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Proceedings of the Nutrition Society Edible Insects Are the Future?

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Proceedings of the Nutrition Society Edible Insects Are the Future? Proceedings of the Nutrition Society (2016), 75, 294–305 doi:10.1017/S0029665116000069 © The Author 2016 First published online 24 February 2016 The Nutrition Society Summer Meeting 2015 held at University of Nottingham, Nottingham on 6–9 July 2015 Conference on ‘The future of animal products in the human diet: health and environmental concerns’ Boyd Orr Lecture Edible insects are the future? Arnold van Huis Entomology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1,Wageningen, 6708PB, The Netherlands The global increase in demand for meat and the limited land area available prompt the search for alternative protein sources. Also the sustainability of meat production has been questioned. Edible insects as an alternative protein source for human food and animal feed are interesting in terms of low greenhouse gas emissions, high feed conversion efficiency, low land use, and their ability to transform low value organic side streams into high value protein products. More than 2000 insect species are eaten mainly in tropical regions. The role of edible insects in the livelihoods and nutrition of people in tropical countries is dis- cussed, but this food source is threatened. In the Western world, there is an increasing inter- est in edible insects, and examples are given. Insects as feed, in particular as aquafeed, have a large potential. Edible insects have about the same protein content as conventional meat and more PUFA. They may also have some beneficial health effects. Edible insects need to be processed and turned into palatable dishes. Food safety may be affected by toxicity of insects, contamination with pathogens, spoilage during conservation and allergies. Consumer attitude is a major issue in the Western world and a number of strategies are pro- posed to encourage insect consumption. We discuss research pathways to make insects a vi- able sector in food and agriculture: an appropriate disciplinary focus, quantifying its importance, comparing its nutritional value to conventional protein sources, environmental benefits, safeguarding food safety, optimising farming, consumer acceptance and gastronomy. Insects as food and feed: Entomophagy: Consumer acceptance: Ethno-entomology: Proceedings of the Nutrition Society Nutrition: Food safety The eating of insects in tropical and subtropical countries 2007 to 2050(11), while the land area used by livestock has been extensively reviewed by Bodenheimer(1) and is already more than two-thirds of all agricultural land DeFoliart(2). Literature reviews per continent are also (68 %; FAOSTAT, consulted August 2015). The available: Africa(3), Asia(4,5), Latin America(6,7) and increased demand in this time period is mainly from Australia(8,9). Worldwide, over 2000 species of insects developing countries (113 %), less from developed coun- are consumed by human subjects(10). Representatives tries (27 %)(12). Rising incomes and urbanisation drive a from almost all insect groups are eaten: beetles (31 %), global dietary transition in which traditional diets are caterpillars (18 %), wasps, bees and ants (15 %), crickets, replaced by diets higher in, among others, meats(13). grasshoppers and locusts (13 %), true bugs (11 %), and Because of environmental(14), health(13) and animal wel- termites, dragonflies, flies and others (12 %). In the fare concerns, alternative protein sources other than con- Western world, until recently insects were never consid- ventional meat are being considered. Insects present such ered as food. However, the demand for animal protein an alternative and can be considered either as human is expected to increase globally by 76 % from 2005/ food and or as feed for livestock(15). Abbreviations: AA, amino acid; EU, European Union. Corresponding author: A. van Huis, email [email protected] Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Open University Library, on 28 Jan 2020 at 10:08:09, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665116000069 Edible insects are the future? 295 Why have insects as human food in the Western world food plants, and therefore their collection depends on been neglected for so long? There are several reasons. the season. However, in every season there are certain ed- Harvesting from nature in temperate zones will not yield ible insect species available which makes year-round har- much, because: (1) insect species in temperature zones vesting possible. Also aquatic insect species can often be are smaller than in the tropics, probably due to their re- collected throughout the year. Edible insects often com- spiratory system (diffusion of oxygen in tracheas)(16);(2) plement other protein sources which are not available their occurrence is less clumped (examples are locust during a certain period of the year. For example, people swarms and groups of caterpillars); (3) unavailability in from Madagascar supplement their protein intake with a winter time. Besides, Westerners have a negative attitude number of insect species during the lean season (period towards insects, which are often considered with dis- between exhaustion of rice reserves and rice harvest) gust(17). The latter is not justified, considering that <0·2 when food prices are high(34). Often insects provide nutri- % of the total estimated insect species in the world (be- ents which are not available in staple food. Bukkens(35) tween 2·5and3·7million(18)) are harmful for plants, gives a few examples. In the Democratic Republic of man and animals(19). The value of ecological services, Congo, caterpillars provide lysine, nutritionally comple- such as dung burial, pest control, pollination and wildlife menting lysine-poor cereals. In Papua New Guinea, nutrition, have been quantified for the USA alone and is palm weevil larvae are consumed in combination with estimated to be at least US$ 57 billion annually(20).The staples such as sago, sweet potato, yam and taro. The Western bias against insects as food(21,22) has determined amino acid (AA) composition of the palm weevil larvae for a long time the agenda of international agencies. It (lysine and leucine) complements that of the tubers which is only now that this attitude is gradually changing. are limited in those AA. At the same time, the tubers pro- This is partly due to the emphasis on sustainable diets, vide tryptophan and aromatic AA which are limited in defined as those diets with low environmental impacts palm weevil larvae. which contribute to food and nutrition security and to The harvesting and marketing of edible insects can im- healthy life for present and future generations(23). The prove livelihoods, in particular of women. Examples are: sustainability of meat consumption, in particular rumin- harvesting the Mopane caterpillar Imbrasia belina ant meat(13), has been questioned as the livestock sector is (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) in Southern Africa is an 85 responsible for more than 14 % of all greenhouse gas million US$ business, mainly carried out by (24) (36,37) emissions (CH4 and NH4) and 59 % of the global agri- women ; the marketing of the Edible stinkbug cultural ammonia emissions(25). Implementing mitigation Encosternum delegorguei (Hemiptera: Tessaratomidae) strategies in livestock production(24,26) will not be in sub-Saharan African countries mainly benefits enough; dietary changes will still be needed in order to women in impoverished rural communities(38); edible meet the 2°C temperature-increase target set by the pupae of a saturniid wild silkworm, is commercially United Nations Framework Convention on Climate reared for sericulture in Madagascar, contribute to pov- Change(27,28). To use other protein sources is another op- erty alleviation(34). tion and seaweed, duckweed, cultured meat and insects The larvae of the African palm weevil Rhynchophorus have been proposed(29). Insects are an interesting alterna- phoenicis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) are popular food tive considering the low emission of greenhouse gases(30), throughout the humid tropics. In the Congo Basin and the small land area needed to produce 1 kg protein(31), Cameroon, they are consumed by the majority of the their efficient feed conversion efficiencies(15), and their inhabitants(39). Their exploitation and trade by forest- Proceedings of the Nutritionability Society to convert organic side streams in high value pro- dependent communities is an important source of in- tein products(32). come, often more than 20 % of all economic activities First the eating of insects will be discussed in areas (agriculture, fishing, hunting, etc.). For professional col- where they are traditional food and afterwards the recent lectors an average monthly income of 180–600 US$ is developments in the Western world. The use of insects as generated, representing 30–75 % of their household feed in particular in aquaculture will be mentioned income. briefly. We will discuss how to farm insects to meet future However, future harvests may be threatened by over- demands, the nutritional value, marketing and process- exploitation, unsustainable harvesting methods, ing, food safety and consumer attitudes. Finally, we indi- increased commercialisation, land transformation and cate the way forward to make it a viable new sector in pesticide use(40,41). Although permits are required to har- food and agriculture. vest non-timber forest products such as the Mopane cat- erpillar in national parks, a study in Zimbabwe showed that the rules to enforce them are either weak or non- Insects as traditional food existent(42). Findings of this study suggest the need for adaptive local management systems that enhance sustain- It is difficult to estimate the percentage of people eating able use of the resource and at the same time regulate the insects. National statistics do not take these food items harvesting and the market structure of non-timber forest into consideration. Therefore, the information has to be products. Local populations can also be enhanced by extracted from articles which often have an ethno- semi-domestication measures, for example for caterpil- biological focus (see, for examples, chapter 2 of Van lars(43): manipulating host tree distribution and abun- Huis, Itterbeeck(33)).
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