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Lead and Zinc Intoxication in Companion Birds

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Lead and Zinc Intoxication in Companion Birds 3 CE CE Article CREDITS Lead and Zinc Intoxication in Companion Birds ❯❯ Birgit Puschner, Abstract: Although the toxicity of lead and zinc to birds is widely recognized by veterinarians and bird DVM, PhD, DABVT owners, these metals are frequently found in the environments of pet and aviary birds, and intoxica- tions are common. Clinical signs exhibited by intoxicated birds are often nonspecific, which makes ❯❯ Robert H. Poppenga, early diagnosis difficult. Fortunately, lead and zinc analyses of whole blood and serum or plasma, DVM, PhD, DABVT University of California, Davis respectively, are readily available and inexpensive; elevated concentrations can confirm intoxication. Once diagnosed, intoxication can be effectively treated by (1) preventing further exposure, (2) admin- istering chelating drugs, and (3) providing symptomatic and supportive care. etal intoxication is routinely submitted to the toxicology laboratory of diagnosed in companion birds, the California Animal Health and Food Malthough the diagnosis can pres- Safety Laboratory System involved acci- ent a major challenge to the avian prac- dental exposure to atypical lead sources. titioner. Companion birds are intelligent, In one case, an aviary in a large zoo inquisitive, playful animals with a ten- was contaminated with lead from weld- dency to explore objects with their beak ing activities outside the exhibit, causing and tongue. They are especially fond of intoxication in a group of black parrots.a At a Glance metallic objects, resulting in an increased Over the past 10 to 20 years, an L e a d risk for metal intoxication. Lead and upsurge in zinc poisoning, especially in Page E1 zinc are the metals that most commonly psittacines, has been attributed to the result in clinical disease that requires a more common use of galvanized metal Z i n c Page E6 specific diagnostic workup and intensive for cages and aviaries. This has led to treatment. zinc intoxication being called new wire Comparison of CaNa2EDTA Recognition of the toxicity of lead to disease.2,3 The increased number of doc- and Succimer for the pet and aviary birds and its subsequent umented zinc intoxications may also Treatment of Lead and elimination from their environment has reflect pet bird owners’ and veterinarians’ Zinc Intoxications likely decreased the incidence of expo- increased awareness of the risks associ- Page E7 sure to this metal, although intoxications ated with exposure to galvanized metal. Prevention of Lead and still occur regularly. However, little infor- Unfortunately, there is a relative paucity of Zinc Intoxication in mation is available to judge the actual information in the veterinary and human Companion Birds incidence of lead intoxication in pet and medical literature regarding the treatment Page E10 aviary birds. In one retrospective study of zinc toxicosis. over a 5-year period (1987 to 1992) in Boston, 85 cases of lead intoxication were Lead diagnosed in small companion animals.1 Potential Sources of Exposure Dogs were the most frequently affected Lead is used in an impressive array of species (n = 53), followed by birds (n = products, from industrial items (e.g., tank 20; species were not given). The authors linings, radiation shielding) to common noted a steady decline of cases across consumer products such as paint pigments, species, including birds, over the period inks, ammunition, solder, linoleum, wine of the study. In contrast, a search of our bottle foil, lubricants, bearings, ceramics, diagnostic laboratory database did not plastics, electronic devices, fishing gear, show a decline in lead intoxication in psit- jewelry, and small toys.4,5 Wrappers used tacines between 1995 and 2005. During for imported candy have been found to this period, an average of 13 cases were aPersonal communication, Dr. Jacqueline Jencek, diagnosed per year. Recently, several cases San Francisco Zoo, 2006. CompendiumVet.com | January 2009 | Compendium: Continuing Education for Veterinarians® E1 FREE CE Lead and Zinc Intoxication in Companion Birds be printed with lead- Given the number of contaminated inks.6 Lead- The most common variables that can affect contaminated soil can also the toxicity of lead, the be a source of intoxication sources of lead expo- availability of precise for birds.7,8 However, the sure for pet and aviary toxic or lethal doses is most common sources of limited. A chronic cumu- lead exposure for pet and birds kept in home or lative lead dose of 2 mg/ aviary birds kept in home kg/day is reported to be or cage environments are cage environments are toxic for ducks.13 paint (either from direct paint and small, lead- ingestion of lead-based Kinetics paint flakes or secondary containing household The bioavailability of to paint dust contaminat- objects. Birds kept in in gested lead depends ing the environment) on its form and, to a lesser and small, lead-contain- older homes have an extent, the physiologic ing household objects. state of the animal (e.g., Because lead is toxic increased risk of lead age). Elemental lead is less to children and water- exposure from paint. bioavailable than inor- fowl, several former uses ganic lead salts (e.g., lead for lead have been elimi- acetate) or organic lead nated or curtailed (e.g., paint, gasoline, shot). (e.g., tetraethyl lead). Elemental lead is rela- Lead has not intentionally been added to most tively insoluble in hard, basic water but is paint since 1978, although it has been esti- more soluble in acidic water. Therefore, ele- mated by the Centers for Disease Control and mental lead is more soluble and relatively Prevention that 74% of privately owned US more bioavailable in the acidic fluids of the homes built before 1980 still contain hazard- proventriculus or ventriculus of birds.11 Lead is ous quantities of lead paint.9 Thus, birds kept actively transported across the GI tract through in older homes have an increased risk of lead the same transport mechanism used for cal- exposure from paint. cium absorption.9 This absorption mechanism QuickNotes explains the greater bioavailability of lead in Toxicity immature, rapidly growing animals with an Factors that influ- Few studies have determined the acute or increased need for calcium compared with ence the risk for chronic toxicity of lead in pet birds. Factors that adult animals. Irrespective of its form, ingested lead intoxication influence the risk for lead intoxication include lead is mostly excreted in the feces without include the amount the amount and form of lead ingested, spe- being absorbed. and form of lead cies exposed, dietary factors, size of ingested Approximately 90% of absorbed lead is con- ingested, species lead particles, and amount of grit in the ven- tained in red blood cells; small amounts are exposed, dietary triculus.5 The duration of retention of lead par- bound to albumin or found in plasma as free factors, size of ticles in the GI tract varies among individuals lead. Within red blood cells, lead is associated within a given species and between species; with the cell membrane, hemoglobin, and pos- ingested lead birds that rapidly eliminate lead particles are sibly other cell components.14 Lead is widely particles, and less likely to be intoxicated.10 Bird species that distributed in soft tissue, and bone serves as amount of grit in regurgitate indigestible parts of their diet, such a long-term storage site. The half-life of lead the ventriculus. as raptors, are less likely to be intoxicated by is multiphasic because of its redistribution lead because they more efficiently remove within various compartments of the body.13 lead from their ventriculus.11 For example, the half-life of lead in whole Diets low in protein and calcium increase the blood is approximately 35 days, whereas in toxicity of lead.12 One study examined the tox- brain tissue, it is approximately 2 years. Lead icity of a single size 7½ (2.41-mm) lead shot to can persist in bone for years. Enhanced bone cowbirds. Three of 10 dosed birds on a natural remodeling associated with egg laying or diet containing wild bird seed and cracked corn dietary calcium:phosphorus abnormalities can died within 24 hours, whereas none of the birds increase the release of sequestered lead into fed a pelleted commercial diet died.10 the blood and cause adverse effects. Normal E2 Compendium: Continuing Education for Veterinarians® | January 2009 | CompendiumVet.com FREE Lead and Zinc Intoxication in Companion Birds CE bone turnover does not olevulinic acid synthetase, result in a clinically sig- The clinical signs of δ-aminolevulinic acid dehy- nificant release of lead. dratase (ALAD), copropor- Absorbed lead can be lead intoxication are phyrinogen decarboxylase, eliminated via sloughing primarily related to and ferrochelatase.19 of renal tubular epithelial cells or in bile or pancre- the effects of lead Clinical Signs atic secretions.13 on the nervous, GI, of Intoxication The clinical signs of lead Pathophysiology hematopoietic, and intoxication are primarily Metal ions play many related to the effects of diverse roles in biologic renal systems. The lead on the nervous, GI, systems. They serve as signs vary depending hematopoietic, and renal charge carriers, intermedi- systems. The signs vary aries in catalyzed reactions, on whether the intoxica- depending on whether and structural elements in tion is acute or chronic. the intoxication is acute the maintenance of pro tein or chronic, which, in turn, conformation. Disruption depends on the amount and of these functions can affect metal transport, form of lead ingested over time. Chronic intoxi- energy metabolism, apoptosis, ionic conduc- cation is more likely in pet birds as a result of tion, cell adhesion, inter- and intracellular sig- repeated exposure to a source of lead or the slow naling, diverse enzymatic processes, protein degradation and release of lead from ingested maturation, and genetic regulation.15 Lead lead objects.
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