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Political Parties and Democracy in Theoretical and Practical Perspectives POLITICAL PARTIES AND DEMOCRACY IN THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVES DEVELOPMENTS IN PARTY COMMUNICATIONS PIPPA NORRIS NATIONAL DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS POLITICAL PARTIES AND DEMOCRACY IN THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVES DEVELOPMENTS IN PARTY COMMUNICATIONS PIPPA NORRIS NATIONAL DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS The National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (NDI) is a nonprofit organization working to strengthen and expand democracy worldwide. Calling on a global network of volunteer experts, NDI provides practical assistance to civic and political leaders advancing democratic values, practices, and institutions. NDI works with democrats in every region of the world to build political and civic organizations, safeguard elections, and promote citizen participation, openness, and accountability in government. Copyright © National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (NDI) 2005. All rights reserved. Portions of this work may be reproduced and/or translated for noncommercial purposes provided NDI is acknowledged as the source of the material and is sent copies of any translation. Printed in the United States of America. 2030 M Street, NW Fifth Floor Washington, DC 20036 Telephone: 202-728-5500 Fax: 202-728-5520 Website: www.ndi.org This publication was made possible through the support provided by the Office of Democracy and Governance, Bureau for Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance, U.S. Agency for International Development, under the terms of Award No. DGC-A-00-01-00004-00. The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Agency for International Development or the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (NDI). TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE . .1 ABOUT THE AUTHOR . .2 DEVELOPMENTS IN PARTY COMMUNICATIONS . .3 THE ROLE AND FUNCTION OF PARTIES . .3 CHANNELS OF PARTY COMMUNICATION . .4 The Context of Communication . .4 Types of Communication Channels . .4 Public Feedback . .6 The Main Types of Party-Communication Channels . .6 PEOPLE-INTENSIVE CAMPAIGNS . .9 BROADCASTING CAMPAIGNS . .10 INTERNET CAMPAIGNS . .12 THE IMPACT OF THESE COMMUNICATION CHANNELS . .14 COMMUNICATION POLICY . .16 Media Systems . .16 The Map of Media Systems . .17 Ownership and Structure of the Mass Media . .17 Party Campaign Organizations and Funding . .18 The Regulatory Framework . .20 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . .20 APPENDIX: MEASURES OF MEDIA FREEDOM, MEDIA ACCESS, AND THE COMMUNICATION INDEX . .22 POLITICAL PARTIES AND DEMOCRACY IN THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVES Adopting Party Law Dr. Kenneth Janda, Northwestern University Political Finance Policy, Parties, and Democratic Development Dr. Michael Johnston, Colgate University Developments in Party Communications Dr. Pippa Norris, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University Implementing Intra-Party Democracy Dr. Susan Scarrow, University of Houston Project Manager: Victoria Canavor Project Support: Hannah Arnold Consultant: Dr. Denise Baer Editor: Dr. John Gould Design and Layout: Stephanie Levy NDI would like to thank those who kindly served as informal advisors to the Political Parties and Democracy in Theoretical and Practical Perspectives series: Dr. Russell Dalton, Director of the Center for the Study of Democracy at the University of California, Irvine; Dr. David Farrell, Jean Monnet Chair in European Politics at the University of Manchester; Dr. Michael Gallagher, Associate Professor of Political Science at Trinity College, Dublin; Dr. Kay Lawson, Professor Emerita at San Francisco State University; and Dr. Paul Webb, Professor of Politics at the University of Sussex, Brighton. Additional contributions to the series were made by Scott Bates, Center for National Policy; John Bruton, Fine Gael, Ireland; Dr. Dieter Dettke, Friedrich Ebert Foundation; Matyas Eörsi MP, Alliance of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), Hungary; Thomas Melia, Freedom House; Annemie Neyts MEP, Flemish Liberal Party (VLD), Belgium; Dr. Norbert Wagner, Konrad Adenauer Foundation; and Tony Worthington, Labour Party, United Kingdom. For more information on NDI’s political party programs or to obtain electronic copies of the Political Parties and Democracy in Theoretical and Practical Perspectives series, please visit http://www.ndi.org/globalp/polparties/polparties.asp. PREFACE A democracy needs strong and sustainable political parties flag potential pitfalls and bumps along the way, and illustrate with the capacity to represent citizens and provide policy the practical considerations of which parties may need to be choices that demonstrate their ability to govern for the public aware. The papers also encourage greater exploration of the good. With an increasing disconnect between citizens and many excellent resources, articles, and books cited by the their elected leaders, a decline in political activism, and a authors. growing sophistication of anti-democratic forces, democratic It is hoped that the Political Parties and Democracy in political parties are continually challenged. Theoretical and Practical Perspectives series will help readers For more than 20 years, the National Democratic gain a better understanding of each topic and, in particular, Institute (NDI) has worked with political parties around the complexities of the issues addressed. This paper, the world to create more open political environments in “Developments in Party Communications,” focuses on the which citizens can actively participate in the democratic communication channels parties can use to strengthen their process. As a political party institute, NDI approaches its linkages with citizens, and relates these developments to the work from a practical viewpoint, offering assistance to communication policies governments can adopt to improve promote parties’ long-term organizational development, free and fair party competition. enhance their competitiveness in local and national elections, The series is an experiment in blending theoretical and help them participate constructively in government. This knowledge, empirical research, and practical experience. support takes many forms, from interactive training and NDI invited four eminent scholars to write the papers and guided practice to consultations and tailored resources that engaged a range of people—including party leaders, help parties become more open and representative democracy practitioners, NDI staff members, and other organizations. noted academics—in every stage of the process, from In 2004, NDI began producing a series of research developing the initial terms of reference to reviewing outlines papers that examine four topics central to the role and and drafts. NDI is indebted to a large number of people function of political parties. Two of the papers, “Adopting who helped bring this series to fruition, particularly the Party Law” and “Political Finance Policy, Parties, and authors who took part in a cumbersome, collaborative Democratic Development,” discuss regulatory mechanisms process and graciously accepted feedback and guidance, and that directly impact parties, while the other two, the project’s consultant, Dr. Denise Baer. Special appreciation “Implementing Intra-Party Democracy” and “Developments is due to NDI Senior Program Officer Victoria Canavor, in Party Communications,” relate to parties’ internal who managed the project from its inception. governance and organization. Together, these papers aim to NDI gratefully acknowledges the support of the U.S. provide comparative information on elements of party Agency for International Development (USAID), which politics and to shed light on different methods and their provided funding for this project. associated causes and effects. They also examine some of the implications of a political party’s action or strategy in Kenneth Wollack Ivan Doherty each area. President Senior Associate, Director of Political These papers do not offer theories on party organization Party Programs or instant solutions for addressing the issues explored. Rather, they consider obstacles to, and possible approaches for, creating more effective and inclusive political parties. They Developments in Party Communications 1 ABOUT THE AUTHOR Pippa Norris is the McGuire Lecturer in Comparative Politics at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. She has published almost three dozen books, including Radical Right: Parties and Electoral Competition (2005), Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide (2004), and Electoral Engineering: Voting Rules and Political Behavior (2004). Dr. Norris has acted as an expert consultant for many international bodies, including the United Nations, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, the Council of Europe, the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA), the National Endowment for Democracy, and the United Kingdom Electoral Commission. She has also served on the executive boards of the American Political Science Association and the International Political Science Association. Dr. Norris holds a master’s degree and Ph.D. in politics from the London School of Economics. 2 Political Parties and Democracy in Theoretical and Practical Perspectives DEVELOPMENTS IN PARTY COMMUNICATIONS Since the outset of the global “third wave” of communications are rightly considered important tools of democratization in the early 1970s, political development democratic development. To the extent that parties
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