoleon Bonaparte, 82. Tulard, Napoleon, 138. 25. For the text of the Concordat, see E. E. Hay, Revolution and Papacy (Notre Dame, IN, 1966), 298–300. On the Concordat, ibid., 139–54; Owen Chadwick, The Popes and European Revolution (Oxford, 1981), 487–90; Margaret O’Dwyer, The Papacy in the Age of Napoleon and the Restoration: Pius VII, 1800–1823 (New York, 1985); Lyons, Napoleon Bonaparte, 77–93. 26. Woloch, Napoleon and His Collaborators, 52. On prefects, see id., The New Regime, Transformations of the French Civic Order, 1789–1820s (New York and London, 1994), 54–9; Bergeron, France, 23–31, 56–60; A. E. Whitcomb, “Napoleon’s Prefects,” American Historical Review, 79 (1974), 1089–1118. 27. Godechot, Les institutions, 589. 28. Michael Sibalis, “The Napoleonic State”, Napoleon and Europe, ed. Philip Dwyer (London, 2001), 79. 29. Eric Arnold, Fouché, Napoleon, and the General Police (Washington, 1979); Sibalis, “The Napoleonic Police,” 79–94; Alan Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte (New York, 1997), 251–72. 30. A. Cabanis, La presse sous le Consulat et l’Empire (Paris, 1975); Robert Holtman, Napoleonic Propaganda (Baton Rouge, LA, 1950), 44–81. 31. Lyons, Napoleon Bonaparte, 121. 32. Holtman, Napoleonic Propaganda, 44–5; Cabanis, La presse, 66. 216 Notes

33. Godechot, Les institutions, 614–24; Ellis, Napoleon, 73–6. 34. Cited in Robert Holtman, The Napoleonic Revolution (Baton Rouge, LA, 1967), 88. 35. Lyons, Napoleon Bonaparte, 94. 36. Tulard, Napoléon, 242. 37. Godechot, Les institutions, 693. 38. Bernard Schwartz (ed.), The Code Napoleon and the Common-Law World (New York, 1956), 139–61. 39. Stuart Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration of Europe (London, 1991), 106–7. 40. Godechot, Les institutions, 693. 41. Alan Forrest, Conscripts and Deserters: The Army and French Society during the Revolution and Empire (New York and Oxford, 1989); Isser Woloch, “Napoleonic : State Power and Civil Society,” Past and Present, 111 (1986), 101–29; id., The New Regime, 380–426. 42. Woloch, The New Regime, 412. 43. Forrest, Conscripts, 187–218; Woloch, “Napoleonic Conscription,” 118–22. 44. Alan Forrest, Soldiers of the French Revolution (Durham and London, 1990), 83. 45. Forrest, Conscripts, 237. 46. Lyons, France under the Directory, 167–71; Godechot, Les institutions, 506–15. 47. Bergeron, France, 38. 48. Doyle, The Oxford History, 324. 49. Marcel Marion, Histoire financière de la France depuis 1715, IV: 1797–1818. La fin de la Révolution, le Consulat et l’Empire, la liberation du territoire (Paris, 1925), 324–5. 50. Bergeron, France, 38. 51. Marion, Histoire financière, 307–12. 52. Bergeron, France, 39. 53. Godechot, Les institutions, 640–2. 54. Ellis, Napoleon, 70. 55. Ibid., 71–3; Marion, Histoire financière, 206–12. 56. Quoted in Holtman, The Napoleonic Revolution, 142. 57. Bergeron, France, 32–3. 58. Woloch, The New Regime, 177. 59. Ibid., 191–207; Lyons, France under the Directory, 87–95. 60. Godechot, Les institutions, 734. 61. Lyons, Napoleon Bonaparte, 107. 62. Ellis, Napoleon, 173. 63. Holtman, The Napoleonic Revolution, 148. 64. Robert Alexander, “ ‘No, Minister’: French Restoration Rejection of Authoritarianism,” Napoleon’s Legacy, ed. David Laven and Lucy Riall (Oxford and New York, 2000), 30.

4 THE NETHERLANDS

1. , The Dutch : Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (Oxford, 1995), 998–1012. 2. Wayne te Brake, “Provincial Histories and National Revolution in the ,” The Dutch Republic in the Eighteenth Century: Decline, Enlightenment, Notes 217

and Revolution, ed. Margaret Jacob and Winjnand Mijnhardt (, NY, and London, 1992), 86. 3. Jan Schulte Nordholt, The Dutch Republic and American Independence (Chapel Hill and London, 1982), 155. 4. Leonard Leeb, The Ideological Origins of the Batavian Revolution: History and Politics in the Dutch Republic, 1747–1800 (The Hague, 1973), 155–60. 5. Robert Palmer, The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political and America, 1760–1800 (Princeton, NJ, 1964), II, 180. 6. Simon Schama, Patriots and Liberators (New York, 1977), 261–63; H. Daalder, “Dutch in a Segmented Society,” Acta Historiae Neerlandicae: Studies on the History of the Netherlands (The Hague, 1978), 178–80. 7. J. C. H. Blom and E. Lambers, History of the Low Countries (New York and Oxford, 1999), 278–9. 8. Schama, Patriots, 364. 9. Israel, The Dutch Republic, 1124. 10. Simon Schama, “The Exigencies of War and the Politics of Taxation in the Netherlands, 1795–1810,” War and Economic Development: Essays in Memory of David Joslin, ed. J. M. Winter (Cambridge, 1975), 118. 11. Schama, Patriots, 457. 12. Ibid., 473. 13. E. H. Kossman, The Low Countries, 1780–1940 (Oxford, 1978), 94. 14. Schama, Patriots, 504–12. 15. R. Kain and E. Baignet, The Cadastral Map in the Service of the State: A History of Property Mapping (Chicago, IL, 1992), 32–6. 16. Schama, Patriots, 485–610; Owen Connelly, Napoleon’s Satellite Kingdoms (New York, 1965), 127–75. 17. Schama, Patriots, 466. 18. Connelly, Napoleon’s Satellite, 153. 19. Schama, Patriots, 491. 20. Ibid., 524. 21. Simon Schama, “Schools and Politics in the Netherlands, 1796–1814,” The Historical Journal, 13 (1970), 589. 22. Connelly, Napoleon’s Satellite, 165. 23. Schama, Patriots, 577–81. 24. Ibid., 560–1. 25. Eli Hecksher, The Continental System: An Economic Interpretation (London and New York, 1922), 178. 26. Correspondance de Napoléon, 32 vols (Paris, 1858–70), 12 October 1808, no. 14374, vol. 17, 548. 27. Ibid., 17 July 1809, no. 15548, vol. 19, 261. 28. Gordon Bond, “ and the Collapse of the ,” CRE Proceedings, vol. 3 (Gainsville, FL, 1974), 143. 29. Schama, Patriots, 599. 30. Ibid., 617. 31. Schama, “The Exigencies,” 128. 32. Gerlof Homan, “The Restoration of the House of Orange–Nassau in the Netherlands 1813,” vol. 19, CRE Proceedings (Tallahassee, FL, 1989), 405–10. 33. Schama, Patriots, 647. 218 Notes

5

1. E. H. Kossman, The Low Countries, 1780–1940 (Oxford, 1978), 48. 2. Walter Davis, Joseph II: An Imperial Reformer for the (The Hague, 1974). 3. Ibid., 236–77; Janet Polasky, Revolution in Brussels, 1787–1793 (Brussels, 1987), 35–129. 4. Suzanne Tassier, L’histoire de la Belgique sous l’occupation française en 1792 et 1793 (Brussels, 1933); Polasky, Revolution in Brussels, 214–62. 5. Polasky, Revolution in Brussels, 242; Robert Devleeshouwer, “Le cas de la Belgique,” Occupants, Occupés, 1792–1815, Colloque de Bruxelles, 29 and 30 January 1968 (Brussels, 1969), 47–8. 6. Georges Dumont, Histoire de la Belgique (Paris, 1977), 325. 7. Devleeshouwer, “Le cas,” 53–4. 8. Henri Pirenne, Histoire de Belgique (Brussels, 1926), VI, 92–3. 9. Kossman, The Low Countries, 77. 10. Pirenne, Histoire, VI, 190. 11. Kossman, The Low Countries, 80–1. 12. Ibid., 78–9; Devleeshouwer, “Le cas,” 58. 13. Ivan Delatte, La vente des biens nationaux dans le département de Jemappes (Brussels, 1938), 79. 14. P. Lebrun, L’industrie de la laine à Verviers pendant le XVIII et le debut du XIX siècle (Liége, 1948); Pirenne, Histoire, VI, 173–7; Devleeshouwer, “Le cas,” 62–3. 15. Kossman, The Low Countries, 80. 16. Fred Stevens, “Belgique,” Dictionnaire Napoléon, ed. Jean Tulard (Paris, 1987), 185. 17. K. Veraghtert, “The Antwerp Port, 1790–1814,” The Interactions of Amsterdam and Antwerp with the Baltic Region, 1400–1800, ed. Wiert Jan Wieringa (Leiden, 1983), 195. 18. Devleeshouwer, “Le cas,” 61. 19. Roger Darquenne, La conscription dans le département de Jemappes (1798–1813) (Mons, 1970), 176. 20. Ibid., 375. 21. Pirenne, Histoire, VI, 206. 22. J. C. H. Blom and E. Lamberts, History of the Low Countries (New York, 1999), 296.

6

1. On pre-Revolutionary Germany, see James Sheehan, German History, 1770–1866 (Oxford, 1993), 12–143. On the final decades of the Holy , John Gagliardo, Reich and Nation: The as Idea and Reality, 1763–1806 (Bloomington and London, 1980). 2. Jacques Godechot, La Grande Nation (Paris, 1956), I, 176–82; G. P. Gooch, Germany and the French Revolution (London, 1920), 39. 3. Brendan Simms, The Struggle for Mastery in Germany, 1779–1850 (New York, 1998), 68. Notes 219

4. Tim Blanning, Reform and Revolution in , 1743–1803 (Cambridge, 1974), 272. 5. Tim Blanning, The French Revolutionary Wars, 1787–1802 (London, 1996), 179. 6. Ibid., 259. On Germany’s territorial reorganization, see Gagliardo, Reich and Nation, part IV; Sheehan, German History, 235–50. 7. Herbert Fisher, Studies in Napoleonic Statesmanship: Germany, reprint (New York, 1968), 48–66. 8. Simms, The Struggle, 64–6. 9. Thomas Nipperdey, Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck, 1800–1860 (Princeton, NJ, 1996), 19. 10. Michael Rowe, “Between Empire and Home Town: Napoleonic Rule on the , 1799–1814,” The Historical Journal, 42, 3 (1999), 643; Nipperdey, Germany from Napoleon, 9, 63. 11. Sheehan, German History, 256. 12. Blanning, Reform and Revolution, 267–302; Walter Grab, “La réaction de la population de Rhenanie face à l’occupation par les armées revolutionaires françaises, 1792–1799,” Occupants, Occupés, 1792–1815 (Brussels, 1969), 126–9. 13. Tim Blanning, The French Revolution in Germany: Occupation and Resistance in the Rhineland, 1792–1802 (Oxford, 1983), 83–134. 14. Jeffry Diefendorf, Businessmen and Politics in the Rhineland, 1789–1834 (Princeton, NJ, 1980), 84–133. 15. Ibid., 106. 16. Rowe, “Between Empire,” 643–74. 17. Blanning, The French Revolution, 138. 18. Rowe, “Between Empire,” 667. 19. Ibid., 663. 20. Jean Vidalenc, “Les départements hanséatiques et l’administration Napoléonienne,” I (1973), 414–50; Fisher, Studies, 333–49. 21. Vidalenc, “Les départements,” 433. 22. Roger Dufraisse, “Confédération du Rhin,” Dictionnaire Napoléon, ed. Jean Tulard (Paris, 1987), 461. 23. Eberhard Weis, “Napoleon und der Rheinbund,” Deutschland und Italiens im Zeitalter Deutsch–Italienisches Historikertreffen in Mainz 29 Mai–1 Juni 1975 (Wiesbaden, 1979), 79; Michael Rowe, “Napoleon and State Formation in Central Europe,” Napoleon and Europe, ed. Philip Dwyer (London, 2001), 210–11. 24. Elizabeth Fehrenbach, Vom Ancien Regime zum Wiener Kongress (Munich, 1993), 79–91; Hans Schmitt, “Germany without : a Closer Look at the Confederation of the Rhine,” German Studies Review, 6 (1983), 9–39; Nipperdey, Germany from Napoleon, 54–64; Sheehan, German History, 259–74. 25. Simms, The Struggle, 84. 26. Schmitt, “Germany without Prussia,” 33. 27. Charles Schmidt, Le Grand Duché de Berg (1806–1813) (Paris, 1905); Fisher, Studies, 173–223; Roger Dufraisse, “Berg,” Dictionnaire Napoléon, ed. Jean Tulard (Paris, 1987), 196–200. 28. Fisher, Studies, 196. 29. Schmidt, Le Grand Duché, 184. 220 Notes

30. Eli Hecksher, The Continental System: An Economic Interpretation (London and New York, 1922), 311–16; Michael Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 1799–1815 (London, 1996), 224–5. Fisher, Studies, 206–9. 31. Hecksher, The Continental System, 314. 32. Diefendorf, Businessmen and Politics, 158–9. 33. Walter Grab, Heinrcih Heine als politischer Dichter (Heidelberg, 1982), 18–19. 34. Helmut Berding, Napoleonische Herschafts- und Gesellschafts Politik (Göttingen, 1973); Owen Connelly, Napoleon’s Satellite Kingdoms (New York, 1965), 176–222; Fisher, Studies, 224–311. 35. Correspondance de Napoléon, 15 November 1807, no. 13361, vol. 16, 166–7. 36. Jean Tulard, “Simeon e l’organization du Royaume de Westphalie (1807–1813),” Francia, I (1973), 557–68. 37. Helmut Berding, “Die Emanzipation der Juden im Königreich Westfalen (1807–1813),” Archiv für Sozialgeschichte, 23 (1983), 39. 38. Berding, Napoleonische Herrschafts, 74. 39. Tulard, “Simeon,” 565. 40. Fisher, Studies, 295. 41. Connelly, Napoleon’s Satellite, 193. 42. Berding, Napoleonische Herrschafts, 17. 43. Connelly, Napoleon’s Satellite, 208. 44. Fisher, Studies, 318. 45. On the Bavarian reforms, see Eberhard Weis, “Die Begründung des moder- nen bayerischen Staates unter König Max I (1799–1825),” ed. Max Spindler, Handbuch der bayerischen Geschichte, IV, Das Neue Bayern 1800–1970 (Munich, 1974), 38–60; Allen Cronenberg, “Montgelas and the Reorganization of Napoleonic ,” CRE, XIX (Tallahassee, FL, 1989), 712–19. 46. Lloyd Lee, The Politics of Harmony: Civil Service, and Social Reform in Baden, 1800–1850 (Newark, NJ, 1980), 17–39. 47. Weis, “Die Begründung,” 41. 48. David Sorkin, The Transformation of German Jewry, 1780–1840 (Oxford, 1987), 35. 49. Nipperdey, Germany from Napoleon, 60. 50. Sheehan, German History, 271. 51. Barbara Anderson, “State-Building and Bureaucracy in Early-Nineteenth- Century Nassau,” Central European History (1991), 222–47. 52. Simms, The Struggle, 75. 53. Nipperdey, Germany from Napoleon, 41–2. 54. Rowe, “Napoleon and State Formation,” 222. 55. Tulard, “Simeon,” 568. 56. Daniel Klang, “Bavaria and the War of Liberation, 1813–1814,” French Historical Studies, 4 (1965) 22–41. 57. Nipperdey, Germany from Napoleon, 1. 58. Simms, The Struggle, 88.

7

1. Ariane Meautis, Le Club Helvétique de Paris (1790–1791) et la diffusion des idées révolutionnaires en Suisse (Neuchâtel, 1969). Notes 221

2. Edouard Guillon, Napoléon et la Suisse, 1803–1815 (Paris and Lausanne, 1910), 24. 3. E. Bonjour, H. S. Offler, and G. R. Potter, A Short History of Switzerland (Oxford, 1952), 219. 4. Wilhelm Oechsli, A History of Switzerland, 1499–1914 (Cambridge, 1922), 318. 5. Johannes Dierauer, Histoire de la Confédération Suisse, vol. I, 1798–1813 (Lausanne, 1918), 39–62. 6. Ibid., 5–12; Ernest Gagliardi, Histoire de la Suisse (Lausanne, 1925), 28–32. 7. Dierauer, Histoire, 160–1. 8. Guillon, Napoléon et la Suisse, 77. 9. J. Suratteau, “Occupation, occupants et occupés en Suisse de 1792 à 1814,” Occupants, Occupés, 1792–1815, Colloque de Bruxelles, 29–30 January 1968 (Brussels, 1969), 179–80. 10. Correspondance de Napoléon, letter to General Berthier, 8 September 1803, no. 6314, vol. 8, 29. 11. Ibid., 23 September 1803, no. 6339, 46. 12. Oeschli, History, 348. 13. Suratteau, “Occupation, occupants,” 180. 14. Gagliardi, Histoire de la Suisse, 63. 15. Ibid., 65–6. 16. Ibid. 69; Dierauer, Histoire, 262–4; 268–70. 17. Guillon, Napoléon et la Suisse, 243–58. 18. Lionel Gossman, in the Age of Burckhardt (Chicago and London, 2000), 51–2. 19. Guillon, Napoléon et la Suisse, 255. 20. Gagliardi, Histoire de la Suisse, 81.

8 SPAIN

1. Richard Herr, The Eighteenth Century in Spain (Princeton, NJ, 1958), 3–153; Anthony Hull, Charles III and the Revival of Spain (Washington, 1981). 2. John Lynch, Bourbon Spain, 1700–1808 (Oxford, 1989), 208–14. 3. Herr, The Eighteenth Century, 29. 4. Ibid., 239–336. 5. Douglas Hilt, The Troubled Trinity: Godoy and the Spanish Monarchs (Tuscaloosa, Alabama, and London, 1987). 6. John Lawrence Tone, “The ,” Napoleon and Europe, ed. Philip Dwyer (London, 2001), 227. 7. Charles Esdaile, The Spanish Army in the Peninsular War (Manchester and New York, 1988), 46–56. 8. Lynch, Bourbon Spain, 410–11. 9. Hilt, The Troubled Trinity, 181. 10. Gabriel Lovett, Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain, 2 vols (New York, 1965), I, 89. 11. John Lawrence Tone, The Fatal Knot: The Guerrilla War in Navarre and the Defeat of Napoleon in Spain (Chapel Hill and London, 1994), 50. 12. Ibid., 149. 13. Lovett, Napoleon and the Birth, I, 152. 222 Notes

14. Ibid., 169. 15. The Confidential Correspondence of Napoleon Bonaparte with his Brother Joseph (New York, 1856), I, 334. 16. Michael Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 1799–1815 (London, 1996), 155. 17. Lovett, Napoleon and the Birth, I, 229–30. 18. Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 154–5. 19. Mémoires et correspondance politique et militaire du Roi Joseph, ed. A. Du Casse (Paris, 1854), IV, 421. 20. Michael Glover, Legacy of Glory: The Bonaparte Kingdom of Spain, 1808–1813 (New York, 1971), 57–80. 21. Esdaile, The Spanish Army, 115. 22. David Gates, The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War (New York, London, 1986), 124–8. 23. On Joseph’s rule in Spain, see Lovett, Napoleon and the Birth, II, 491–553; Owen Connelly, Napoleon’s Satellite Kingdoms (New York, 1965), 223–63, and his The Gentle Bonaparte: A Biography of Joseph, Napoleon’s Elder Brother (New York, 1968), 133–46, 168–218. 24. Mémoires et correspondance, VII, 330–1. 25. Lovett, Napoleon and the Birth, II, 511. 26. The Confidential Correspondence, I, 50. 27. Connelly, Napoleon’s Satellite, 241–4; Glover, Legacy of Glory, 99. 28. The Confidential Correspondence, II, 102. 29. Lovett, Napoleon and the Birth, I, 203. 30. Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 210. 31. The Confidential Correspondence, II, 111. 32. Tone, The Fatal Knot; Lovett, Napoleon and the Birth, II, 666–721; Charles Esdaile, “Heroes or Villains? The Spanish Guerrillas in the Peninsular War,” History Today, 38 (1988), 29–35. 33. Tone, “The Peninsular War,” 235. 34. Esdaile, The Spanish Army, 161. 35. Tone, The Fatal Knot, 147–66. 36. Raymond Carr, Spain 1808–1939 (Oxford, 1966), 109. 37. Esdaile, The Spanish Army, 161. 38. Lovett, Napoleon and the Birth, I, 370–8; II, 449–90; Carr, Spain, 92–101. 39. Carr, Spain, 99. 40. Esdaile, The Spanish Army, 168–70. 41. Charles Esdaile, The Duke of Wellington and the Command of the Spanish Army, 1812–1814 (New York, 1990). 42. Emmanuel de Las Cases, Memorial de Saint-Helene, 2 vols (Paris, 1823), I, 609–10. 43. Tone, “The Peninsular War,” 225.

9

1. Kenneth Maxwell, Pombal, Paradox of the Enlightenment (Cambridge, 1995). 2. Francisco de la Fuente, “The French Revolution and its Impact on Portugal,” CRE (Tallahassee, FL, 1989), 194–200. Notes 223

3. Janet Ladner, “John VI of Portugal: Contemporary of Napoleon and Wellington,” CRE, vol. 19 (Tallahassee, FL, 1989), 869–81. 4. H. V. Livermore, A New (Cambridge, 1966), 247. 5. Maurice Borel, “La mission diplomatique du général Lannes en Portugal (1801–1804),” in Revue des deux-mondes (1911), 662–8. 6. Corréspondance de Napoléon, 19 July 1807, no. 12928, vol. 15, 433. 7. Livermore, A New History, 249. 8. Ibid., 158. 9. Antonio Pedro Vicente, “The Counter-Revolution in Spain and Portugal,” CRE (Tallahassee, FL, 1989), 521. 10. Donald Horward, “Wellington as a Strategist, 1808–1814,” Wellington Studies in the Military and Political Career of the First Duke of Wellington, ed. Norman Nash (Manchester, 1990), 101. 11. Ibid., 97–8. 12. Donald Horward, “Logistics and Strategy in the Peninsula: a Case Study, 1810–1811,” CRE (Charleston, SC, 1999), 355–63; The French Campaign in Portugal, 1810–1811: An Account by Jean Jacques Pelet, ed. Donald Horward (Minneapolis, MN, 1973). 13. Donald Horward, Napoleon and Iberia: The Twin Sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida, 1810 (Tallahassee, FL, 1984). 14. Donald Horward, The Battle of Bussaco: Masséna vs. Wellington (Tallahassee, FL, 1965). 15. Michael Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 1799–1815 (London, 1996), 217.

10 THE

Note: A different version of this chapter appeared in Italy in the Nineteenth Century, 1796–1900, ed. John Davis (Oxford, 2000), 25–53. 1. Stuart Woolf, A , 1700–1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change (London, 1979), 63–151; Gregory Hanlon, Early Modern Italy, 1550–1800 (New York, 2000), 340–66. 2. Woolf, A History of Italy, 159. 3. Carlo Zaghi, L’Italia di Napoleone dalla Cisalpina al Regno (, 1986), 37. 4. John Davis, “1799: The ‘Sanfede’ and the Crisis of the ‘ancien regime’ in ,” Society and Politics in the Age of the Risorgimento: Essays in Honour of Denis Mack Smith, ed. John Davis and Paul Ginsborg (Cambridge, 1991), 1; Anna Maria Rao, La repubblica napoletana del 1799 (, 1997). 5. John Davis, Conflict and Control: Law and Order in Nineteenth-Century Italy (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1988), 22–3. 6. Zaghi, L’Italia di Napoleone, 294–443; Owen Connelly, Napoleon’s Satellite Kingdoms (New York, 1965), 19–57; Alain Pillepich, Capitale Napoléonienne, 1800–1814 (Paris, 2001). 7. Quoted in Zaghi, L’Italia di Napoleone, 361. 8. Livio Antonielli, I prefetti dell’Italia napoleonica (, 1983). 9. Carlo Capra, L’età rivoluzionaria e napoleonica in Italia, 1796–1815 (Turin, 1978), 242. 224 Notes

10. Zaghi, L’Italia di Napoleone, 330. 11. Steven Hughes, Crime, Disorder and the Risorgimento: The Politics of Policing in Bologna (Cambridge, 1994), 20–1. 12. Davis, Conflict and Control, 133. 13. Zaghi, L’Italia di Napoleone, 412. 14. Alexander Grab, “The Politics of Finance in Napoleonic Italy (1802–1814),” Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 3 (2) (1998) 127–43. 15. Correspondance de Napoléon, 7 June 1805, no. 8852, vol. 10, 490. 16. Alexander Grab, “Army, State and Society: Conscription and Desertion in Napoleonic Italy (1802–1814),” The Journal of Modern History, 67 ( 1995), 25–54. 17. Correspondance de Napoléon, 23 August 1810, no. 16824, vol. 21, 60–1. 18. Alexander Grab, “State Power, and Rural Resistance in Napoleonic Italy,” European History Quarterly, 25 (January 1995), 39–70. 19. Pasquale Villani, “Il decennio francese,” Storia del Mezzogiorno, ed. G. Galasso (Rome, 1986), 580. 20. Connelly, Napoleon’s Satellite, 58–126; Angela Valente, Gioacchino Murat e l’Italia meridionale, a reprint (Turin, 1976). 21. Milton Finley, The Most Monstrous of Wars: The Napoleonic Guerilla War in Southern Italy, 1806–1811 (Columbia, SC, 1994). 22. John Davis, “The in Southern Italy: An Ambiguous Legacy?” Proceedings of the British Academy, 80 (1991) Lectures and Memoires, 134. 23. Ibid., 147. 24. Valente, Gioacchino Murat, 278. 25. Villani, “Il decennio,” 599. 26. Ibid., 630. 27. Valente, Giaocchino Murat, 295. 28. John Davis, “The Neapolitan Army During the decennio francese,” Rivista ital- iana di studi napoleonici, 25 (1988), 169. 29. Michael Broers, Napoleonic Imperialism and the Savoyard , 1773–1821: State Building in (Lewiston and New York, 1997), 165–471. 30. Ibid., 404. 31. Michael Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 1799–1815 (London, 1996), 205–6. 32. Jacques Godechot, “Rome et les états pontificaux,” Dictionnaire Napoléon, ed. Jean Tulard (Paris, 1987), 1474. 33. Michael Broers, The Politics of Religion in Napoleonic Italy: The War against God, 1801–1814 (London and New York, 2002), 146–74. 34. Franco Della Peruta, “War and Society in Napoleonic Italy,” Society and Politics in the Age of the Risorgimento, ed. John Davis and Paul Ginsborg (Cambridge, 1991), 48. 35. John Rath, The Fall of the Napoleonic (1814) (New York, 1941), 37–43; Woolf, A History of Italy, 219–24. 36. George Nafziger and Marco Gioannini, The Defense of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Northern Italy, 1813–1814 (Westport, CT and London, 2002). 37. Marco Meriggi, “State and Society in Post-Napoleonic Italy,” Napoleon’s Legacy, ed. David Laven and Lucy Riall (Oxford and New York, 2000), 52. Notes 225

11 THE OF

1. On eighteenth-century see, Piotr Wandycz, The Lands of Partitioned Poland, 1795–1918 (Seattle and London, 1974), 3–23. 2. Jerzy Jedlicki, “Bilan social du Duché de Varsovie,” Acta Poloniae Historica, 14 (1966), 93–5; Christopher Blackburn, Napoleon and the Szlachta (Boulder, CO, 1998), 6. 3. Blackburn, Napoleon and the Szlachta, 8–13. 4. Simon Askenazy, Napoléon et la Pologne (1925); Monica Haman, “The Polish Legions in Italy, 1797–1801,” L’Europa scopre Napoleone, 1793–1804, ed. Vittorio Scotti Douglas (Alessandria, 1999), II, 673–80. 5. , God’s Playground: A , 2 vols (New York, 1982), II, 296. 6. J. Holland, “Napoleon and Poland,” The Cambridge History of Poland from Augustus II to Pilsudski (Cambridge, 1951), 213. 7. On the , Blackburn, Napoleon and the Szlachta; John Stanley, “A Political and Social History of the Duchy of Warsaw 1807–1813” (PhD dissertation, University of Toronto, 1979); Wandycz, The Lands, 43–64; M. Handelsman, “The Duchy of Warsaw,” The Cambridge History of Poland from Augustus II to Pilsudski (Cambridge, 1951), 236–56. 8. Wandycz, The Lands, 43. 9. Handelsman, “The Duchy,” 241. 10. Wandycz, The Lands, 46–7; Blackburn, Napoleon and the Szlachta, 91. 11. Blackburn, Napoleon and the Szlachta, 129. 12. Michael Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 1799–1815 (London, 1996), 93. On the Polish army under Napoleon, see M. Kuriel, “Polish Military Effort in the Napoleonic Wars,” The Cambridge History, 228–35; Rene Bielecki, “L’effort mil- itaire polonais, 1806–1815,” Revue de l’institut Napoléon, 132 (1976), 147–64. 13. Handelsman, “The Duchy,” 243. 14. Monika Senkowska-Gluck, “Le Duché de Varsovie,” Occupants, occupés, 1792–1815 (Brussels, 1969), 400. 15. Barbara Grochulska, “L’économie polonaise et le renversement de la conjonc- ture (1805–1815),” Revue d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 17 (1970), 624. 16. Blackburn, Napoleon and the Szlachta, 72. 17. Andrzej Nieuwazny, “The Polish Kingdom (1815–1830): Continuity or Change?” Napoleon’s Legacy, ed. David Laven and Lucy Riall (Oxford and New York, 2000), 121. 18. Ibid., 124.

12 THE

1. Frank Bundy, The Administration of the Illyrian Provinces of the French Empire, 1809–1813 (New York and London, 1987), 19. 2. Melitta Pivec-Stele, La vie économique des Provinces Illyriennes (1809–1813) (Paris, 1930), 10–13; Philip Adler, “The Illyrian Provinces of France: Economic Aspects,” CRE, 19 (Tallahassee, 1990), 931–8. 226 Notes

3. Bundy, The Administration, 49. 4. Ibid., 15. 5. Ibid., 110–13. 6. Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols (Eng. trans., London 1969 and 1974), II, 229. 7. Pievec-Stele, La vie économique, 251. 8. Bundy, The Administration, 287. 9. Michael Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 1799–1815 (London, 1996), 220. 10. Leopoldina Plut-Pregelj, “The Illyrian Provinces: The South Slavs and the French Revolution,” CRE 19 (Tallahassee, FL, 1989), 602–8; Bundy, The Administration, 158–92; Monika Senkowska Gluck, “Pouvoir et Société en Illyrie Napoléonienne,” Revue de l’Institut Napoléon, 113 (1980), 72–5. 11. On conscription and the armed forces, Bundy, The Administration, 408–38; Senkowska Gluck, “Pouvoir et Société,” 63–6. 12. Bundy, The Administration, 122–57. 13. Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 220. 14. Pivec-Stele, La vie économique, 130–6; 210–20. 15. Bundy, The Administration, 348. 16. Pivec-Stelle, La vie économique, 338. 17. Paul Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848 (Oxford, 1994), 383.

13 THE COLLAPSE OF THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE

1. Charles Esdaile, The Wars of Napoleon (London, 1995), 246–52; Jean Tulard, Napoléon ou le Myth du Sauveur (Paris, 1987; Eng. trans., London, 1987), 377–81. 2. Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon (Eng. trans., London, 1969, 1974), II, 178. 3. Paul Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848 (Oxford, 1994), 416–18. 4. Owen Connelly, Blundering to Glory: Napoleon’s Military Campaigns (Wilmington, DE, 1988), 159. 5. On the Russian campaign, Alan Palmer, Napoleon in Russia (London, 1967); David Chandler, The Campaigns of Napoleon: The Mind and Method of History’s Greatest Soldier (New York, 1966); Connelly, Blundering, 157–82; Alan Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte (New York, 1977), 583–616; 628–44. 6. Lefebvre, Napoleon, II, 317; Connelly, Blundering, 179. 7. Enno Kraehe, Metternich’s German Policy, (Princeton, NJ, 1963), I, 157. 8. Schroeder, The Transformation, 459–76. 9. George Nafziger and Marco Gioannini, The Defense of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Northern Italy, 1813–1814 (Westport, CT, 2002).

CONCLUSION: THE LEGACY OF NAPOLEON

1. Michael Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 1799–1815 (London, 1996), 4. 2. Philip Dwyer (ed.), “Introduction,” Napoleon and Europe (London, 2001), 2. Notes 227

3. Michael Rowe, “Napoleon and State Formation in Central Europe,” Napoleon and Europe, ed. Dwyer (London, 2001), 211; John Lawrence Tone, “The Peninsular War,” Napoleon and Europe, ed. Dwyer, 229. 4. Isser Woloch, “Napoleonic Conscription,” Past and Present, 111 (1986), 101. 5. Martyn Lyons, Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution (New York, 1994), 258. 6. Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 266–7. 7. David Laven and Lucy Riall (ed.), Napoleon’s Legacy: Problems of Government in Restoration Europe (Oxford and New York, 2000). Selected Bibliography

The Proceedings of the Consortium on Revolutionary Europe, 1750–1850 is abbreviated as CRE.

WORKS OF REFERENCE

Chandler, David, Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars (London, 1979). Connelly, Owen (ed.), Historical Dictionary of Napoleonic France, 1799–1815 (Westport, CT, 1985). Emsley, Clive, The Longman Companion to Napoleonic Europe (London and New York, 1993). Tulard, Jean (ed.), Dictionnaire Napoléon (Paris, 1987).

GENERAL WORKS ON NAPOLEONIC EUROPE

Broers, Michael, Europe under Napoleon, 1799–1815 (London, 1996). Connelly, Owen, Napoleon’s Satellite Kingdoms (New York, 1965). Crouzet, François, “Wars, Blockade and Economic Change in Europe, 1792–1815,” Journal of Economic History, 24 (1964). Dwyer, Philip (ed.), Napoleon and Europe (London, 2001). Ellis, Geoffrey, The Napoleonic Empire (London, 1991). Ellis, Geoffrey, “The Nature of Napoleonic Imperialism,” Napoleon and Europe, ed. Philip Dwyer (London, 2001). Esdaile, Charles, The Wars of Napoleon (London, 1995). Geyl, Peter, Napoleon: For and Against (Eng. trans., London, 1949). Heckscher, Eli, The Continental System: An Economic Interpretation (1922; reprinted Gloucester, MA, 1964). Laven, David and Lucy Riall (ed.), Napoleon’s Legacy: Problems of Government in Restoration Europe (Oxford and New York, 2000). Lefebvre, Georges, Napoleon, 2 vols (Eng. transl., London, 1969 and 1974).

228 Selected Bibliography 229

Markham, Felix, Napoleon (London, 1963). Occupants Occupés, 1792–1815 Colloque de Bruxelles, 29–30 January 1968 (Brussels, 1969). Schom, Alan, Napoleon Bonaparte (New York, 1997). Schroeder, Paul, The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848 (Oxford, 1994). Tulard, Jean, Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour (Eng. transl., London, 1984). Woolf, Stuart, “French Civilization and Ethnicity in the Napoleonic Empire,” Past and Present, 124 (1989). Woolf, Stuart, Napoleon’s Integration of Europe (London, 1991).

THE NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS: GENERAL WORKS

Blanning, Tim, The Origins of the French Revolutionary Wars (London, 1986). Blanning, Tim, The French Revolutionary Wars, 1787–1802 (London, 1996). Chandler, David, The Campaigns of Napoleon: The Mind and Method of History’s Greatest Soldier (New York, 1966). Connelly, Owen, Blundering to Glory: Napoleon’s Military Campaigns (Wilmington, DE, 1987). Elting, John, Swords around a Throne: Napoleon’s Grande Armée (New York, 1988). Gates, David, The Napoleonic Wars, 1803–1815 (London, 1997). Glover, M., Warfare in the Age of Bonaparte (London, 1980). Jeffrey, G., Tactics and Grand Tactics of the Napoleonic Wars (New York, 1982). Lynn, John, “Towards an Army of Honour: the Moral Evolution of the French Army, 1789–1815,” French Historical Studies, 16 (1989). Rothenberg, Gunther, The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon (London, 1977).

NAPOLEONIC FRANCE

Arnold, Eric, Fouché, Napoleon and the General Police (Washington, DC, 1979). Bergeron, Louis, France under Napoleon (Princeton, NJ, 1981). Collins, I., Napoleon and his Parliaments, 1800–1815 (London, 1979). Ellis, Geoffrey, Napoleon (London and New York, 1997). Ellis, Geoffrey, Napoleon’s Continental Blockade: The Case of Alsace (Oxford, 1981). Forrest, Alan, Conscripts and Deserters: The Army and French Society during the Revolution and Empire (Oxford, 1989). Furet, François, Revolutionary France, 1770–1870 (Oxford, 1988). Godechot, Jacques, Les institutions de la France sous la révolution et l’empire (Paris, 1968). Godechot, Jacques, The Counter-Revolution: Doctrine and Action, 1789–1804 (Princeton, NJ, 1971). Holtman, Robert, Napoleonic Propaganda (Baton Rouge, LA, 1950). Holtman, Robert, The Napoleonic Revolution (Baton Rouge, LA and London, 1967). Lyons, Martyn, Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution (New York, 1994). 230 Selected Bibliography

Sibalis, Michael, “The Napoleonic Police State,” Napoleon and Europe, ed. Philip Dwyer (London, 2001). Sutherland, D. M. G., France, 1789–1815: Revolution and Counter Revolution (New York and London, Oxford, 1986). Whitcomb, E. A., “Napoleon’s Prefects,” American Historical Review, 79 (1974). Whitcomb, E. A., Napoleon’s Diplomatic Service (Durham, NC, 1979). Woloch, Isser, “Napoleonic Conscription: State Power and Civil Society,” Past and Present, 111 (1986). Woloch, Isser, The New Regime Transformations of the French Civic Order, 1789–1820s (New York and London, 1994). Woloch, Isser, Napoleon and his Collaborators: The Making of a Dictatorship (New York, 2001).

GERMANY

Anderson, Barbara, “State-Building and Bureaucracy in Early-Nineteenth-Century Nassau,” Central European History, 24 (1991). Blanning, Tim, The French Revolution in Germany: Occupation and Resistance in the Rhineland, 1792–1802 (Oxford, 1983). Cronenberg, Allen, “Montgelas and the Reorganization of Napoleonic Bavaria,” CRE, 19 (Tallahassee, FL, 1990). Diefendorf, Jeffry, Businessmen and Politics in the Rhineland, 1789–1834 (Princeton, NJ, 1980). Eyck, Gunther, Loyal Rebels, Andreas Hofer, and the Tyrolean Uprising of 1809 (New York, 1986). Fisher, Herbert, Studies in Napoleonic Statesmanship: Germany (First published Oxford, 1903; New York, 1968). Gagliardo, John, Reich and Nation: The Holy Roman Empire as Idea and Reality, 1763–1806 (Bloomington, IN, 1980). Gooch, G. P., Germany and the French Revolution (London, 1920). Klang, Dan, “Bavaria and the War of Liberation, 1813–1814,” French Historical Studies, 4 (1965). Kraehe, Enno, Metternich’s German Policy, 2 vols (Princeton, NJ, 1963 and 1983). Lamar, Glenn, Jerome Bonaparte: The War Years, 1800–1815 (Westport, CN, 2000). Lee, Lloyd, The Politics of Harmony: Civil Service, Liberalism and Social Reform in Baden, 1800–1850 (Newark, NJ, 1980). Nipperdey, Thomas, Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck, 1800–1860 (Princeton, NJ, 1996). Rowe, Michael, “Between Empire and Home Town: Napoleonic Rule on the Rhine, 1799–1814,” The Historical Journal, 423 (1999). Rowe, Michael, “Napoleon and State Formation in Central Europe,” Napoleon and Europe, ed. Philip Dwyer (London, 2001). Schmitt, Hans, “Germany without Prussia: a Closer Look at the Confederation of the Rhine,” German Studies Review, 6 (1983). Sheehan, James, German History, 1770–1866 (Oxford, 1993). Selected Bibliography 231

Simms, Brendan, The Impact of Napoleon: Prussian High Politics, Foreign Policy and the Crisis of the Executive, 1797–1806 (Cambridge, 1997). Simms, Brendan, The Struggle for Mastery in Germany, 1779–1850 (New York, 1998).

THE ITALIAN PENINSULA

Broers, Michael, “Italy and the Modern State: the Experience of Napoleonic Rule,” in The French Revolution and the Creation of Modern Political Culture, vol. III: The Transformation of Political Culture, 1789–1848, ed. F. Furet and M. Ozouf (Oxford, 1989). Broers, Michael, Napoleonic Imperialism and the Savoyard Monarchy, 1773–1821: State Building in Piedmont (Lewiston, 1997). Broers, Michael, The Politics of Religion in Napoleonic Italy: The War against God, 1801–1814 (London, 2002). Chadwick, Owen, The Popes and the European Revolutions (Oxford, 1979). Davis, John, Conflict and Control: Law and Order in Nineteenth-Century Italy (Atlantic Highland, NJ, 1988). Davis, John, “The Impact of French Rule on the , 1806–1815,” Ricerche Storiche, 20 (1990). Finley, Milton, The Most Monstrous of Wars: The Napoleonic Guerilla War in Southern Italy, 1806–1811 (Columbia, SC, 1994). Grab, Alexander, “Army, State and Society: Conscription and Desertion in Napoleonic Italy (1802–1814),” Journal of Modern History, 67 (1995). Grab, Alexander, “State Power, Brigandage and Rural Resistance in Napoleonic Italy,” European History Quarterly, 25 (1995). Grab, Alexander, “The Politics of Finance in Napoleonic Italy (1802–1814),” Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 3 (1998), 127–43. Hales, E. E. Y., Napoleon and the Pope (London, 1962). Peruta, Franco Della, “War and Society in Napoleonic Italy: The Armies of the Kingdom of Italy at Home and Abroad,” Society and Politics in Italy in the Age of the Risorgimento, ed. John Davis and Paul Ginsborg (Cambridge, 1991). Rath, John, The Fall of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy (1814) (New York, 1941). Schneid, Frederick, Napoleon’s Italian Campaigns, 1805–1815 (Westport, CT, 2002). Woolf, Stuart, A History of Italy, 1700–1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change (London, 1979).

THE NETHERLANDS

Kossman, E. H., “The Crisis of the Dutch State, 1780–1813: , , Unitarism,” Britain and the Netherlands, ed. J. S. Bromely and E. H. Kossman, vol. IV (The Hague, 1971). Kossman, E. H., The Low Countries, 1780–1940 (Oxford, 1978). Schama, Simon, “The Exigencies of War and the Politics of Taxation in the Netherlands, 1795–1810,” War and Economic Development Essays in Memory of David Joslin, ed. J. M. Winter (Cambridge, 1975). 232 Selected Bibliography

Schama, Simon, Patriots and Liberators: Revolution in the Netherlands, 1780–1813 (London, 1977).

SPAIN

Carr, Raymond, Spain, 1808–1939 (Oxford, 1966). Connelly, Owen, The Gentle Bonaparte: A Biography of Joseph, Napoleon’s Elder Brother (New York, 1968). Esdaile, Charles, “Heroes or Villains? The Spanish Guerrillas and the Peninsular War,” History Today, 38 (1988). Esdaile, Charles, The Spanish Army in the Peninsular War (Manchester and New York, 1988). Esdaile, Charles, “War and Politics in Spain, 1808–1814,” The Historical Journal, 31 (1988). Esdaile, Charles, The Duke of Wellington and the Command of the Spanish Army, 1812–1814 (New York, 1990). Gates, David, The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War (New York and London, 1986). Glover, Michael, Legacy of Glory: The Bonaparte Kingdom of Spain, 1808–1813 (New York, 1971). Hamnett, B., “Spanish Constitutional Theory and Political Reality: Liberalism, Traditionalism and the Spanish Cortes, 1810–1814,” Journal of Modern History, 50 (1977). Hilt, Douglas, The Troubled Trinity: Godoy and the Spanish Monarchs (Tuscaloosa, Alabama and London, 1987). Lovett, Gabriel, Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain, 2 vols (New York, 1965). Tone, John Lawrence, The Fatal Knot: The Guerrilla War in Navarre and the Defeat of Napoleon in Spain (Chapel Hill and London, 1994). Tone, John Lawrence, “The Peninsular War,” Napoleon and Europe, ed. Philip Dwyer (London, 2001).

PORTUGAL

Fuente, Francisco de la, “The French Revolution and its Impact on Portugal,” CRE (Tallahassee, FL, 1990). Horward, Donald (ed.), The French Campaign in Portugal, 1810–1811: An Account by Jean Jacques Pelet (Minneapolis, MN, 1973). Horward, Donald, “Wellington and the Defense of Portugal,” International History Review, 11 (1989). Horward, Donald, “Wellington as a Strategist, 1808–1814,” Wellington Studies in the Military and Political Career of the First Duke of Wellington, ed. Norman Nash (Manchester, 1990). Horward, Donald, “Logistics and Strategy in the Peninsula: a Case Study, 1810–1811,” CRE (Charleston, SC, 1999). Livermore, H., A New History of Portugal (Cambridge, 1966). Maxwell, Kenneth, Pombal, Paradox of the Enlightenment (Cambridge, 1995). Selected Bibliography 233

ILLYRIA

Adler, Philip, “The Illyrian Provinces of France: Economic Aspects,” CRE (Tallahassee, FL, 1990). Bundy, Frank, The Administration of the Illyrian Provinces of the French Empire, 1809–1813 (New York and London, 1987).

SWITZERLAND

Oechsli, Wilhelm, A History of Switzerland, 1499–1914 (Cambridge, 1922). Suratteau, Jean, “Occupation, occupants et occupés en Suisse de 1792 à 1814,” Occupants, Occupés, 1792–1815, Colloque de Bruxelles, 29–30 January 1968 (Brussels, 1969).

THE GRAND DUCHY OF WARSAW

Blackburn, Christopher, Napoleon and the Szlachta (Boulder, CO, 1998). Davies, Norman, God’s Playground: A History of Poland, 2 vols (New York, 1982). Handelsman, M., “The Duchy of Warsaw,” The Cambridge History of Poland from Augustus II to Pilsudski (Cambridge, 1951). Holland, J., “Napoleon and Poland,” The Cambridge History of Poland from Augustus II to Pilsudski (Cambridge, 1951). Wandycz, Piotr, The Lands of Partitioned Poland, 1795–1918 (Seattle, 1974). Index

Aboukir, French–English naval battle Amoros, Francisco, Spanish state (1798), 7 counselor, 135 Addington, Henry, British Prime Amsterdam, 4, 61, 62, 64, 71, 73 Minister, 9, 11 , 18, 164, 171 Adelfia, Italian secret society, 172 Andalusia, 129, 130, 133, 141 administration, centralization of, xii, Antwerp, 71, 76, 81–2 21–2, 206 Argueles, Augustin, liberal Belgium, 78, 79, 84 representative in the Cortes of France, 46–7 Cadiz, 139 German states, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98, Arndt, Ernst, German nationalist, 108 99, 100, 104–5 arrondissements, 47, 49, 54 Illyrian Provinces, 189–91 Aspern-Essling, French–Austrian battle Italian peninsula, 161, 168, 170, 172 (1809), 15 the Netherlands, 66, 68–9, 72 assignats, 34, 41, 53, 55 Spain, 134 Auerstädt, French–Prussian battle Switzerland, 115 (1806), 13 Duchy of Warsaw, 181 Augusta, wife of Eugène de Beauharnais, , 8, 12, 171, 189, 193, 195 104 , Spanish collaborators with Austerlitz, French–Austrian–Russian Napoleon, 135, 142, 143 battle (1805), 11, 12, 14, 89 Agar, Jean-Antoine, chief minister in , Berg, 97 First Coalition War, 2–4, 154 Alexander I, Russian Tsar, 8, 16, signs , 5, 87, Third Coalition, 11, 89 154 signs treaty of Tilsit, 13, 179 Second Coalition, 6, 8, 116 Continental Blockade, 32–3, 198 signs treaty of Lunévile, 8 Germany, 107 Third Coalition, 11–12, 89 Switzerland, 121 reorganization of Germany, 88, 89 Duchy of Warsaw, 178, 179, 185, 186, military reforms, 14 198 war with France (1809), 14–16, Russian campaign (1812), 199–200 164 Treaty of Kalisch (1813), 108, 200 Treaty of Schönbrunn, 16, campaign of 1813, 201–2 pays indemnity to France, 28 enters Paris (1814), 202 joins the Continental Blockade, 30 Amiens, French–British peace (1802), joins anti-French coalition (1813), 9, 65 109, 201

234 Index 235

Austria – continued is crowned as occupies Illyria and northern Italy, 173 of Spain (1808), 129–30 195–6, 202 Convention (1808), 184 , 110 Beauharnais Eugène de, stepson of see also Belgium; Charles Archduke; Napoleon, Francis II; Germany; Habsburgs; viceroy in the Kingdom of Italy Italian Peninsula; Metternich (1805–14), 25, 160, 162 , annexed to France (1791), 18 marries princess Augusta of Bavaria, Azanza, Miguel, Spanish minister under 104 Joseph, 134, 135 French–Austrian war (1809), 15 occupation of , 120 Baden, 18, 86, 87, 91 (map) and Illyrian Provinces, 195 alliance with Napoleon, 12, 89 defeat and fall from power, 173, 202 elevation to Grand Duchy, 89 Belgium, xiv, xv, 1, 4, 18, 19, 75–84 Code Napoleon, 105 Austrian Netherlands, 62, 75–6 constitution, 104 Habsburg reforms, 76 deserting Napoleon (1813), 109, 201 the Belgian Revolution (1789–92), reforms, 103–6 76–7, 84 territorial expansion, 88, 104 and the First Coalition, 3–5, 77 Bailen, French–Spanish battle (1808), the first French occupation (1792–93), 130, 131 77 Bank of France, 55 annexed to France and reorganized Barcelona, 127, 129 (1795–7), 1, 4, 78–9 Barss Franciszek, Polish nationalist, 177 treaty of Campo Formio, 5, 78 Barthélemy, François de, French treaty of Lunéville, 8, 79 director, 114 Napoleonic rule, 79–83 Basle, French–Prussian treaty (1795), 4, industrial growth, 80–1, 84 87 opposition to French rule, 78, 79, French–Spanish treaty, 125 82–3 Basle, canton, 112, 113, 114, 119, 120 collapse of the Napoleonic regime, 83 Basle, bishopric, 112, 114, 118 unification with the Netherlands see the Netherlands (1814), 73, 84 Bautzen, French–European coalition Napoleonic legacy, 84 battle (1813), 109, 201 Bellegarde, Austrian commander, 173 Bavaria, 85, 86, 87, 88, 91 (map), 103 Beresford, William Carr, British general alliance with Napoleon (1805) 11, 89 in Portugal, 149, 150 territorial expansion, 12, 104 Berezina river (Russian campaign, elevation to kingdom, 89, 104 1812), 199 war with Austria (1809), 14–16 Berg, Grand Duchy (1806–13), 90, 91 undergoes reforms, 19, 103–6 (map), 96, 109 military buildup, 105 reforms and organization, 97–9 opposition by the nobility, 106 Berlin Decree, proclamation of the joins the Anti-French coalition (1813), Continental Blockade (1806), 13, 29 109, 201 Bernadotte, king of , 198, 202 Congress of Vienna, 110 Berne, 6, 112, 113, 117, 119, 120, 121 Bayonne, town of, treasury of, 114, 116 Napoleon topples the Spanish uprising by , 114 Bourbons (1808), 128, 129 French occupation, 115 236 Index

Berthier, Louis, French commander, 6, the judiciary, 48–9 29, 120 proclaims Code Napoleon, 49–51 Bertrand, Henri Gratien, French official military conscription, 51–2 in the Illyrian Provinces, 190 financial policies, 52–5 Beugnot, Jean-Claude, French chief centralizes education, 55–8 official in Berg, 96, 97 creates the lycées, 57 Binasco, Italian village, 157 relations with notables, 41 Blücher, Gebhard, Prussian commander, creation of a new imperial nobility, 202, 203 42–3 Bohemia, 15, 71, 85 policy towards the Jews, 45–6 Bologna, 4, 154, 155, 162, 165 , 8 Bonaparte, Elisa, Napoleon’s sister, the signs the treaty of Lunéville, 8 ruler of Lucca, 11, 29, 170 Amiens, 9 Bonaparte, Jerome, king of Westphalia expands French power throughout (1807–13), 19, 99, 100, 102, 109 Europe, 10 Bonaparte, Joseph, older brother of president of the Republic of Italy, 10 Napoleon, 12, 18 “Mediator of the Swiss king of Naples (1806–8), 166–8 Confederation,” 120 king of Spain (1808–13), 129–30, 133, Reorganizes Germany, 88–9 134–6, 141, 143 renewal of war with Britain, 11 abandons Madrid (1808), 130 executes d’Enghien, 89 faces Wellington at Talavera, 132 victory over the Third Coalition, attitude of Spanish people to, 134 11–12, 89 suffers a defeat at Vitoria and becomes king of the Kingdom of Italy, evacuates Spain (1813), 142, 202 159 Bonaparte, Louis, king of Holland Prussian campaign, 12–13 (1806–10), 25, 67–71, 72 forms the Confederation of the Rhine, strained relations with Napoleon, 71 90 Bonaparte, Lucien, 35, 37, 38 “Protector” of Confederation of the Bonaparte, Napoleon Rhine, 95 the Italian campaign (1806), 4–5 declares the Continental Blockade, 13, signs the peace of Campo Formio, 5 29 delivers to Austria, 5 signs the treaty of Tilsit with the Tsar, Egyptian expedition, 6–7 13 seizes power in the coup of Brumaire, establishes Louis as king of Holland, 8, 35 67 First Consul, 36 forms Westphalia as a “model state,” consolidation of his power, 36–9 90, 99 Consul for life (1802), 9, 38 forms the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 13, crowned as (1804), 39 179 suppresses internal opposition, 40–1 topples the Spanish Bourbons, 128 views on religion, 44 establishes Joseph as king of Spain, signs the Concordat, 44–5 128 launches reforms to strengthen the into Madrid, 131 state, 46–58 war with Austria, 14–15 establishes central administration, divorces Josephine, 16 46–8 marries Marie Louise, 16 strengthens the police, 47–8 exiles the Pope, 18 Index 237

Bonaparte, Napoleon – continued Cabarrus, François, Spanish minister establishes the Illyrian Provinces, 188 under Joseph, 134, 135 removes king Louis from Holland, 71 Cadiz, port of, 123, 124, 129 invades Russia, (1812), 198–200 siege of, 133, 138–9 German campaign (1813), 201 Cortes of, 133, 138–41, 143 abdicates (1814), 202 Cadoudal, Georges, royalist conspirator in , 202 against Napoleon, 41, 47 “ rule,” 203 Cairo, 7, 9 St. Helena, 203 , 26, 173 Bonaparte, Pauline, 29 anti-French uprising, 166 Bormio, Swiss region annexed to Cambacérés, Jean, French consul, 36, 43 , 114 Campo Formio, French–Austrian treaty Borodino, French–Russian battle (1812), (1797), 5, 8, 78, 87, 88, 93, 154 185, 199 Caprara, Cardinal, papal representative Bourbons, French, 37, 40–1, 42, 43, 48 in Paris, 171 Bouteville, Louis, a French official in Carbonari, Italian secret society, 173 Belgium, 78 Carinthia, 16, 188, 191 Braganza, Portuguese , 144, 147 Carniola 16, 188, 191 Brauer, Johann, chief minister in Baden, Carnot, Lazare, French director, 83, 114, 104 Cassano d’Adda, French–Russian battle Bremen, 90, 94–5, 110 (1799), 7, 157 Breza, Stanislaw, Polish minister, 181 Castro, Dom Antonio Jose de, a Britain Portuguese bishop, 148 First and Second Coalition Wars, 3, 6, 8 Catherine of Württemberg, wife of Amiens (1802), 9 Jerome Bonaparte, 104 resumption of hostilities with France, censorship, 21, 48 9–11 Ceylon, 9, 60, 65 Hanover, 11, 89 Chabrol, André-Christophe, French Third Coalition, 11 official in Illyria, 190 Continental Blockade, 13, 29–33 Championnet, Jean Etienne, French support of royalist opposition in commander, 156 France, 40–1 Chaptal, Jean, French minister of and the Netherlands, 61, 62, 64, 65, interior, 37 70–1 Charles III, Spanish king, 123, 124 Portugal, 144, 146, 147, 149 Charles IV, Spanish king, 124, 126, 127, Peninsular war, 132–3, 141–2 128 Illyria and the Adriatic sea, 195 Charles, Archduke, Austrian campaign of 1813, 201–3 commander, 4–5, 7–8, 116 Brumaire, coup of, 34–5 military reforms, 14 Brumairiens, 35, 36, 41 Franco-Austrian war (1809), 14–15 Brune, Guillaume, French commander, Charles Emmanuel IV, king of 6, 64, 115, 116 Piedmont–, 6, 7, 157, 170 Brussels, 76, 77, 83 Charles Frederick, ruler of Baden, 86, 89 Bülow, Ludwig von, minister in Cherasco, truce between Bonaparte and Westphalia, 100 Piedmont, 4 Buonarroti, Filippo, Italian Chiavenna, Swiss region annexed to revolutionary, 153 Cisalpine republic, 112, 114 bureaucracy see administration. , 34, 40, 41 238 Index

Church, 22, 207–8 Confederation of the Rhine (Rheinbund), during revolutionary period, 43–4 12, 13, 14, 15, 17 (map), 90, 95–6, Concordat, 43–5, 207 108, 109, 200, 201 supports anti-Napoleonic opposition, 40 Conscription, military, xii, 26–7, 207 Belgium, 78–9, 80, 82 Belgium, 82–3 German states, 93, 97, 98, 101, 103, in France, 3, 51–2 105, 208 German states, 94, 95, 98, 100, 102, Illyrian Provinces, 194 103, 105 Italian peninsula, 163–4, 168, 171, 172 Illyrian Provinces, 193, 194 the Netherlands, 63 Italian Peninsula, 163, 169 Spain, 130, 134, 135, 136, 140 the Netherlands, 70, 72 Switzerland, 115, Portugal, 147, 149 see also Papacy; Pius VI; Pius VII Switzerland, 120–1 Cisalpine republic (1797–9), 1, 8, 114, the Duchy of Warsaw, 183–4 154, 155–6, 157 Constant, Benjamin, a liberal critic of Cispadan republic, 155 Napoleon, 40, 203 clergy see Church Constitutions, French Coalition Wars, 1 year VIII (1799), 36, 37, 38, 48, 79 First Coalition War (1793–7), 2–6, 62, year X (1802), 38–9 77, 87, 92, 124–5, 154 year XII (1804), 39 Second Coalition War (1798–1801) of 1815, 203 6–9, 34, 38, 64, 116, 157 Consulate see Napoleon Bonaparte Third Coalition (1805), 11–12, 89 Continental Blockade, xii, 13, 29–33, Cockerill, William, English 197, 205 entrepreneur, 81 Belgium, 82 Code Napoleon, xii, 21, 206 Germany, 90, 94, 95, 98, 102, 103 Belgium, 51 Illyrian Provinces, 189, 192, 195 France, 42, 49–51 Italian Peninsula, 159, 160, 164, 168, German states, 51, 93, 94, 97 170, 171 Illyrian Provinces, 191 the Netherlands, 68, 70–1, 72 Italian Peninsula, 51, 161, 168, Pius VII, 18 171, 175 Portugal, 146–7, 151 the Netherlands, 51, 69–70, 100, 101, Switzerland, 120, 121 105, 107 Duchy of Warsaw, 184 Switzerland, 51 Russia, 198 Duchy of Warsaw, 180 Cortes of Cadiz see Cadiz Code of Civil Procedure, 51 Council of State, 37, 38 Code, Commercial, 51 courts see judicial system Code of Criminal Procedure, 51 Cracow, 180, 183, 185, 186 Code, Penal, 51 , 16, 188, 191, 194 Concordat (signed 1801), 22, 25, 38, 40, cultural imperialism, 19 44–5, 47 Custine, French commander, 3, 87, 90 opposition in France, 45 Czartoryski, Adam, Polish noble, 176, 185 Organic Articles, 45, 83 Belgium, 80, 82, 83 Dabrowski, Henryk, Polish general, 178, Illyrian Provinces, 194 179 Italian Peninsula, 172 Dalberg, Karl von, top official of the Concordat, Italian (signed 1803), 163–4, Confederation of the Rhine and 171 ruler of Frankfurt, 90, 95, 103, 109 Index 239

Dalmatia, 5, 12, 16, 188, 195 Enghien, duc d’, 11, 89 Dauchy, Luc-Jacques, French official in Eylau, French–Russian battle (1807), the Illyrian Provinces, 190 13, 179 David, Jacques Louis, French painter, 39 Ferdinand IV, king of Naples, 7, 12, 156, Davout, Louis Nicholas, French 157, 166, 174 commander, 29, 94, 179, 181 Ferdinand, Austrian Archduke, 15, 16, , 8, 9, 13, 198 184–5 department, 37, 38, 39, 46–7, 48, 49; Ferdinand, VII, king of Spain, 127, 129, see also administration 130 Desmarest, Pierre Marie, head of the Prince of Asturias, 124, 126, 127 French secret police, 47 exiled to France (1808), 128 Diez, Juan Martin, a Spanish guerrilla restored in power (1814), 142–3 leader, 138 , 4, 154, 155 Directory, French, 1, 4, 6, 34–5, 46 feudalism see seigneurial reforms education policy, 56 Fichte, Gotlieb Johann, German establishes police ministry, 47 nationalist, 86, 108 financial crisis, 52–3 finances, xii, 19, 21, 27–8, 206 Italian campaign, 154 Belgium, 78 tax policies, 53, 54 France, 52–5 Dmochowski, Franciszek, Polish German states, 98, 101–2, 105–6 nationalist, 177 Illyrian Provinces, 191–2 Dorotich, anti-Napoleonic clergyman in Italian Peninsula, 162–3, 168 the Illyrian Provinces, 194 the Netherlands, 64, 66–7, 69 Ducos, Roger, French Consul, 35 Portugal, 149 Dumouriez, Charles François, French Spain, 135–6, 140 commander, 3, 77 Duchy of Warsaw, 184 Düsseldorf, 97, 99 Fleurus, French–Austrian battle (1794), Duterrage, Devilliers, head of Dutch 4, 62, 77 police, 72 Floridablanca, Joseph, Spanish prime minister, 123, 124 economic concessions to France, 28 Fontainbleau, French–Spanish Treaty education, xii, 206–7 (1807), 126, 147 Belgium, 80 Fontainebleau Decree (1807), 32 France, 49, 55–8 Fouché, Joseph, French minister of German states, 98, 102 police, 35, 37, 40, 47–8 Illyrian Provinces, 192–3 top official in Illyria, 190, 195 Kingdom of Italy, 162 Fourcroy, Antoine, French education the Netherlands, 69 reformer, 57 Spain, 135, 140 Fra Diavolo, Neapolitan brigand leader, Switzerland, 119–120 166 Duchy of Warsaw, 181 franc, Egyptian expedition (1798–9), 6–7, 9 French, 55 Elba, 9, 202 Swiss, 115 annexed to France (1802), 10 France, revolutionary period (1789–99) émigrés, 2, 40, 41, 42, 87 First and Second Coalition Wars, 2–8 in Germany, 87 First French Republic, 3 in Spain, 124 conscription 3, 51 in Switzerland, 113, 114 Directory rule, 34–5 240 Index

France, revolutionary period (1789–99) Germany, 9, 10, 20–1, 42, 92 – continued in the eighteenth century, 85–6 education policies, 56 reactions to the French Revolution, financial policies, 53–4 86–7 legal system 49 First Coalition, 4, 87 religious policy, 43–4 Campo Formio, 5, 87 Francis II, Habsburg emperor, 8, 11, 16, Rastatt conference, 5, 87–8 87, 88 Second Coalition, 7 becomes “Francis I, Emperor of Lunéville, 8, 88 Austria,” 89 territorial reorganization (1803–6), abdicates as Holy Roman Emperor, 12, 10, 20–1, 88–90 90 Third Coalition, 11 Frankfurt, French–Prussian war (1806), 13 Grand Duchy, 90, 91(map), 103, 109 formation of the Confederation of the city of, 85, 110 Rhine (1806), 90 Frederick II, Prussian king, 13, 86 end of the Holy Roman Empire, 90 Frederick II, ruler of Württemberg, 104 Napoleonic hegemony, 13, 90 Frederick Augustus, king of Saxony and division of Germany (1806–13), 90–1 ruler of the Duchy of Warsaw, 107, French–Austrian War (1809), 15 179, 180 Russia invasion (1813), 107 Frederick William II, Prussian king, 2, nationalism and “War of Liberation,” 62, 87 108, 198 Frederick William III, Prussian monarch, anti-French uprisings (1813), 109 12, 13, 108, 202 collapse of the Napoleonic order, alliance with tsar, 108 109–10 “Appeal” to the German people Congress of Vienna, 110 (1813), 108 Napoleonic legacy, 110–11 , introduction of see Baden; Bavaria; Berg; Belgium, 80 Confederation of the Rhine; Piedmont, 170 Frankfurt; Hansa cities; Prussia; , 112, 113, 116 the Rhineland; Westphalia; Friedland, French–Russian battle (1807), Württemberg 13, 179 Ghent, 76, 81 Fuentes de Onoro, French–British battle Gioia, Melchiore, Italian revolutionary, (1811), 150 155 Fuschius, minister in Berg, 97 Gneisenau, Neithardt von, Prussian military reformer, 108 , 16, 180, 184, 185, 186 Godoy, Manuel, Spanish prime minister, Gallo, Maurizio di, foreign minister in 124, 125, 126, 127, 145–6, 147 the Kingdom of Naples, 166 Gogel, Isaac, Dutch finance minister, 63, Gaudin Charles, French finance 64, 66–7, 68, 69, 72 minister, 37, 53, 54 Goya, Francisco, Spanish painter, 128, gendarmerie see police 137 Geneva, 9, 112, 118, 121 Grand Sanhedrin, meeting of Jewish revolutionary government, 113 leaders (1808), 46 annexed to France (1798), 6, 18, 115, Grande Armée, xii, 2, 11, 15, 26, 48, 120 180, 185 , 152, 170 in the Russian campaign, 27, 198, 199 Index 241

Grand Empire, 2, 18 courts and police, 191 Grimm, Jacob, official in Westphalia, 100 Austrian invasion and occupation , Swiss canton, 112, 114, 118 (1813), 195–6, 202 guerrillas, Spanish, 129, 137–8, 141, 142 legacy of the Napoleonic regime, guilds, 69, 78, 105, 107, 113, 115, 134, 196 140 Imperial University, central education institution in France, 57, 58 Habsburg dynasty, 4, 11, 84, 85, 188 Inquisition, 123 Belgium, 75–6 its abolition by Joseph in Spain, 22, Germany, 85 134 Holy Roman Empire, 85 abolition by the Cortes of Cadiz, 140 Italy, 24, 160, 174 restoration by Ferdinand VII, 143 Poland, 180 Portugal, 144, 145 Hague, The, 61, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 73 , 5, 11, 13 Hague, The, French–Batavian treaty , 12, 159, 188 (1795), 62 Italian peninsula, 9, 14, 42 Hamburg, 18, 90, 94–5, 109, 110 pre-Napoleonic Italy, 152–3 Hanover, 11, 13, 18, 85, 89, 110 reaction to the French Revolution, Hansa cities, 17 (map), 90, 94–5 153–4 Hardenberg, Karl von, Prussian minister, revolutionary triennium (1796–9), 107 154–8 Hegel, Friedrich, German philosopher, Bonaparte’s Italian campaign 86 (1796–7), 4–5, 68, 154 Heine Heinrich, German poet, 99 Campo Formio, 5, 154 (1798–1803) see counter-revolution (1799), 7, 157 Switzerland Lunéville, 158 –Darmstadt, 88, 106–7, 109, 110 Napoleon reshapes the Italian Hesse–, 88, 99 map, 21, 158–9 Hoche, Lazare, French commander, 3, 92 reform policies, 160–72, 174–5 Hofer, Andreas, a Tyrolese rebel leader, the collapse of the Napoleonic order, 14, 16 173 Hogendorp, Karel, Dutch statesman, 73 Congress of Vienna and Restoration Hohenlinden, French–Austrian battle Italy, 174 (1800), 8 the Napoleonic legacy, 174–5 Holland, Dutch province, 60, 63 see also Continental Blockade; Italy, Holland, Kingdom of see the Republic and Kingdom of; Netherlands Naples, Kingdom of Holy Roman Empire (Reich), 5, 11, 75, Italy, Republic and Kingdom of 85–6, 87, 88, 89 (1802–14), 1, 10, 11, 12, 17 (map), its dissolution (1806), 12, 90, 110 20, 188 composition, area, and population, Illyrian Provinces, xiv 159 formation (1809) and diversity, 16, 18, government, 160–1 188–9 reform policies, 160–4 reform policies, 20, 189–94 economic policies, 164–5 government, 189–90 uprisings, 165 opposition to the new system, 191, French–Austrian War (1809), 15, 16 192, 194, 195 collapse, 173, 202 242 Index

Jacobins, 34, 35, 36, 40 Kassel, 99, 109 Belgium, 77, 78 Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb, German Mainz, 92 man of letter, 86 Italy, 155, 156, 157 Knights, imperial (Germany), 85, 89, 110 Jemappes, French–Austrian battle Koblenz, 87 (1792), 3, 77 Ko´sciuszko, Tadeuzs, Polish national Jena, French–Prussian battle (1806), 13 hero, 177, 178–9 Jews, 22 Kutuzov, Michael, Russian commander, revolutionary France, 43 199 Napoleonic policy, 45–6 Batavian republic, 63 Laharpe, Frédéric-Cesar, Swiss Germany, 22, 93, 101, 103, 105 revolutionary, 114, 116, 117 Habsburg empire, 76 Laibach (Ljubljana), 188, 193, 196 Italian peninsula, 156, 157, 164 land grants (dotations), 24, 28–9, 102, the Illyrian Provinces, 193, 194 184 Prussia, 107 land survey, 53–4, 67, 162–3, 168, 206 Switzerland, 115 Landamman, Swiss chief magistrate, 118, Warsaw, duchy of, 183 120 John, Austrian Archduke, 15 Law of Hostages, 42 John VI, ruler of Portugal, 145, 146, League of Armed Neutrality (1800–1), 147, 149 8, 9 Joseph II, Austrian emperor, 76, 86, 152 Lebrun, Charles, French commander, Josephine de Beauharnais, first wife of 37, 43, 72, 73 Napoleon, 16, 39 Le Chapelier Law, 50 Jourdan, Jean Baptist, French Legislative Body (France), 37, 38, 39, 45 commander, 3, 4, 7 Legion of Honor, 40, 42 Jourdan–Delbrel Law, conscription law Leiden, 70, 71, 73 in France, 51 Leipzig, Battle of the Nations (1813), Jovellanos, Gaspar Melchior, Spanish 109, 121, 186, 194, 201 man of letter, 130 Leoben, French–Austrian truce (1797), judicial reforms, 5, 154 France, 48–9 Leopold II, Austrian emperor, 2, 77 Germany, 93, 97, 100, 105 levée en masse, 3, 51 the Illyrian Provinces, 191 liberal opposition to Napoleon in Italian Peninsula, 161 France, 39–40 Spain, 134–5 Liège, bishopric, 75, 76, 77 Switzerland, 115 Lievin, Bauwens, a Belgian entrepreneur, Duchy of Warswa, 182 81 Junot, Jean Androche, French , 1, 5, 8, 11, commander, 126, 147, 148, 190 155, 158 juntas, provincial councils in Spain, 129, annexed to France (1805), 170 130, 132, 140 , 144, 147, 148, 149 Junta Central, Suprema, 131, 132, 133 livret, 47, 81 (Leghorn), 5, 170, 171 Kalisch, a Russian–Prussian Treaty Llorente, Juan Antonio, Spanish official (1813), 108, 200 under Joseph, 135 Kant, Emmanuel, German philosopher, , 4, 5, 24, 152, 157, 159, 160, 86 173 Index 243

Louis XVI, king of France, 3, 124, 202 Max Joseph, Bavarian king, 104 Louis XVIII, king of France, 40, 202, 203 Mecklenburg, 107 Louis Napoleon, Napoleon’s nephew Mediation Act, Swiss constitution (1803), and the future Napoleon III, 68, 97 117–19 , 10, 125 , 5, 7, 10, 189 Lübeck, 90, 94–5, 110 Melzi d’Eril, Francesco, vice-president Lubienski, Feliks, justice minister in the of the Italian Republic, 160, 161, Duchy of Warsaw, 181, 182 163–4 Lucca, 11, 152, 170 Mesta, Spanish shepherds’ organization, , 112, 113, 114, 116, 118 134, 140 Lunéville, French–Austrian treaty Metternich, Clemens von, Austrian (1801), 8, 79, 88, 93, 117, 158 chancellor, 15, 16, 84, 109, 121, Luxemburg, 18, 75, 79 195, 201 Lützen, battle (1813), 109, 201 Milan 4, 8, 152, 154, 155 lycée, secondary schools see education Milan Decrees (1807), 30 Mina, Francisco Espoz, Spanish guerrilla Mack, Charles, Austrian general, 11 leader, 138, 141 Madrid, 124, 127, 129, 130, 132, 135, 141 Miollis, French commander, 171, 172 anti-French uprising (1808), 128 , 4, 5, 152, 154, 155, 174 Napoleon enters the city, 131 Moniteur, French newspaper, 48, 87 Maida, French–English battle (1806), Montgelas, Maximilian, chief minister in 166 Bavaria, 104–6 Mainz, 3, 87, 92, 110 Moore, John, British commander, 132 Malta, 7, 9, 11 Moreau, Jean Victor, French Malmaison constitution (1802), commander, 4, 7, 8, 35 Switzerland, 117 Moscow, 185, 199 Mantua, 5, 7, 16, 154 Murat, Joachim, French commander and Marengo, French–Austrian battle brother-in-law of Napoleon, 129 (1800), 8, 158 married to Caroline, Napoleon’s sister, Marie Louise, second wife of Napoleon, 97 16 ruler of Berg (1806–8), 97 Maria Luisa, Queen of Spain, 124, 128 occupies Madrid (1808), 127–8 Maria Theresa, Habsburg empress, 75, ruler of the Kingdom of Naples 152 (1808–15), 25, 166–9 markets, national, xii, 23, 209 loses his throne and is executed, 173 Belgium, 78 Germany states, 93, 97, 100, 104 Naples, Kingdom of, pre-Napoleonic, Spain, 134, 140 152, 153, 154, 158 Switzerland, 115 First Coalition War, 3, 4 Italian Peninsula, 164, 170 Second Coalition, 6, 7, 156 Marmont, Auguste, French commander, Third Coalition, 11, 12, 165–6 141 French occupation (1806), 166 chief official in Illyria, 189–90, Naples, Kingdom of, Napoleonic satellite 191, 194 (1806–14), xv, 13, 17 (map) Marschall, Ernst, chief minister in reigns of Joseph (1806–8) and Murat Nassau, 106 (1808–14), 166–9 Masséna, André, French commander, 8, revolt in Calabria, 166 12, 19, 116, 141, 150, 166 government, 166 244 Index

Naples, Kingdom of, Napoleonic satellite Italian peninsula, 23, 153, 159, 161, (1806–14) – continued 165, 167, 168, 171, 172 reform policies, 20, 166–9, 174 the Netherlands, 61, 65, 68 collapse of Murat’s reign, 173 Poland, szlachta, 23, 176–7, 179, 180, restoration of Ferdinand IV (1815), 182, 183 174 Spain, 123, 129, 139, 143 Nassau, 88, 106–7 Switzerland, 113 nationalism, 52, 209 see seigneurial reforms German 108 , 198 Italian, 163, 174–5 notables, 208–9 Polish, 178, 180, 187 France, 38, 41–2, 43, 47, 48, 59, 197 Spanish, 129 Belgium, 79 Neapolitan (Parthenopean) republic Rhineland, 93, 94 (1799), 1, 7, 156, 157 Italy, Kingdom of, 159, Neerwinden, French–Austrian battle (1793), 3, 77 Ocaña, French–Spanish battle (1809), Netherlands, the, 133 eighteenth-century Netherlands (the Ochs, Peter, Swiss revolutionary, 114, United Provinces), 60 116, 118 , 60, 65 O’Farril, Gonzalo, a Spanish minister Patriot Revolution (1780s), 61–2 under Joseph, 128, 134, 135 war with Britain, 61 Oldenburg, 18, 91 (map), 198 First Coalition, 3, 4, 62 Oporto, 132, 148, 149 Batavian republic (1795–1806), 1, 4, 5, Orange dynasty, Dutch ruling family, 8, 8, 10, 62–7, 73, 74 60, 64, 73 Second Coalition, 8, 64 Orangists, Dutch conservative camp, 61, Holland, Kingdom of (1806–10), 13, 62, 64, 65 67–71, 73, 74 Orders in Council, 30 annexed to France (1810–13), 72–3 organic articles, 45 opposition to Napoleon, 72–3 , 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 198 collapse of the Napoleonic regime, 73, 201 Palafox, Joseph, Spanish commander, unity with Belgium, 73 131 legacy of Napoleon, 73–4 papacy, 4, 6, 152, 153, 156, 158, 171 see also Bonaparte, Louis; Bonaparte, and revolutionary France, 43, 44 Napoleon; patriots French occupation and Nelson Horatio, British admiral, 7, 9, 12 reorganization, 171–2 Nesselrode, count, minister in Berg, 97 see also Napoleon; Pius VI; Pius VII Neuchâtel, Swiss region, 112, 118, 120, Paris, 3, 35, 39, 47, 177 121 Paris, Treaty of (1814), 84 Ney, Michel, French commander, 29 , 4, 152, 158, 171, 174 Nice, 3, 18, 154 Patriots, Dutch , 4, 61, nobility, xii, xiv, 22, 208 62, 63, 64, 65 old nobility in France 41, 42, 43, Paul I, Russian Tsar, 7, 8 46, 59 pays alliés (allied lands), 2, 18, 25 French imperial nobility, 42, 43 pays conquis (conquered lands), 2, 18, 25 Belgium, 75 pays réunis (annexed lands), 2, 18, Germany, 22, 86, 93, 96, 100–1, 105–6 21, 25 Index 245 peasants, 22–3, 208 police, xii, 22, 52, 161, 206 Belgium, 79 France, 47–8 France, 51 Illyria, 191 German states, 22, 86, 96, 98, 101, 106 Italian Peninsula, 161, 170 Illyria, 191 Netherlands the, 72 Italian peninsula, 23, 153, 157, 165, Pombal, Marquise of, 144–5 167, 168, 174 Poniatowski, Joseph, Polish war minister, Poland, 177, 179, 182 15, 179, 181, 183 184, 185, 186, 198 Portugal, 144, 148 Portalis, Jean Etienne, French minister Spain, 124, 137 of religion, 44, 45, 56 Switzerland, 113 Portugal, xiv, 6, 14, Pestalozzi, Henry, Swiss educator, 120 state and society in the eighteenth Pichegru, Charles general, 3, 4, 41, 62 century, 144–5 Piedmont, Kingdom of, 44, 152, 153, and the French Revolution, 145 157, 169–70 First Coalition, 145 defeated by Bonaparte, 4, 154 Spanish invasion (1801), 8, 125, 146 occupied by France (1798), 6 French occupation (1807–8), 126, 131, independence restored (1799), 7 147–8 French occupation (1800), 158 Portuguese resistance, 147–8 annexed to France (1802), 10, 169 French defeat and evacuation (1808), Amiens, treaty, 9 148 reforms, 170 military and financial reorganization, Savoyard dynasty restored (1814), 174 149 annexed, 174 Wellington and the defense of Pilnitz Declaration (1791), 2 Portugal, 133, 148, 149–50 Pitt, William, British prime minister, 9, 11 defeat of Messéna’s army (1810–11), Pius VI, pope, 4, 6, 44, 154, 156 150 Pius VII, pope, 16, 18, 39, 83, 197 Poznan, 179, 183 negotiates with France, 44 prefect see administration Concordat (1801), 44–5 Pressburg, Franco-Austrian treaty (1805), Italian Concordat, 163–4 11–12, 14, 89 attends Napoleon’s imperial crowning, Prina, Giuseppe, minister of finance in 39 the Kingdom of Italy, 162–3, 165, 173 conflict with Napoleon, 16–17, 171–2 Prussia, 85 exiled to France (1809), 18, 172 First Coalition, 2–4, 87 restored in power (1814), 174 League of Armed Neutrality, 8 Poland, war with Napoleon (1806), 12–13 state and society in the eighteenth pays indemnity to France, 13, 28 century, 176–7 Tilsit, 13, 90 partitions of, 176 reform policies, 107–8 Polish nationalists in Paris, 177 alliance with Russia (1813), 108, 200 Polish legions, 178 campaign of 1813, 200–2 Napoleonic invasion into Poland Congress of Vienna, 110 (1807), 178–9 nationalism, 178, 180, 187 Ragusa (), 188, 195 Kingdom of (1815), 187 Rastatt, congress (1798) 5, 87–8 see also Vienna, Congress of; Warsaw, Raszyn, Austrian–Polish battle (1809), Grand Duchy of 15, 184 246 Index

Reichstag (Imperial Diet), 85–6, 87, Saint Cloud decree (1810), 32 88, 89 Saliceti, Antoine, minister of police in Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, 88 the Kingdom of Naples, 166 Reding, Alois, Swiss statesman, Santo Domingo, 10, 178 116, 117 San Ildefonso, Franco-Spanish treaties of Reitzenstein, Sigismund von, chief (1796, 1800), 125, 145 minister of Baden, 104–5, 106 Saragossa, 131–2, 142 Reubell, Jean, French Director, 114 Sardinia, 6, 152, 158, 170, 174 Rhineland, 9, 18, 44, Savoy, 3, 18, 154 First Coalition, 3–4, 87, 92 Saxony, 13, 18, 85, 107, 109 Campo Formio, 5 Schaffhausen, 112, 113, 114, 119 Lunéville, 8, 93 Scharnhorst, Gerhard von, Prussian annexed to France (1802), 93 military reformer, 107–8 reform policies, 20, 92–4 Scheldt, river, 3, 71, 81–2 legacy of Napoleon, 110–11 Schiarino–Rizzino, French–Austrian Ricciardi, Francesco, justice minister in treaty (1814), 173, 202 the Kingdom of Naples, 166 Schill, Ferdinand, anti-Napoleonic Rijksmuseum, 70 German rebel, 14, 103 (1798–9), 6, 7, 44, Schimmelpenninck, Rutger Jan, 156, 157 a Dutch statesman, 63, 66, Rome, 4, 6, 7, 18, 156 67, 68 occupied by the French (1808), 171 Schönbrunn, French–Austrian treaty annexed to France (1809), 172 (1809), 16, 185, 188 Romero, Manuel, Spanish Minister of Schwyz, 112, 113, 116, 120 Justice under Joseph, 134 seigneurial, reforms, xii, 22, 29, 208 royalists, in France, 34, 36, 40–1, 44, Belgium, 78 45, 47 German states, 22–3, 93, 94, 96, 98, Rudler, François, Commissioner in 101, 103, 105, 106, 107 Rhineland, 93 Illyrian Provinces, 191 Ruffo, Fabrizio, counter-revolutionary Kingdom of Naples, 167–8, 174 Neapolitan cardinal, 157 Spain, 134 Russia Switzerland, 113, 115, 119 Second Coalition War, 6, 7 Duchy of Warsaw, 182, 186 League of Armed Neutrality, 8 , Polish parliament, 177, 180, 181, Third Coalition, 11 185, 187 withdraws from the Continental Senate, French, 37, 38, 39 Blockade, 198 , 7, 12, 158, 166 prepares for war with France, 198 Sieyès, Emmanuel, leading conspirator see also Alexander I; Russian campaign in Brumaire, 35 Russian campaign (1812), 198–200 Simeon Joseph, chief minister in the Bavaria, 105 , 100 Illyrian Provinces, 194 , 114, 118, 120, 164 Italy, 169, 172 , Convention of, 148 the Netherlands, 70, 72 Smolensk, 199 Portugal, 147 Soluthurn, Swiss canton, 112, 114, 116, Switzerland, 121 121 Warsaw, Duchy of, 185–6 Somosierra Pass, French–Spanish defeat, Westphalia, 102 131 Index 247

Soult, Nicholas Jean, French Stevens, Corneille, Belgian priest and commander, 132, 133, 141, 142, 149 opponent of Napoleon, 83 South Tyrol (Trentino), 158 Suchet, Louis Gabriel, French annexed to the Kingdom of Italy commander, 136 (1810), 159 Suvorov Alexander, Russian commander, Spain, xv, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17 (map), 18 7, 8, 157 pre-revolutionary state and society, Sweden, 8, 11, 13, 198, 201 123–24 Switzerland, 10 enmity with revolutionary France, 3, 4, pre-Napoleonic period, 112–13 124–5 and the French Revolution, 113–14 Godoy prime minister, 124 French invasion (1798), 6, 114–15 war with Britain, 125, 126 Berne occupied (1798), 115 alliance with France, 125 the Helvetic Republic (1798–1803), 1, invasion into Portugal (1801), 8, 125 6, 8, 10, 115–17 closer relations with France, 11, 125–6 treaty with France, 116 defeat at Trafalgar, 12, 126 the Second Coalition, 6, 7, 8, 116 division in the court, 126–7 Bonaparte intervenes, 117 toppling of the Bourbons at Bayonne, Mediation Act (1803), 118–19 127–8 Swiss Confederation (1803–13) 1, 17 uprising in Madrid (1808), 128 (map), 119–21 the outbreak of the Spanish revolt, the collapse of the Napoleonic rule, 129 121 crowning Joseph as the king of Spain, the Federal Pact, 121 129–30 Napoleonic Legacy, 121–2 Peninsular War (1808–13), 128–33, see also Continental Blockade; 141–2, 197 Napoleon; Russian campaign Napoleon’s military intervention (1808), 131–2 Talavera, French–British battle in Spain Joseph’s rule, 134–6 (1809), 132–3 guerrilla resistance, 137–8, 141, 143 Talleyrand, Maurice, French foreign the Cortes of Cadiz, 138–41 minister, 35, 37, 65, 88 117, 146 the Spanish army, 140 taxes see finances Wellington in Spain, 132, 133, 141, Tilsit, French–Russian treaty (1807), 13, 142, 143 90, 179, 198 the fall of Joseph’s government , defeat of (1813), 142, 201–2 (1815), 173 Ferdinand VII restored, 142–3 Toreno Jose, liberal representative in the see also afrancesados Cortes of Cadiz, 139 St. Gallen, 112, 113, 118 Torrero Munoz, liberal representative in St. Helena, 49, 128 the Cortes of Cadiz, 139 Stadholder, ruler of the Netherlands, 60, Torres Vedras, defensive lines in 61 Portugal, 150 Staefa, Swiss village, 113 Toulon, 3, 7, 124 Staël, Germaine de, liberal opponent of Trafalgar, British–French–Spanish naval Napoleon, 40 battle (1805), 12, 30, 126 Stapfer, Philippe, Swiss statesman, 115, Trianon tariffs (1810), 32 117 Tribunate, 37, 38, 39, 40, 50 Stein, Baron Karl, Prussian reformer, 107 , 16, 188, 194, 195 248 Index

Tuscany, 7, 125, 152, 157, 158, 174 Vienna, 5, 11, 15 transformed into Kingdom of Vienna, Congress of (1815), 202 (1801), 170 Belgium, 84 annexed to France and reorganized Germany, 110 (1808), 170–1 Illyrian Provinces, 196 Tyrol, 12, 14, 16, 25, 89, 188 Italy, 174 the Netherlands, 73 Ulm, French–Austrian battle (1805), 11, Poland, 186 14, 89 Switzerland, 121 United Netherlands, Kingdom of, 73 Vimiero, French–British battle (1808), United States, 10 148 uprisings, anti-French, 25–6 Vonckists, Belgian revolutionaries, 76, the Netherlands, 73 77, 78 Belgium, 79, Germany, 103, 109 Wagram, French–Austrian battle (1809), Italian Peninsula, 7, 157, 165, 166, 171 15, 16, 133, 185 Portugal, 148 Walcheren, British expedition to the Santo Domingo, 10 Netherlands (1809), 16, 71, 82 Spain, 128–9, 137–8 Warsaw, Grand Duchy of (1807–13), xv, Switzerland, 116 13, 17 (map), 42, 198 Tyrol, 14, 16 area and population, 179–80 Uri, 112, 113, 116 government and reform policies, 20, Urquijo, Mariano Luis, Spanish minister 180–4 under Joseph, 130, 134, 135 constitution, 180, 182, 183 Utrecht, 61, 71 land grants, 29 nobility (szlachta), 180, 181, 182, , 112, 113, 118, 120, 121 186–7 Valmy, French–Prussian battle, 3, 87 French–Austrian war (1809), 15–16, , Swiss region annexed to the 180, 184–5 Kingdom of Italy, 112, 114 Russian campaign (1812), 185–6 Van der Noot, Henri, Belgian statesman, Russian occupation (1813), 186 76, 77 the Napoleonic legacy, 186–7 Vaud, 112, 113, 114, 118 Warsaw, 177, 179, 180, 183, 184, 185 Venice/, 8, 11, 15, 152, 153, 155, Waterloo, last battle of Napoleon (1815), 158, 49, 84, 186, 203 surrendered to Austria by Bonaparte Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, (1797), 5, 154 fighting in Spain, 132, 133, 141, 143, annexed to the Kingdom of Italy 201–2 (1806), 12 fighting in Portugal, 148, 149–50 restoration of Austrian rule (1815), chief commander in Spain, 142 174 victory at Vitoria (1813), 142, 202 , 4, 154, 157 crossing into France (1813), 142, 202 Verri, Pietro, Lombard enlightenment Waterloo, 203 thinker, 152, 153 Werbroeck affair, Belgium, 83 Victor Amadeus III, king of Piedmont, 4, Westphalia, Kingdom of (1807–13), 12, 154 14, 99–103 Victor-Emmanuel I, king of Piedmont, formation (1806), 90, 91 (map), 99 170, 174 constitution, 100 Index 249

Westphalia, Kingdom of (1807–13) – alliance with Napoleon, 89 continued territorial expansion, 12, 88, 104 reforms in the German “model state,” becoming kingdom, 89, 104 19, 99–101 reforms, 103–6 impediments to reforms, 101–2 deserting Napoleon (1813), 109, 201 anti-French uprising, 26, 103, 109 Wybicki, Joseph, Polish nationalist writer, collapse of Westphalia, 109, 201 178, 179 see also Bonaparte, Jerome; Church; Continental blockade Zug, Swiss canton, 112, 113, 116 William V, ruler of the Netherlands, 61, Zurich, 62, 64 Swiss canton and city, 112, 113, 114, William I, ruler of post-Napoleonic 116, 119, 121 Netherlands, 73, 74, 84 French–Austrian battles (1799), 8, Wolffradt, Gustav von, minister in 116 Westphalia, 100 Zurlo, Giuseppe, interior minister in the Württemberg, 86, 87, 91 (map) Kingdom of Naples, 166, 167