Developing a Post-Apostolic Identity: Examining the Influence of Education within the Ancient Church and its role in the development of a Ductu in Primitiva Ecclesia.

By

Ross William Tucker

B.A., B.Th., M.A., Th.M., D.Min.

Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

School of Education

Faculty of Education and Arts

University of Newcastle

August 2016

1

DECLARATION

This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. I give consent to this copy of my thesis, when deposited in the University Library**, being made available for loan and photocopying subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968.

**Unless an Embargo has been approved for a determined period.

Signed:______Date:______

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly I’d like to acknowledge my supervisor, Professor Ron Laura, who not only gave me this opportunity to research a topic that I am passionate about, but also has provided support and encouragement along the way. Thank you for the intellectually inspiring thesis supervision along the way. To my wife Sue, for her patience and understanding over many years as this thesis germinated and hatched, and to my parents, Aubrey (dec.) and Elaine Tucker for their support and encourage over a lifetime.

2

TABLE of CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION ...... p.1

2. EPISCOPOS in EXTRA-BIBLICAL AND BIBLICAL LITERATURE ...... p.13

A. The etymology of Episcopos

B. Episcopos in Greek Literature

C. Episcopos in Jewish Literature

1. Extra-biblical Use

2. Septuagintal Use

D Episcopos in the New Testament

1. Episkeptomai

2. Episkopeo

3. Episkope

4. Episcopos

5. Related Terms –diakonos, oikonomos, presbuteros, poimen, angelos

leadership at Qumran – maskil, mebaqqer.

3. THE IN THE ERA OF THE ...... p. 44

A. Clement of Rome

1. Background and Purpose of I Clement

2. Clement’s Use of Isaiah 60:17

3. Clement’s View of the “Bishop” and “”

4. Clement’s View of “Presbyter”

5. Clements view of Succession

6. Clement’s Congregational Government

7. Clement’s Position at Rome

B. The 3

1. Background and Importance

2. Church order of the Didache

3. Use of Episcopos in the Didache

C. Ignatius of

1. Background and Importance

3. Ignatius’ Bishop is not Monarchical

4. Silence concerning the Roman Bishop

5. Bishop Closely Associated with the Presbyters

6. Ignatius’ Problem at Antioch

7. Ignatius’ Existential Situation in Asia Minor

8. Absence of the Doctrine of Apostolic Succession 9. Ignatius’ Bishop is Monepiscopal (p.151)

a. Bishop is always Singular

b. “Submit to the Bishop”

c. “Do Nothing without the Bishop”

d. “Reverence the Bishop’s Silence”

e. “No Church without the Bishop”

3. THE BISHOP IN THE ERA OF THE APOLOGETIC PERIOD ...... p.171

A. Introduction

B Hippolytus

1. Background and Significance

2. Hippolytus’ Bishop is Monepiscopal

3. Hippolytus’ Bishop is not Monarchical

a. No Attempt to Argue Authoritarian Position

b. Bishop Closely Associated with the Presbyter

c. Strong Congregationalism Portrayed

d. No Doctrine of Apostolic Succession

C . The Didascalia Apostolorum 4

1 Threefold Ministry

2. Episcopacy is not Monarchical

D. Cyprian

1. Background and Significance

2. The Bishop and His Clergy

a. Clergy Commissioned to Assist the Bishop

b. Bishop Regards Himself as One of His Presbyters

c. Bishop Exercises Episcopal Authority

3. The Bishop and His Church

a. The Bishop’s Identification with His Church

b. The Bishop as Servant of His Church

4. The Bishop and His Colleagues

4. THE SHIFT IN EPISTEMOLOGY: A RUBRIC OF POWER ...... p.221

A. The Place of Pedagogy in the Development of Early Leadership

B. The Challenges from False Teachers

C. Hermeneutics, Exegesis and the Scourge of Allegory

D. Pedagogy and the Sacrament

E. The Development of a New Testament Priesthood?

F. The Rubric of Power Bears Fruit: Medieval “Transformative Subjugation”

G. A Model of Biblical Leadership:

5. CONCLUSION ...... p.264

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... p.267

5

ABSTRACT

The aim of this thesis is to provide a deeper perception and understanding of the place of

education and teaching that was at work in the early church and its role in the development of the leadership in the early church. This involves an examination of the epistemological

changes that occurred from New Testament times through the first three centuries of the

Church, and an examination of how the ancient Church applied that understanding through

it various pedagogical methodologies to effect and incorporate a real change in the

ontological nature of the Church, resulting in an ‘organisation’ and leadership that in many

ways modelled the Roman state and redefined the Church’s heritage. The title of my thesis

is:

Developing a Post-Apostolic: Examining the Influence of Education within the Ancient

Church and its role in the development of a Ductu in Primitiva Ecclesia.

This thesis is an adaptation of work I commenced for a PhD in history at La Trobe

University, Melbourne, which was discontinued for personal reasons. My intent with this

thesis is to make a critical examination of the development of the leadership of the Christian

Church through the ages of both the Apostolic and Apologetic Fathers in the first three

centuries of the of the Christian Church, and to understand the way the Church’s

epistemology changed and how that change shaped and influenced the development of the

leadership of the early Church. More specifically, I will examine the epistemological changes and their pedagogical application, which served to underpin the development of the Church along a particular theological pathway. It also supported the development of the episcopal

leadership who developed their role into a priesthood, which further impacted on the

epistemological nature of the church.

6

Lastly, I will briefly examine the model of ministry presented in the New Testament as a

comparison with the “New Hermeneutic.”

Introduction

The aim of this thesis is to provide a deeper perception and understanding of the place of

education and teaching within the church and its development of the leadership of the early

church. This involves an examination of the epistemological changes that occurred from New

Testament times through the first three centuries of the Church, and an examination of how

the ancient Church applied that understanding through it various applications of pedagogy to effect and incorporate a real change in the ontological nature of the Church, resulting in an

‘organisation’ and leadership that in many ways modelled the Roman state and redefined the

Church’s heritage. The title of my thesis is:

Developing a Post-Apostolic: Examining the Influence of Education within the Ancient

Church and its role in the development of a Ductu in Primitiva Ecclesia.

In the period immediately after the demise of the Apostles, Christ had not yet returned, the challenges of Jewish opposition and Roman persecution coupled with the introduction of strange new teachings that challenged the church as it expanded into new Gentile territory all added to the challenge for survival. What was it to become? What was it’s leadership to look like and how were they to meet the challenges of a hostile world? This is the quest I am setting out to explore and to examine how education/teaching influenced that development.

This thesis is an adaptation of work I commenced for a PhD in history at La Trobe

University, Melbourne, which was discontinued for personal reasons. My intent with this thesis is to make a critical examination of the development of the leadership of the Christian

Church through the ages of both the Apostolic and Apologetic Fathers in the first three

7

centuries of the of the Christian Church; to understand the way the Church’s epistemology

changed and how that change shaped and influenced the development of the leadership of the

early Church. Specifically, in examining the epistemological changes, I will show how its

application, especially the pedagogical application served to underpin the development of the

Church and its episcopal leadership.

My approach in attempting to achieve this is firstly to make a detailed examination of the

development and use of the language of antiquity, both biblical and non-biblical sources that

may assist in the understanding of the context and meanings of such word as episcopos and

presbuteros, diakinos and their various cognates. I will then attempt to examine the usage of

these terms through the periods of the apostolic and apologetic fathers of the church to gain

an understanding of the ways the terminology was employed within the various contexts. The

contextual investigation is very important in understanding the reasons and motivations

behind the epistemological changes that led to the development of a “new leadership;” a development into a hegemony with a significance power imbalance over the “common” worshippers and later, over kingdoms and empires of Europe.

The key individuals who lived in the period of the early church whose teachings and writings revealed certain beliefs about church leadership and governance, included; Clement of

Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, Hippolytus of Rome, and Cyprian of Carthage. I will examine

their teaching in some detail.

Clement was the leader or bishop of the church in Rome, who is believed to have had close

associations with the Apostle Peter.1 He is believed to have held office between 92 to 99AD.

Clement is known for his to the church in Corinth (c. 96), in which he asserts the

apostolic authority of the = presbyters as rulers of the church. The epistle mentions

episkopoi (overseers, bishops) or presbyteroi (elders, presbyters) as the ‘upper class of

1 Newman, A. H., A Manual of Church History, Philadelphia, The American Baptist Publication Society, 1899 (1954 reprint), 215f

8

minister,’ served by the , but, since it does not mention himself; it gives no indication

of the title or titles used for Clement in Rome.2

Ignatius of Antioch was the leader or bishop of the church in Antioch from 90 to 117 AD. He

is known almost exclusively from seven letters he wrote to various ancient churches, whilst

on his way to Rome to face martyrdom. He makes some strong statements about the office of

bishop in his letters to the church at Smyrna and Philadelphia.3

Hippolytus of Rome was an elder or presbyter in the Church at Rome, dying there about 236

AD. His most influential work, which outlined the state of worship and church order in his

day, was the .4

I have also consulted historic, influential documents that were widely used within the ancient

church, such as the Didache and Didascalia Apostolorum, which are both important

documents of the early church because of their focus on church organisation, structure,

leadership and order. The Didache was a Greek handbook of instruction in morals and church

order, possibly written in the late first century although the date of authorship is still

questioned. The full title of the work is “The Teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles through the

Twelve Apostles.” Of special interest to this study is the section comprising of chapters 11-

15, which largely focus on ministry in the church, especially the office of bishop, presbyter

and deacon. The other document referred to is the Didascalia Apostolorum, which is a book

of church order. It presents itself as being written by the Twelve Apostles at the time of the

Council of Jerusalem; however, scholars agree that it was actually a composition of the 3rd

century, perhaps around AD 230. It also deals with the offices of bishop, presbyter and

deacon.

2 Douglas, J. D. (Ed.), The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan), 1978, p.235. 3 Op.cit. p. 498 Stevens, J. (Ed.), A New Eusebius, (London: SPCK), 1983, p. 46f. 4 Douglas, J. D. (Ed.), p. 472. 9

I also make numerous references to the , which I will repeatedly use as a benchmark and absolute standard for all of the claims made regarding governance, order and structure within the New Testament Church. This premise is that the Holy Scripture, consisting of sixty six books, which now are contained within the Old and New Testaments, is the infallible Word of God given to mankind by God to reveal His glory, and is sufficient in revealing all that is required for man’s salvation, and sets forth the direction and path men and women should follow in order to live lives obedient to the Divine Will of God. In this regard it is also the final and ultimate authority in setting forth the pattern of leadership of the church for all time; the qualifications of the leadership and general principles under which the leadership should function. I will give some evidence to support this claim.

One reason that the Bible is different from other books is its internal unity. Although the book was composed by men, its unity reveals the hand of God. The Bible was written over

1500 years by more than 40 different human authors, who came from a variety of backgrounds. Within the Bible there is complete harmony, which cannot be explained by coincidence or collusion. The unity of the Bible is a strong argument in favour of Divine inspiration. When one considers the writings of the New Testament there are three different types of evidence that testify to the authenticity of the books within it, and thus to the New

Testament as a whole. There are Greek manuscripts, the various versions in which the New

Testament is translated, and the writings of the Church Fathers. F. F. Bruce makes the following observation: “The evidence for our New Testament writings is ever so much greater than the evidence for many writings of classical authors, the authenticity of which no one dreams of questioning.”5 claimed that the Old Testament was divinely inspired, the very Word of God. He said, “The Scriptures cannot be broken” (John 10:35). He indicated that it was indestructible: “Until heaven and earth pass away, not the smallest letter or stroke shall pass away from the law, until all is accomplished” (Matthew 5:18). He referred to

5 Bruce, F. F., The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans), 1977, Quoted in Josh McDowell and Don Stewart, Answers to Tough Questions Sceptics Ask about the Christian Faith, (San Bernadino: Here’s Life Publishers), 1980, p. 5. 10

Scripture as “the command of God” (Matthew 15:3). He said, “Have you not read what David

did?” (Matthew 12:3). In short, Jesus quoted from the Old Testament Scriptures and trusted it

without question.6

For this reason, the word study that I have made, relies on the authority and sufficiency of the

Scripture, but also gives a contextual understanding so that a detailed study of the language of

the Old and New Testament can be made to determine the specific meanings of words that

relate to this study viz. episcopos, presbuteros, diakinos, and ecclesia just to mention a few.

The contextual understanding of these terms will be measured through a comparative analysis

of the usage of these same terms in non-biblical settings. This will be achieved through a

study of many texts written around the same period as the New Testament along with a

detailed examination of numerous scholars in this field. This should help to clarify the

technical meaning of these terms and highlight any difference between the biblical and non-

biblical usage. Often, the nuanced meanings of words used in non-biblical writings can

become a technical meaning in the biblical writings. In ancient Greece for example, ekklesia

means an assembly of citizens of a Greek state such as Athens summoned by the town crier,

the Legislative Assembly.7 From this the Church, as an ekklēsía (ek, "out from and to" and kaléō, "to call") – properly, people called out from the world to God, the outcome being the

Church (the mystical body of Christ). A very specific meaning in Christian terms.

Secondly, we need to have a clear understanding of the terms so we can see where the church has altered and redefined them; where the leadership of the ancient church began to vary its direction into one of transformative subjugation, leading to a significant power differential between the leaders and their worshippers. It is a direction focussed on conformity to the teaching of the ruling hegemonic priesthood, who divided and supressed the people into conformity through fear and a controlled pedagogy i.e the people were taught what the

6 McDowell, J. and Stewart, D., Reasons Skeptics Should Consider , (San Bernadino: Here’s Life Publishers), 1981, p. 5. 7 Liddell and Scott, Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged), (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 1871, p. 206. 11

leadership wanted to teach them and were forbidden to seek spiritual truth from any other

source than their . Through this process of restricted knowledge the clergy exercised

control and domination over the ordinary lay person; thus, those who had the knowledge, had

power. For this reason it is important to understand the variations in the meanings and use of

the ancient terms pertaining to leadership.

The historical development of leadership within the early Church will be measured against the New Testament pattern of the Church where the epistemic primate undergirding the model of leadership is one of loving fellowship and servanthood, which is itself modelled on the ministry of Jesus Christ. The ultimate goal of such leadership is the building up of God’s people, both in their knowledge of the Scriptures as a revelation of God’s Will and secondly, to develop their ability to express Christian love in practical ways amongst fellow believers

as well as other people. This leadership is to be exercised, not in a manner ‘ like the Gentiles

who lord it over the people’, but like a shepherd who pastors the flock of God; it is modelled

on Jesus, the Good Shepherd8, who understood the real needs of the people and exercised

genuine care for them without any extraneous agendas. His leadership is true, sacrificial love

in action.

Jesus said, “I am the Good Shepherd; the Good Shepherd lays down His life for the sheep.

(John 10:11; cf Heb 13:20, 1 Peter 5:4). Jesus indicates here his Priestly role as the One who

sacrificially gives his life on the ‘altar’ of the cross for the redemption of his people; sheep

who have strayed from God. This is the model of leadership per excellence, the outpouring of

genuine love. This is contrasted with those leaders who do not exercise the same level of care

and concern for ‘the flock.’ Their self-interest is reflected at times of great pressure and conflict when they will desert ‘the flock’ for their own personal preservation.9

8 John 10:11 9 Morris, Leon, The New International Commentary on the New Testament- The According to John, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans), 1971, .509. 12

My focus in this study on leadership within the ancient church, examines the changes and

developments that occurred, not simply as a technical, academic or esoteric examination, but as a means of looking at the “why” and “how” such changes and developments occurred; what consequence resulted in these changes and what the contemporary church has to learn.

My thesis will demonstrate, through an examination of the writings of the early church leaders, and through an examination of the patterns of change that occurred in both the leadership and church life in general, which is directly attributed to the pedagogical processes being used, such as liturgy, creeds, letters to other clergy and congregations emphasising doctrinal and ecclesiastical positions, teaching within the local church and catechesis in order

to communicate the new epistemology to the masses.

Looking at the processes of teaching, David Rozema, presents a disturbing view in “The

Polemics of Education.”10 He perceives a challenge coming between what he calls the

education of commodity as opposed to the education of community. He maintains that this

commodification of education is destructive. One of the issues arising from Rozema’s point

of view is that when education is commodified, prescriptivism follows. Issues of power and

control are part of the education of commodity, whereas, it could be argued that the education

of community is much more in the direction of my proposed inclusivist model. Education as

community seeks to place an emphasis on the individual and allows that same individual

choice and space to function. This proposition closely resembles the comparisons of

pedagogical styles reflected in the early church with its excessive prescriptivism and gives a

helpful model of understanding the outcomes as Rozema outlines them.

Laura and Cotton state that, “Put simply, power for the sake of dominance and control

disrupts the natural pattern of human interaction that would otherwise be defined in terms of

empathy, care and love.”11 In order to achieve their goals of unity within the Church, purity

in doctrine and survival in a hostile world, the leadership gradually lost sight of the

10 Rozema, David, “Polemics of Education,” Journal of Philosophy of Education Vol. 35, 2, p. 238. 11 Laura, R. S. and Cotton, M., Empathetic Education, (Philadelphia: Falmer Press, 1999) 13

commission of Christ to His Church (Matt. 28:18) and adopted a more secular and pragmatic

approach, which in centuries later, continued to develop along similar patterns until we see

the leadership challenging and engaging in military combat with Kings, Emperors and other

leaders of State. Hardly the model of leadership Jesus taught and practised.

Following on from my detailed examination of the biblical and non-biblical terminology, I

attempt to look more closely at the ‘church Fathers,’ whom I have already referred to, who lived in the first three centuries and whose testimony on many aspects of early church life has been long held as highly valuable. I will look closely at the changes occurring within the leadership as the church strives for survival and recognition in the ancient world.

Michael Holmes reflects on this changing nature of the early church when he states;

Throughout the postapostolic period, then, we find the emerging Christian movement struggling to define itself vis-à-vis its Jewish roots and increasingly, vis-à-vis the Greco-Roman culture and society into which is was expanding. Moreover, a central aspect of this struggle involved the tension between continuity and change: how to maintain and propagate the tradition received from Jesus and his followers in the midst of rapidly changing circumstances and in the face of new and often unanticipated challenges.12

The Scriptures indicate in numerous locations that local elders are to be appointed to the local church. I will show that these elders (or bishops) are the God appointed leaders of the church, and that there is no difference between titles of “elder” or “bishop.” For example, Titus 1:5

Paul writes to Titus stating, “For this reason I left you in Crete, that you would set in order

what remains and appoint elders in every city as I directed you.” In setting out what appears

to be the qualifications of these elders, Paul refers to these leaders as “overseer” or “bishops.”

Paul writes, “For the overseer must be above reproach as God’s steward, not self-willed, not

quick tempered . . .” (Titus 1:7). Thus, it appears that the elders and the overseers (or bishops)

were the same persons, who existed in plurality in each local congregation and jointly ruled

12 Holmes, Michael W., (Ed.) The Apostolic Fathers – Greek Text and English Translations, (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House), 1992, p. 12. 14

over that congregation13. This appears to be the pattern of the New Testament (Acts 14:23,

20:17, 28; Philippians 1:1; Titus 1:5).

Within the first part of the second century numerous writings began to appear by various

Church Fathers such as Clement of Rome who recorded a varied or reinterpreted biblical

pattern. In his letter known as 1 Clement sent to the church in Corinth probably about 96AD,

Clement addresses an issue in the leadership in that Church. In his letters, the earliest

documents issuing from the Roman Church after the apostolic times – no mention is made of

episcopacy properly so-called. Only two orders are enumerated, and these are styled bishops

and deacons respectively, where the term ‘bishop ‘is referred to in the plural and appears to

be synonym for ‘presbyter’.14

In the early church, and certainly by the third century, the office of bishop emerged as a single individual who had final authority over two main aspects of local Church life: doctrine

and discipline. As the primary teaching office of the Church, the bishop would normally be in

charge of the life and worship of a congregation, and over the school of catechesis, even

when there were “lay” teachers, such as Origen15, the bishop had authority over what was

being taught. In the third century, Hippolytus may have had his own Greek speaking school

in Rome, even though the Church depended on the authority of a single bishop. In other

words unity of doctrine and discipline was seen to require episcopal monarchy16.

Cyprian of Carthage (Bishop 249-58 AD) followed Ignatius on the two important and interdependent points claimed that; first, there should only be one bishop in each city, because multiple bishops would threaten unity. In fact more than one bishop would mean more than one church. As soon as two bishops disagree on matters of theology or church

13 As opposed to the later development of a singular ‘bishop’ to rule over the congregation and over the other elders. 14 Lightfoot, J.B., The Apostolic Fathers, Vol. 1, (Reprinted by Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1981,(from the McMillan Edition, 1889-90) 69. 15 Bromiley, Geoffrey W., Historical Theology An Introduction, Eerdmans, Edinburgh 1978, 42. 16 Coppieters, Honoré. "Apostles." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 15

discipline, members of the church would be forced to decide who they would follow, which

would result in division and schism. Thus as Ignatius had said, nothing could be considered

valid that was done without the authority and approval of the elected bishop of the city.17

The other point which Cyprian agreed with Ignatius was that there could be no salvation outside the Church18. These issues were related because the Church was defined in terms of sacraments, and the sacraments were under the authority of the bishop. Sacramental theology was the one large area of change in the epistemology of the Ancient Church. So in any city, to be considered to be part of the church or to be “in the Church” meant to be in fellowship with the bishop. By the third century, the bishops also controlled the ordination of and the election of their fellow bishops. Whereas, presbyters were originally chosen from amongst the local laity, but when the bishop became the authority, it was they who had the authority to decide who would be ordained just as they also chose the new bishops from amongst the “priests”. Controlling ordination was the first line of defence in controlling the sacraments and the teaching of the Church. By the third century, there was a growing consensus that all churches should agree with Rome, at least on matters of doctrine. Church

Fathers such as Cyprian did not want to agree with the bishop of Rome in matters that related to the sacrament, although he did agree with the newly introduced concept of “apostolic succession,” but only agreed with it as it applied to the teaching office i.e. doctrine, but not matters of discipline19. Eventually, the First Ecumenical Council of the Church, held in

Nicaea in 325 AD would declare Rome to be the primary metropolitan authority of the

Church. Thus, the developing hierarchy, combined with the urgent concern for unity, led to

the singular authority of the episcopacy, with the assumption that the authority of the bishop

is the authority of the Church. Thus the early Church developed in a particular way, with a

particular understanding of Scripture and theology. Its concern for unity and control became

17 Papandrea, James Leonard, Reading the Early Church Fathers: From the Didache to Nicaea, Paulist Press: Costa Mesa, CA USA.2012 18 Ibid.

19 ibid 16

an all-consuming drive that developed on into the Middle Ages and beyond. The control and authority base that was established became very powerful developing into an oligarchy with

an enormous epistemological power base that was rested on fear, threats, superstition and a

“controlled ignorance” on the part of the worshipper. The content, method, intent and

outcomes of the Church’s teaching were firmly controlled and often extreme punishment

inflicted to those who dared to oppose or reject it.

The early Church interpreted Matthew 28:18-20 as a direct command from the Lord Jesus to teach His Gospel truths, yet this “truth” was interpreted within the cultural and ecclesiastical

milieu of the age20:

"All power in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go, therefore, and make disciples of

all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit,

teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you. And behold, I am with you always,

until the end of the age." (Mt 28:18-20)

The second and third century bishops interpreted it as a direct imprimatur from the Lord to

apply their interpretation and thus their teaching – content, method, intent and outcomes as

they saw fit. As one Catholic Church source declared: “It is clear that Christ intended that the

Bishops (the Apostles and their successors) to have the authority and duty to teach the

faithful. This teaching authority is called the Magisterium. The essential point is that there is

absolute Truth, which has been revealed to the Apostles, and which they must teach to the

faithful. Therefore, all the bishops, and each bishop, when they are in communion with Rome

have the power and duty to teach the Truths of the faith to the flock.”21

20 William J. Conan, A Catechism For Adults, , ACTA Publications, Chicago, Illinois, 1959. Louis Lapavoire Morrow, My Catholic Faith, , My Mission House, Kenosha, Wisconsin, 1949

21 www.catholic-pages.com/church/authority.asp The Catholic Church: Magisterium- The Teaching Authority of the Church.

17

The model that has been adopted by the early Church and which has been further developed

into Roman Catholic Dogma was challenged at the sixteenth century reformation to return to

what was seen as the New Testament model, which carried with it a non-sacerdotal model of

worship, a different model of leadership, and a different teaching model. The emphasis on

teaching Scripture was strongly emphasised at the sixteenth century Reformation in an

attempt to correct the strong sacerdotal teaching that had emerged. This emphasis on teaching

Scripture was focussed at empathetic connectivity; a loving, sharing fellowship where

everyone was equal and the intent of the leaders was to build up believers in love rather than

intimidate them with fear and threats and rule over them. The Reformers held that whilst

sacrament is still an important issue in the Church, the new hermeneutic of the ancient church

that was developed and adopted changed the emphasis of the sacrament, the leadership, and

the Church itself, as well as the understanding of the Scriptures, especially the Gospel.

Scripture was interpreted through the sacerdotal hermeneutic.

Chapter Summary:

The epistemological and pedagogical shift over the years and centuries of the early Church

(and on into the Middle Aages) is clearly demonstrated in the changes in teaching in

numerous areas, especially sacramental, the formalising of the Church’s teaching communicated through liturgy, the development of a hierarchical leadership structure and the doctrinal changes that were introduced to support the change in leadership structure.

The epistemological changes developed in the understanding of the title and role of

“bishop,” and the concurrent introduction of a sacerdotal theology that was controlled by the

“bishop” and gave an absolute control of the church to the “bishop” is clearly seen as a

significant variation when compared with the epistemology of the New Testament documents. This epistemological change was applied to the church primarily through the teaching of the church eg. liturgy and catechesis, which were also controlled by the “bishop.”

This gave the “Bishop” greater control, power and authority over the local church, which 18 allowed them to develop the church in thr direction they desired. The need for unity was met by developing the Church into a formal structure governed by rules and regulation that often involved reinterpreting passages of Scripture to justify the position adopted.

In the next chapter we will examine the definitions and contexts of several terms that are directly related to leadership in the both biblical and extra-biblical material.

19