Vol. 6, No.2 nternatlona• April 1982 etln• Evangelization and Civilization

uring a transatlantic crossing in 1938, a steward on the by technological and other overlays. In Christian mISSIon "it DQueen Mary said approvingly to a young American mis­ would be folly to proceed without a clear historico-social analysis sionary appointee, "Missionaries are empire builders." Is that of any situation before taking action." statement-made even in the last, fading days of colonialism-a valid assessment of the nineteenth- and early twentieth-century missionary enterprise? An international panel of four missiologists, speaking to the On Page American Society of Church History in December 1980, came to grips with that question in a probing examination of "Missionary 50 Evangelization and Civilization: Protestant Ideologies in the Imperialist Era, 1880-1920": Missionary Motivation in the Imperialist Era Hans-Werner Gensichen insists that the Volkskirche concept, Introduction propagated by German missionaries, was rooted in traditional cul­ William R. Hutchison ture. But tribal churches found it increasingly difficult to with­ 52 I. The Germans stand the onslaught of modern secular civilization. Charles W. Hans-Werner Gensichen Forman says that when American imperialism engulfed the Philip­ 54 II. The Americans pines, missionaries did not generally oppose it; but they spent Charles W Forman more time challenging the government to high purposes than in 57 III. The Scandinavians praising its accomplishments. Torben Christensen sees evangelism Torben Christensen as the primary concern of the early Danish Missionary Society, be­ 60 N. The British cause "true culture and civilization could exist and thrive only on Andrew F. Walls the basis of converted and regenerated humanity." Andrew F. 64 V. Comment Walls acknowledges that British missionary opinion in the imperi­ William R. Hutchison al era took the empire for granted, regarding Britain as the princi­ pal Christian influence in the world. Yet "this was balanced by an 65 The Legacy of A. G. Hogg insistence ... that the profuse variety of the human race prefigures Eric! Sharpe a similar variety of the kingdom of God." Eric J. Sharpe portrays the life of missionary educator-philos­ 70 Western Medicine and the Primal World­ opher Alfred George Hogg (1875-1954). Hogg served for thirty­ View five years as a professor at Madras Christian College in British Russell L. Staples India, ministering among Hindus with unfailing sympathy, accu­ racy of thought, and courtesy of dialogue. 72 Toward a New Missiology for the Church In "Western Medicine and the Primal World-View," Russell Simon E. Smith, S.! L. Staples maintains that effective communication-beyond a sur­ face level-depends on an ability to think in the categories and 74 Book Reviews logic of the other person's world-view. Simon E. Smith, S.J., reports a thought-provoking dialogue on 94 Dissertation Notices a new missiology for today's church. The participants recognize the futility of trying to homogenize the world's pluriform cultures 96 Book Notes of issionaryResearch Evangelization and Civilization: Protestant Missionary Motivation in the Imperialist Era" Introduction

William R. Hutchinson

his symposium constitutes one stage in a longer-range systems of ideas for which, [aute de mieux, we are using the term T collaborative study of "Missionary Ideologies in the Im­ "ideologies." This means that although we shall frequently discuss perialist Era, 1880-1920." The prospectus for this larger study (in implementation or behavior-what actually happened in the mis­ which some twenty scholars, at present, are engaged) contained sion fields-we are trying principally to gain clarity about what it language that may help in clarifying the authors' objectives in the was the Western churches or societies thought and asserted. We initial papers presented here: consider it sufficiently ambitious, in this first step toward larger­ scale comparative analyses, to layout and compare the stated ra­ The aim will be to provide description and comparison, both of the tionales of the movement during one crucial period. stated purposes of the missionary movement in this period and of The third limitation, our virtually exclusive concentration on the presuppositions and motivations informing the enterprise. The Western conceptions of the missionary enterprise, also raises serious project will focus principally, though not exclusively, on Protestant questions with which the committee planning this project has examples. struggled extensively. One need not rehearse all the arguments; Investigators will be asked especially to consider the attitudes of missionary spokesmen toward the colonialism of the era, and to our decision was that we should not claim, fundamentally, to be analyze the ways in which both spokesmen and missionaries may examining the missionary movement through any but Western have operated as collaborators or as critics of imperial expansionism. eyes, perceptions, and categories. More particularly, we shall inquire about the extent to which mis­ It is at this point that the project is most clearly a prolegom­ sionaries in this period considered themselves responsible for the enon, a kind of staging area. One acknowledges this not out of spread of "Christian civilization"; and how such civilizing obliga­ modesty, but precisely to make the point that a subsequent com­ tions were reconciled with the primary goal of evangelization, which parative analysis, fashioned from non-Western perspectives, will in some eras had been thought to preclude any direct preoccupation be the main story-or at least should be chapter two in any further with civilizing activities. development of this field. We hope that, in pursuing these central questions, investigators The difficulty, of course, is that one can easily see arguments will take note of variations in ideology, not just among the several "sending" cultures, but between missionary spokesmen or support­ for making the non-Western perceptions chapter one. Catherine ers at home and their workers in the various missionary fields. We Albanese, in her new history of American religion, seeks to combat also expect, of course, that the writers will discuss the more striking the "mainstream" bias in traditional scholarship by examining the changes that occurred over time, particularly where these changes nonmainstream religions first; by treating first the "manyness" of constituted responses to criticism at home or, more important, to American religion, and only then the "oneness."! Investigators of pressures and changed conditions in the "receiving" societies. mission history might in the same way reverse the usual order of Finally, although we have thought it best to limit our focus to things and gather non-Western perceptions first, thus decreasing the 1880-1920 time period, we shall encourage writers to refer, as the chances that the scholarly agenda will be further confined in much as is necessary and appropriate, to preceding and subsequent its traditional Western categories. phases of the foreign-mission movement. For European and American scholars to "organize" non-West­ ern perspectives is, however, equally problematic-scarcely a rem­ At least three of the self-limitations stated or implied in that edy for the scholarly Eurocentrism identified (if also exaggerated) description deserve some elaboration: they speak to definitional by Edward Said or, before that, by Mssrs. Gallagher and Robin­ problems that arise in any research on missions, especially if it son." We chose, therefore, to focus quite consciously on Euro­ adopts a determinedly comparative methodology. American ideology, and to make it clear that we appreciate the The first such limitation involves our concentration on Protes­ dangers inherent in that decision. tant missions. In what Professor Walls likes to call the high impe­ Having described three of the more difficult choices made in rial era, a study of missions that omits the French might be designing this project, I should add a final word about the ambi­ considered "Hamlet without Hamlet"-or at least as The Three Mus­ tious overall intentions that made such stringent delimitations keteers without d'Artagnan. To be sure, we have commissioned sev­ necessary. One reason comparative history is such a "young" or eral papers on Catholic missions for the Missionary Ideologies unexplored discipline-after all these centuries-is that genuine project. Yet, despite misgivings, we have found it wisest to con­ comparative analysis (as opposed, for example, to mere "side-by­ centrate on comparisons within Protestantism. The 'analyses of side" cataloguing of national or societal histories) is enormously Catholic missions will serve as "controls"; we do not pretend that they will offer an adequate number or range of Catholic compara­ tive examples. * These four papers, together with Professor Hutchison's introductory and We have, second, agreed to concentrate on ideas; and on those concluding remarks, have been adapted from a panel presentation-orga­ nized and moderated by Professor Hutchison-at the Washington, D.C. meetings of the American Society of Church History in December 1980. William R. Hutchison is Charles Warren Professor of American Religious History at The authors acknowledge with appreciation the support of the Lilly En­ Harvard University. dowment.

50 International Bulletin of Missionary Research demanding even after one has managed to control for a large num­ ber of the relevant variables. Confronted, in the missionary phe­ nomenon, with an ususual array of cultural and other factors-a veritable cornucopia of apples, oranges, and stranger fruit-one International Bulletin naturally strives for the time-honored (and result-honored) diffi­ ofMi88ionaryResearch dence of the restricted historical monograph. But why attack the subject in this ambitious "comparative" Established 1950 as Occasional Bulletin from the Missionary Re­ manner in the first place? Is that not, given the primitive condition search Library. Named Occasional Bulletin of Missionary Research of the scholarship on particular sending and receiving societies." 1977. Joined in 1980 by Gospel in Context. Renamed International rather like running the train before building the tracks? Bulletin of Missionary Research 1981. Perhaps. But there are even stronger arguments for striving from the start toward comparative judgments. One such argument Published quarterly in January, April, July and October by the is that any history-even of national or other "single" entities­ that is not consciously comparative dooms itself to being uncon­ Overseas Ministries Study Center sciously so. Raymond Grew, who argued that proposition in an ar­ 6315 Ocean Avenue, Ventnor, New Jersey 08406, U.S.A. ticle for the American Historical Review, quoted another social Telephone: (609) 823-6671 scientist's strange-but-true observation that "thinking without comparison is unthinkable."4 Editor: Associate Editor: Also strange but true, I believe, is the insistence that rigorous Gerald H. Anderson Norman A. Homer comparison is especially needed in certain disciplines, such as Contributing Editors: church history and missionary history, that one might have thought were essentially and automatically comparative. Fields Catalino G. Arevalo.B}, C. Rene Padilla like church history, dealing as they do with fundamentally cross­ R. Pierce Beaver Thomas F. Stransky, C.S.P. cultural phenomena, tend to be altogether too complacent in as­ Mary Motte, F.M.M. Charles R. Taber suming that their traditional assumptions about (for example) Lesslie Newbigin Desmond Tutu national or regional peculiarities are reliable, when actually these Anastasios Yannoulatos assumptions are peculiarly in need of tightly controlled compara­ Books for review and correspondence regarding editorial matters tive assessment. should be addressed to the editors. Recent experience with the study of imperialism, moreover, suggests that comparison must be pursued from the outset, and Subscriptions: $12.00 for one year, $22 for two years, and $30 for not just at some later point; that train-running and track-laying three years, postpaid worldwide. Individual copies are $4.00; bulk had better proceed together. The Gallagher/Robinson proposal, rates upon request. Correspondence regarding subscriptions and which highlighted the importance of "native" responses in the address changes should be sent to: International Bulletin of transition from informal to formal (or classic) imperialism, gener­ Missionary Research, Circulation Department, P.O. Box 1308-E, ated a highly productive debate. But it also prompted considerable Fort Lee, New Jersey 07024-9958. wheel-spinning that-as hindsight tells us-could have been avoided had the original proposal not referred so exclusively to Advertising: one colonial power (Great Britain) and one colonized area (Africa). Ruth E. Taylor Our assumption in the Ideologies project, therefore, has been 11 Graffam Road, South Portland, Maine 04106 that a comparative methodology is not merely helpful, but primary Telephone: (207) 799-4387 and quite fundamental. I think that even the following small sam­ ple-showing Anglo-American activism as it diverged from quiet­ Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in: ist Continental models, yet also showing Scandinavian departures from the Germans, and the British living in a different world from Bibliografi« Missionaria that of the Americans-confirms the importance of nuanced com­ Christian Periodical Index parative analysis if we are to refine our generalizations about mis­ Guideto Social Science and Religion in Periodical Literature sions and imperialism. Missionalia Religion Index One: Periodicals Notes Religious and Theological Abstracts 1. Albanese, America: Religions and Religion (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, Opinions expressed in the International Bulletin are those of the 1981). authors and not necessarily of the Overseas Ministries Study 2. Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978); John Center. Gallagher and Ronald Robinson, "The Imperialism of Free Trade," Eco­ nomic History Review, 2nd series, 6 (1953): 1-15. Copyright © 1982 by Overseas Ministries Study Center. All rights 3. "Primitive" is an apt term especially for mission ideology. Torben Chris­ reserved. tensen, in a letter accompanying the paper printed here, remarked that "no scholarly work has ever been done on Danish missions, not to men­ Second-class postage paid at Atlantic City, New Jersey. tion the problem of evangelization and civilization." And Pierce Bea­ ver's retort, when he was asked in the 1960s to "reinterpret" American POSTMASTER: send address changes to International Bulletin of thought on missions, is still all too appropriate: "The task ... is not rein­ 1308-E, Missionary Research, P.O. Box Fort Lee, New Jersey terpretation. First interpretation has not yet been achieved" (Jerald C. 07024. Brauer, ed., Reinterpretation in American Church History [Chicago: Univ. of ISSN 0272-6122 Chicago Press, 1968], p. 113). 4. Grew, "The Case for Comparing Histories," American Historical Review 85 (October 1980): 768n.

April 1982 51 I. The Germans

Hans- Werner Gensichen

y and large, German Protestant missions entered the im­ social-were inevitably associated with a specifically German cul­ B perialist era in a state of political innocence, or at least of tural heritage. This led to a new dilemma: Would not such an asso­ limited awareness of what was actually going on. For this there ciation prevent the Christian message from getting across to those were mainly three reasons. of other cultural backgrounds? Was the gospel forever to be im­ In the first place, German missions were insignificant by in­ prisoned in Western cultural patterns, or could it be inserted into a ternational standards, even less significant than Bismarck's newly different cultural context without at the same time being compro­ established empire. In 1881 they had just about five hundred mised or alienated? workers in the fields, no more than 17 percent of the total Protes­ It is undoubtedly difficult to generalize. It seems, however, tant missionary force from North Atlantic countries. that increasingly disappointing experiences in cooperating with Second, as they had their spiritual roots in the traditions of the colonial authorities were instrumental in letting more and the early nineteenth-century revival, mostly of a Lutheran type, more German missionaries fall back on the heritage of Romanti­ they were unlikely to take an active interest in politics, let alone in cism and its potential impulse toward a de-Westernization of the scramble for colonies. At any rate, civilization and evangeliza­ Christianity, whether that was realized from the outset or not. The tion had to be kept apart. natives were still primarily seen as "fallen people" who were to be Third, the social origin of most missionaries-mainly in the redeemed by the grace of God through faith in Christ. Yet for that lower middle class-inclined them to an indifferent conservatism very reason they were not merely to be taught to work for the Eu­ rather than to extravagant political postures. Until 1884 that con­ ropeans or, for that matter, to be trained for a permanent servant servatism was never put to the test of more active subservience to role in the context of Western civilization-a civilization which, colonial politics, simply because until then there were no German for many German missionaries, became the very antithesis of what colonies. God wanted for those who were to be incorporated into the body In developments after 1884 two phases can be distinguished: of Christ. First, missions underwent a phase of confrontation and conflict that served, eventually, to consolidate the spiritual integrity of the Developments in German East Africa were especially instructive mission. Second, a notable shift occurred in the early twentieth and, to a certain extent, typical. In 1891 the German government century when a revival of the folk ideology of German Romanti­ took over the administration from the German East Africa Compa­ cism worked toward a new synthesis of civilization and evangeli­ ny. German colonial rule had been consolidated, and the new im­ zation, this time in terms of a Volkskirche rooted in the soil of perialist politics had met with increasing approval from the traditional cultures. German public, including the churches. One missionary society The first phase began when the question of the nationality of after the other had moved into the territory, almost all of them Lu­ missionaries in German colonies became acute. The majority of theran. This expansion occurred partly at the expense of the An­ German Protestant missionaries and their supporters rallied glicans; yet, true to the Warneck tradition, it embodied a growing around Gustav Warneck, the great "guru" of German missions in distrust of German colonialism. It was in this situation that the the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. To him mission Leipzig missionary Bruno Gutmann, working after 1902 among the work was essentially international and should be respected as such Wachagga on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, created a new ide­ by all colonial powers, including the German Reich. German mis­ ology. This theory, with modifications, was applied by others in sionaries certainly had no capacities unequaled by those of other East and West Africa, in New Guinea, and elsewhere; it can be re­ nations. And when it came to the question of cooperation with co­ garded as the distinctive German contribution to the development lonial authorities, there could not possibly be a rendering of ser­ of missionary motivation in the latter phase of the imperialist era. vice to the German empire at the expense of service to the Gutmann and his friends discovered, first, that the mission kingdom of God. did not have to start from scratch and impose the alien civilization When in 1886 two new missionary societies were founded, of the West, side-by-side with the gospel, on reluctant tribal peo­ with the specific purpose of promoting cooperation with German ple. God had not left himself without witness among them. In par­ colonial rule in East Africa-"imperialist foundations" indeed, as ticular, God had established what Gutmann called the primeval Roland Oliver has called themI-they remained the concern of a ties-the extended family, neighborhood, age-groups, language small minority and had soon to go out of business in their original and, in short, the folk spirit. Those existing ties reveal the order of shape. On behalf of the majority, Warneck declared that in mis­ God's good creation and are therefore of absolute validity. It fol­ sions there was definitely no room for any furor teuionicus, and the lowed, second, that the missionary task is not merely to respect mission was by no means to be used as a tool of colonial politics or these wholesome relationships but to integrate them with the as a "milk cow in the service of the fatherland.r'­ body of Christ, to use them as points of contact for the gospel, Phase two of the whole process began when missionaries real­ "the bridge over which the Gospel must travel into the life of the ized that colonialism had come to stay, and that in the colonial set­ people."3 ting all their own civilizing activities-educational, medical, and Thus the church, third, was no longer an imported foreign structure established among natives removed from their environ­ ment and social relations, and exposed to alien techniques of dog­ ma and cult. It was to be truly a folk church, Volkskirche, elevating Hans-Werner Gensichen is Professor of the History of Religions and Missiology at the even all basic social structures into the new creation of the Spirit University of Heidelberg. and thus becoming fully indigenous.

52 International Bulletin of Missionary Research The theological weaknesses of Gutmann's ideas have often expected to appreciate the foreign Volkstum which he is supposed to been exposed. They are obvious and require no further elaboration cultivate in his converts."8 (although Gutmann himself, up to the time of his death in 1966, This was written in 1932, long after what is usually called the was never willing or able to admit them). For it was not theology imperialist era and, significantly, at a time when the National So­ but, rather, a peculiar type of sociological emphasis that accounted cialist revolution under Hitler was about to erupt in Germany. It for Gutmann's far-reaching influence in German missionary cir­ shows how long the peculiar German folk ideology was able to cles, and also for the eventual collapse of his ideology under the survive in German missions. Even in 1938, in the midst of the pressures of contemporary social realities. Third Reich, and in connection with the Tambaram meeting of the Both Gutmann and his followers, at least in the earlier stages International Missionary Council, Siegfried Knak was able to pres­ before World War I, had drawn a clear dividing line between state ent a lengthy account of "The Characteristics of German Evangeli­ and people. Volk was the sum total of social and environmental re­ cal Missions in Theory and Practice," which struck a very similar lationships, constituted both by ties of blood and by the sharing of note, including even a eulogy of the "patriarchal element ... in the common ground, by Blut and Boden. Ominous though these terms majority of German missions."9 Nobody would object to a concern sound in view of the use that Nazi ideology was later going to for the social framework of the gospel in a given context. But make of them, Gutmann can hardly be charged with applying things were bound to go wrong when this concern itself was ele­ them in order to justify German political claims, let alone colonial vated as evidence of German superiority, with distinctly national­ imperialism. He had been thoroughly disillusioned by the realities istic overtones. of European power politics and all its consequences, nationally and There is little comfort in the fact that there had always been internationally. Nothing could be further from his intent than sub­ other voices as well, not just in the traditionally less national­ jecting the noble and more or less innocent "savage" whom he minded circles of Faith Missions but also in the leadership of the found in Africa to the dehumanizing mechanisms of rootless mainstream societies. The experience of World War I had, general­ Western civilization and its demoralizing political pressures as rep­ ly speaking, a sobering effect. IIBut we had thought," wrote Gus­ resented by colonial rule. The church, which he was committed to tav Warneck's son Johannes early in 1915, with reference to Luke build, was to be fundamentally different from a European state 24:21, "that we had known the mind of the Lord and had deep in­ church. The fact of the matter is, however, that tribal churches of sight into his inscrutable ways. Now we stand deeply humiliated. Gutmann's pattern both in East Africa and elsewhere found it tre­ Who would still dare to be his counsellor?"!O Yet even now na­ mendously difficult to stand up to the onslaught of modern secular tional presumption was alive, not least in mission circles: Could civilization-a civilization that began to sweep across the non­ the war not perhaps be God's own means to take the leadership in Western world long before the war. How could these churches world mission away from the Anglo-Saxons and to bestow it on meet the demands of a nontribal society, a wider and more com­ the Cermansi'U It evidently took more than one lost war to exor­ prehensive unit, when they had been trained to find their neighbor cise the demons of pride and prejudice. only within the boundaries of the clan and the tribe? How could But Martin Kahler, systematic theologian at Halle, colleague they contribute to nation-building in modern states that had and friend of Gustav Warneck, had even at the turn of the century ceased to rely on so-called primeval structures? with ingenious certitude and vision supplied the categories for a The important thing is that in Gutmann's ideology, geared to rethinking of the missionary task. "Missions reveal Christianity in the indigenous tribal system as it undoubtedly was, German cul­ its essential independence of all cultures which it encounters." tural pride had in fact come back with a vengeance. He and his They are legitimate and indispensable as long as they proclaim friends certainly did not want to Germanize the local people. Yet Christ "in every way" (Phil 1:18). Any other purpose-national, they quite naively regarded their particular system of indigeniza­ cultural, or even confessional-would pervert mission into propa­ tion as evidence of the special missionary qualification of the Ger­ ganda, resulting not in conversion but in mere "repetition of what mans-the product of a Germanic genius with which the oneself is like."!2 Here the seed was sown for a renewal, which, contribution of others, especially the Anglo-Saxons, could not however, was not to sprout and bear fruit until the imperialist era bear comparison. They occasionally even prevailed, in this argu­ itself had come to an end. ment, with colonial administrators like the famous Dr. Wilhelm Solf, first governor of the German protectorate in Samoa. Solf Notes wrote retrospectively, in 1919, that IIcolonizing is missionizing, missionizing in the sense of educating, not for a European culture 1. Oliver, The Missionary Factor in East Africa (London: Longmans, Green but a culture which can take roots in the homeland of the natives and Co., 1952), p. 96. and is adapted to their character and mind."4 But even such a 2. G. Warneck, in AllgemeineMissionszeiischrift 13 (1886): 311, 317. statement reflects a "cultural conservatism"5 which, paradoxically, 3. Per Hassing, "Bruno Gutmann of Kilimanjaro," Missiology 7 (1979): 427. 4. Wilhelm H. Solf, Kolonialpoliiik (Berlin: Mittler & Sohn, 1919), p. 72. is nothing else than German nationalism in disguise. 5. Klaus Fiedler, "Missionary Cultural Conservatism: Attempts to Reach Whether this attitude may be traced in mission history as far an Integration between African Culture and Christianity in German back as Count Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf in the early eigh­ Protestant Missionary Work in Tanzania, 1900-1940." Ph.D. thesis, teenth century may be open to doubt. Yet Zinzendorf seems to Univ. of Dar-es-Salaam, 1977 (unpublished). have been the first to describe the Germans as "a people which 6. Otto Uttendorfer, Zinzendorfs Weltbefrachfung (Berlin: Furche-Verlag, adapts itself to all nations, loves them all and tends to accommo­ 1929), p. 46. date itself to their ways, disregarding or even neglecting for their 7. G. Warneck, in Eoangelische Missionslehre 111/2 (Gotha: Friedrich Andreas sake its own way. That is why it is so well suited for the aposto­ Perthes, 1903): 23, n. 1. late." 6 And since then there have been similar voices, culminating 8. Werner Elert, Morphologie desLutheriums 2 (Munich: C. H. Beck'sche Ver­ in Warneck's statement: lilt is a special charisma of the Germans to lagsbuchhandlung, 1932): 282. 9. Knak, in Evangelism, Tambaram Series, vol. 3 (London: Oxford Univer­ respect foreign nationalities and thus to enter selflessly, without sity Press, 1939): 334. prejudice and with consideration, into the peculiar qualities of 10. J. Warneck, in AllgemeineMissionszeitschrift 42 (1915): 39. other peoples."? Here both aspects of the folk ideology of Roman­ 11. Julius Richter, quoted in Johannes C. Hoekendijk, Kirsche und Volk in der ticism are combined as noted by Werner Elert: "If the missionary is deutschen Missionsioissenshaft (Munich: Chr. Kaiser Verlag, 1967), p. 113. no longer capable of appreciating his own Volkstum, he cannot be 12. Cf. Hoekendijk, Kirche und Volk, p. 108.

April1982 53 II. The Americans

Charles W Forman

onfidence and optimism were the marks of American life people that no one hall could accommodate them. Carnegie Hall C. as the nineteenth century gave way to the twentieth. was jammed just for the women's sessions. Churches around the The spirit of the times was expansive, vigorous, and, in one of its fa­ city were filled with working parties on particular topics. Between vorite words, "forward-looking." This was the "age of energy," a 170,000 and 200,000 people were in attendance, making this the time for great enterprises. America, which had always had a sense largest missions gathering that has ever taken place. President Wil­ of mission, from its beginnings as an "errand in the wilderness" to liam McKinley opened the conference and ex-President Benjamin its later commitment to a "manifest destiny," was now ready to Harrison presided over its major sessions." step out onto the world stage, carrying some of the moral fervor Business efficiency and planning were another mark of the that had marked its earlier life. American culture at that time and also characterized foreign mis­ Foreign missions matched the national mood. They were a sions. Arthur T. Pierson and John R. Mott wrote repeatedly of the mighty enterprise calling for energy and optimism. "The whole values of overall, worldwide organization and planning. It was the horizon is aflame," wrote Arthur T. Pierson, the man who did the desire for organizational efficiency that led to the incorporation of most to stir up missionary enthusiasm in the late nineteenth cen­ missions into ecclesiastical structures. A study of the way in which tury. John R. Mott took up the same theme when he became the foreign missions became an official church responsibility in this major voice for missions at the beginning of the twentieth century. country, rather than remaining in the hands of independent mis­ He could always see a "rising spiritual tide" and perceive that "the sionary societies as they did in Europe, shows that the major factor influence of Jesus Christ was never so widespread and so penetrat­ behind that change was not a profound theological conviction that ing and so transforming" as it was in his day. The readiness to take the church exists for mission, but the pressures of practical admin­ on the whole world was evidenced in the watchword of the Stu­ istrative efficiency and organizational control. Foreigners, it would dent Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions: "The Evangeliza­ seem, were both impressed and amused by this American procliv­ tion of the World in this Generation." Missions were a way of ity. The head of the British delegation at the New York Ecumeni­ making a worldwide impact in a benevolent fashion. All the presi­ cal Conference said: "We thank you for the careful preparation dents of the country in the early twentieth century-McKinley, you have made. American business habits and alertness of intelli­ Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson-spoke in praise of foreign missions; gence and keenness for statistics and hunger for information have not, as a rule, because missions advanced American interests but almost overpowered us during the last two years."! because they represented a "national altruism," a "contribution to In some respects this enthusiasm for size and organizational the ... moral forces of the world."l efficiency met its nemesis at the end of the period here considered. America became in those days the leading nation in the send­ The Interchurch World Movement, launched in February 1919, ing out of Protestant missionaries. Prior to 1880 missions had been was to have been an extravaganza of coordinated interdenomina­ maintained by relatively small and specially dedicated groups of tional, nationwide propaganda and money raising for foreign mis­ believers, but now they blossomed into a major interest of the sions, appealing to the general public as well as to church people. churches and a significant interest of the nation. The number of But it was so big and involved so many interrelated plans and had American foreign missionaries, which stood at 934 in 1890, reached to be so unspecific in its appeals that it soon floundered and then nearly 5,000 a decade later and over 9,000 in 1915. In support of quickly collapsed. those workers large movements were organized not only in the churches but in the nation generally. The Student Volunteer With an outlook closely parallel to the general national mood, Movement was begun in 1886 to recruit missionaries, and in its foreign missions could easily fall into line with national efforts for first winter of work on the college campuses its two agents won imperialist expansion. This occurred at the time of the Spanish­ 2,000 volunteers. Twenty years later the Laymen's Missionary American War and the acquisition of the Philippine Islands. The Movement was organized. Over 100,000 men, mostly business­ rapid growth of missions began a decade before that war and its men, were involved in the prayer meetings, conferences, and study attendant imperialist fervor, so the growth can hardly be seen as groups of this organization in support of foreign missions. Some the result of imperialist interests. But when the imperial expansion church officials, impressed by its size and the fact that it was en­ came missionaries generally did not oppose it. Certain well-known tirely lay-organized and lay-led, declared: "this movement is the church leaders opposed the acquisition of the Philippines, but mis­ most epoch-making that has occurred in the Christian world since sionaries and mission boards were not numbered among them." the Protestant Reformation."? Rather, mission organizations lent strength to the imperialist posi­ America was enchanted with sheer bigness and here too for­ tion by hastening to send their envoys to those islands. Some of eign missions corresponded to the ethos of the land. The United their missionaries proved to be vocal advocates of American rule States showed the world what dimensions a missionary conference of the Philippines. Bishop James M. Thoburn, head of the Meth­ could assume. At the midpoint of the period under consideration, odist church in India and Southeast Asia, and Homer Stuntz, the in 1900, there came the great Ecumenical Missionary Conference in dominant figure in the initial years of Methodist work in the Phil­ New York. London may have seen its great mission gatherings in ippines, were the most notable of these. Stuntz hailed the opportu­ Exeter Hall in earlier years, but this conference attracted so many nity for missions lito cooperate with the State in shedding the light of Christian civilization." Thoburn even urged the sending of American warships to the China coast. In China at the same time the American Congregational mission called on America to annex Charles W Forman is Professor ofMissions at Yale Divinity School. the former Spanish islands of Micronesia. Most missionary state­

54 International Bulletin of Missionary Research ments were more qualified than these, condemning the idea of they were involved in frequent confrontations with Western limi­ sheer imperial aggrandizement, but leaving the door open to impe­ tations on women's roles. 11 rial domination for the sake of stability and social services. Robert A Western type of education and Western medical science E. Speer, the chief leader of Presbyterian missions, supported the were the other two cultural features that were uniformly recom­ American intervention in the Philippines for its liberating and mended by the missions. The advocacy of any other types of edu­ civilizing effects, but also declared that missions were not con­ cation or medicine would have been regarded as anachronistic by cerned lito tum independent states into dependencies upon Euro­ them, and doubtless also by the leading elements in the non­ pean or American governments."6 Western societies of that time. The government of Japan, for ex­ In general American missions, outside the Philippines, were ample, was pressing forward with the same kind of Western not dedicated to the advancement of American interests-political education that the missionaries were offering and some of its or commercial. Even in the Philippines, once American rule had work, especially in the applied sciences, was unexcelled anywhere been established, missionaries spent more time challenging the in the world. American missions, in fact, were more ambivalent government to adhere to the high purposes that they had assigned about Western education than were the leading elites of the non­ to it than they did in praising its accomplishments? The increase Western lands. They feared the impact of Western schools and of American commerce and exports was not part of the missionary universities when divorced from their religious roots. This fear in­ agenda, though a number of apologists in the United States spoke fected much of the missions' reaction to Westernization. Both of the commercially advantageous by-products of missions." A Mott and Speer spoke of it. "The greatest obstacle to the world study of the statements of purpose made by missionary candidates wide spread of the Christian religion," wrote Mott, "is the un­ in this period reveals no interest in the expansion of American Christian impact of our Western civilization." And Speer said that power or commerce, but only an interest in religious objectives. the connection with the West was a handicap to Christ.P And an analysis of the leaders of the Laymen's Missionary Move­ Aside from women's rights, education, and medicine, the pos­ ment, which, as an organization of businessmen, would be most sible cultural impact of missions attracted little attention from the likely to attract people with commercial motives, shows that none mission forces. At the Ecumenical Missionary Conference in New of the men was involved in commercial ventures that could be York only one session out of forty dealt with such cultural im­ served by the expanding of missions. pacts. Of the eighty-five missionaries who spoke about their work Business interests in fact came in for negative comment from in foreign lands only six mentioned Western improvements other missionaries and mission leaders. Some important missionaries, than those three, while eight missionaries spoke negatively of like Hiram Bingham, [r., in Micronesia, were opposed to the grow­ Western influences.P ing commercialism of American life, and most American mission­ Some members of the mission force were ready to recognize aries in China after 1890 were critical of Western merchants. the achievements and values of non-Western cultures. This readi­ Distrust between missionaries and businessmen was common in ness increased toward the end of the period and was most evident the field though unknown at home.? in an intellectual center like Yenching University, begun in 1915. Apart from political and commercial concerns, however, The American founders of that missionary institution felt that American missions did maintain considerable interest in the spread they must learn from the Chinese what the special contributions of American culture. Often this was implicit rather than explicit. of Chinese culture might be to Christian understanding. Among The emphasis on efficiency and businesslike methods, for exam­ some mission-minded leaders of the American churches the appre­ ple, was simply assumed in the work the missionaries did, and it ciation of other cultures extended even to the religions of those necessarily carried influence in the direction of rationalization and cultures, which were seen as having great value. Yet it was still be­ modernization of the way of life of other countries. Methods of lieved that the noblest aspirations of other faiths would find their agricultural work in the newly developing agricultural missions or fulfillment only in Christ.P of medical work in the well-established medical missions had a A more liberal way of thinking about religion was evidently certain secularized character, which was also assumed and which creeping into missions. Among the thousands of new recruits inevitably had what may be called a secularizing impact on the brought in by the Student Volunteer Movement were men and. more pervasively religious societies that many missionaries con­ women less closely identified with the conservative inner circles of fronted. The individualism inherent in the way in which they pre­ church life than their predecessors, who for the most part had been sented their faith and called for individual conversions also recruited directly by the churches. The Presbyterian missions in implied a cultural transformation wherever they went. India, for example, which prior to 1890 had received practically all In other matters the desire for cultural change was fully ex­ their men from two conservative Presbyterian seminaries-Prince­ plicit. More than in previous times, mission thought and mission ton and Western-began in that year to receive their first gradu­ propaganda devoted itself to the cultural benefits that came with ates from the liberal Union Seminary in New York.P It became the missionaries. The greatest expression of this kind of interest common after 1900 for mission leaders to recognize the possibility was the three-volume work, Christian Missions and Social Progress, of salvation for non-Christians, though around 1890 a bruising published between 1897 and 1906 by the Presbyterian missionary battle had had to be fought over this question in Congregational James S. Dennis. A number of other authors worked along the mission circles. same vein.P The growth of liberalism in missions carried the seeds of later The attitude evidenced in such writings was not a blanket en­ dissension and disruption. Serious divisions in the American mis­ dorsement of American culture, nor a desire for the spread of ev­ sionary movement did not come until after 1920, but their origins ery American trait. The mission advocates stressed only a limited lay in the nascent liberalism of this period and the first reactions number of cultural advantages that, it was presumed, Americans thereto. A. J. Gordon, staunch conservative leader and mission ad­ had to offer. An improvement in the position of women was al­ vocate, condemned both biblical criticism and Continental theol­ ways first and foremost. The limitations placed on women in other ogy, and advocated Bible distribution in preference to other, more societies and programs for their liberation and education were spo­ secular forms of missionary activity. Pre-millennialism became ken of continually, especially by the women missionaries and widespread among missionaries; its influence worked against lib­ women mission leaders. These women, incidentally, were not eralism and proved a source of later conflict. The pre-millenialists looking merely for a duplication of current Western standards; opposed efforts for structural changes in society, since Christ was

Anri11982 55 coming before any great change could take place.P The religious purpose was stated far more in terms of convert­ Though much has been said here about the cultural interests ing individuals than of developing churches. Speer and Mott, in­ of the missionaries, it needs to be recognized before reaching a deed, spoke of the importance of building national churches with conclusion that their principal motive-whether they were pre- or an indigenous life of their own, but this was an emphasis in their post-millenialist, liberal or conservative-was not"civilizing" but thought that developed mostly toward the end of the period. In "evangelizing." This has already been implied in the reference to general the emphasis on the indigenous church, which had been the complete absence of "civilizing" aims in the application state­ paramount in the thinking of Rufus Anderson, the principal ments of missionary candidates. It has also been recognized in the American spokesman in the mid-nineteenth century, was little in fact, noted above, that only six of the eighty-five missionary evidence at the end of the century. It appeared as central only in speakers at the Ecumenical Conference mentioned cultural values the writing of one American theorist, the Lutheran Edward other than education, medicine, and women's rights. In the confer­ Pfeiffer; and he, it must be admitted, derived his ideas from Ger­ ence session dealing with the aim of missions none of the speakers many rather than from his American context. The great aim of mentioned cultural aims, but all spoke of presenting Christ, con­ American missions was evidently not to develop churches any verting men, and establishing churches. Even the chief protagonist more than it was to spread American culture.P of the cultural achievements of missions, James Dennis, explained The great aim was, as Speer put it, to plant "the life of Christ that social change was a by-product of the missionaries' work; the in the hearts of men."19 This was central and must be recognized main purpose was to teach the gospel. Robert E. Speer repeatedly as such, despite the fact that civilizing motifs accompanied the took the same stand."? evangelizing motives.

Notes

1. Pierson and Mott quoted in Charles W. Forman, "A History of Foreign was clearly involved in mission work, while the identity of one other is Mission Theory," R. Pierce Beaver, ed., American Missions in Bicentennial uncertain. Perspective (South Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 1977), pp. 81, 9. Varg, "Motives," p. 73; Charles Millar, "A Temperate Note on 'Holy 91; Paul Varg, Missionaries, Chinese and Diplomats (Princeton, N.J.: Prince­ and Unholy Spirits,' " Journal of Pacific History 14 (1979): 230-32. ton Univ. Press, 1958), pp. 79-81; Ecumenical Missionary Conference . . . in 10. Stephen C. Knapp, "Mission and Modernization," in Beaver, ed., Bicen­ Carnegie Hall, 2 vols. (New York: American Tract Society), 1:39-40. tennial, pp. 146-209; James S. Dennis, Christian Missions andSocial Progress, Roosevelt did mention the possible advancement of American trade 3 vols. (New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1897-1906); Arthur M. through the influence of foreign missions, but this comment was not Schlesinger, [r., "The Missionary Enterprise and Imperialism," in John typical of the presidential pronouncements (Varg, Missionaries, p. 74). K. Fairbank, ed., The Missionary Enterprise in China and America (Cam­ 2. Valentin H. Rabe, The Home Base of American China Missions, 1880-1920 bridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1974), pp. 336-73. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1978), p. 26; W. Richey Hogg, 11. R. Pierce Beaver, All Loves Excelling (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerd­ "The Role of American Protestantism in World Missions," in Beaver, mans Publishing Co., 1968). Bicentennial, pp. 369, 376. 12. Ecumenical Conference, 1: 511; John R. Mott, The Present World Situation 3. W. Richey Hogg, Ecumenical Foundations (New York: Harper & Brothers, (New York: Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions, 1914), 1952), p. 45. p. 120; Conference on Cooperation and the Promotion of Unity in Foreign Mission­ 4. Ecumenical Conference, 1:31; Earl MacCormac, "The Transition from Vol­ ary Work (New York: Foreign Missions Conference, 1914), pp. 102, 111. untary Missionary Societies ... among the American Congregational­ 13. Ecumenical Conference, 1: 347-78. ists, Presbyterians and Methodists," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, 14. Varg, Missionaries, pp. 106-11; C. Howard Hopkins, John R. Mott (Grand Yale Univ., 1960. Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1979), p. 154; Jessie 5. Fred H. Harrington, "The Anti-Imperialist Movement in the United Lutz, ed., Christian Missions in China: Evangelists of What? (Boston: Heath, States, 1898-1900," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 22 (September 1965), pp. 13-14; Philip West, Yenching University and Sino-Western Rela­ 1935): 211-23; Winthrop S. Hudson, "Protestant Clergy Debate the tions, 1916-1952 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1976), pp. 39, Nation's Vocation, 1898-1899," Church History 42 (1973): 110-18. 49; Forman, "History of Foreign Mission Theory," pp. 85-87; Sushi! 6. Kenton J. Clymer, "Religion and American Imperialism: Methodist Pathak, American Missionaries and Hinduism (Delhi: Munshiram Mano­ Missionaries in the Philippine Islands, 1899-1913," Pacific Historical Re­harlal, 1967), pp. 220-28. view 49 (1980): 29-50; H. C. Stuntz, "The Open Door in Hawaii and the 15. Rabe, Home Base, pp. 90-93; John Webster, The Christian Community and Philippines," in Charles H. Fahs et al., eds., The Open Door (New York: Change in 19th Century North India (Delhi: The Macmillan Co. of India, Methodist Episcopal Church, 1903), p. 139; Kenneth M. MacKenzie, 1976), pp. 32-36, 98-101. TheRobe and theSword (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1961), p. 16. A. J. Gordon, TheHoly Spirit in Missions (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 11; Varg, Missionaries, p. 83; Forman, "History of Foreign Mission The­ 1893), pp. 201-33; Timothy Weber, Livingin theShadow of theSecond Com­ ory," pp. 85-86; H. McKennie Goodpasture, "Robert E. Speer's Lega­ ing (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1979), pp. 65-81. Arthur Pierson cy," Occasional Bulletin ofMissionary Research 2 (1978): 41; Robert E. Speer, refused to speak at the Parliament of Religions because of its liberal Missionary Principles andPractice (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1902), pp. basis. Delavan Pierson, Arthur T. Pierson (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 28-29. 1912), p. 303. 7. Clymer, "Religion and American Imperialism," pp. 37-50. 17. Ecumenical Conference, 1: 67-77; Dennis, Christian Missions, 2: 32-33; Speer, 8. MacKenzie, The Robe and the Sword, pp. 14-15; David Healy, U.S. Expan­Principles, pp. 34-35, 37; Goodpasture, "Speer's Legacy," pp. 38, 41. sionism (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1970), pp. 136, 142; Paul 18. Forman, "History of Foreign Mission Theory," p. 92; Edward Pfeiffer, Varg, "Motives in Protestant Missions, 1890-1917," Church History 23 Mission Studies (Columbus, Ohio: Lutheran Book Concern, 1908). (1954): 74. Of the ten "apologists" referred to in these sources, only-one 19. Quoted in Goodpasture, "Speer's Legacy," p. 38.

56 International Bulletin of Missionary Research III. The Scandinavians

Torben Christensen

ecause of the early venture at Tranquebar, Denmark has should have priority, the Danish promoters of the rrussionary B occupied a rather prominent place in the history of mod­ cause were in no doubt of the right answer. They unswervingly as­ em Protestant missions. This reputation, however, may be unde­ serted that the only task of the missionaries was to preach Jesus served. It is true that the Danish king, Frederick IV, in a fit of Christ and his redemption from sin, death, and the devil-not to remorse about his unlawful amoureuse living, decided to Christian­ civilize or humanize. The latter were not unimportant; but it was ize his pagan subjects in Tranquebar, his tiny colony in India; but pointed out that, since true culture and civilization could exist and the Danish church was not able to provide the necessary mission­ thrive only on the basis of converted and regenerated humanity, ary personnel.! The need for missionaries was eventually met by both were necessary consequences of the evangelizing work. the devout disciples of A. H. Francke, the great statesmanlike pi­ This attitude was intimately linked with a strong assertion etistic leader in Halle. All the honor for the work of the Tranque­ that missionary work was not to have any connection whatsoever bar mission must therefore go the Hallesian German missionaries. with power politics. The proclamation of the gospel must not in Not until the beginning of the nineteenth century was an in­ any way be based on the support of the secular arm. In freedom it terest in missionary work among the heathens aroused in the Dan­ must recommend itself to the heart and conscience of humankind, ish church. Denmark was at that time witnessing a revival, very and in freedom it must be received. The only demand on the po­ much akin to the Evangelical Revival in England. The tiny revival­ litical power was therefore that it must allow the proclamation of ist groups looked to Britain in order to learn how to organize the God's saving Word to have its free course. This also applied to the work for propagating "experiential piety." As a consequence they European expansion in the non-Western world. Where a coloniz­ started Bible and Tract societies, and also the Danish Missionary ing power (for example the British in India) established peace, law, Society (OMS), which was founded in 1821.2 and order, and by granting religious freedom made missionary The growth of interest in missionary work, however, devel­ work possible, its rule was welcomed. On the other hand, the oped very slowly indeed. The OMS did not succeed in recruiting Danish missionary leaders chastised the European powers when missionaries, to say nothing of obtaining a missionary field.P The they committed acts of injustice, cruelty, and exploitation. Such small amount of money it collected was forwarded to various, actions, wrong in themselves, also raised up obstacles for Chris­ mostly German, missionary societies. On the other hand, the OMS tianity. The Christian states had to treat the people with justice, mustered some highly gifted leaders who through its missionary being intent on promoting their welfare. magazine (Dansk Missions-Blad4 ) conveyed a knowledge of the mis­ This attitude toward the problems of evangelization and civi­ sionary work that was carried on throughout the world. At the lization, Christianity and culture, missionary work and colonialism same time the paper was a forum in which missionary principles was in no way original. This is not to be wondered at. The Danish were stated and discussed. The indifference and even antagonism spokesmen for the duty and need of a Christian world mission saw the missionary cause encountered inside and outside the church themselves as belonging to a great Christian internationale, the mod­ made it important to argue for its right and its necessity. ern Protestant missionary movement. Therefore they attentively One burning issue was whether "the missionary age" had oc­ followed the work of the other Protestant missionary societies, ir­ curred or not. Some who in principle supported Christian missions respective of their confessional background, and tried to learn nonetheless maintained powerfully that the Danish church had from their successes and failures. It is true that they felt them­ not yet attained the spiritual maturity needed for missionary work. selves to be Lutherans and were convinced that Luther had redis­ This was accompanied by a strong criticism of the international covered the gospel truth, but they did not stand for any rigid missionary movement, whose work was said to be based upon a confessionalism. false idea of the church. Influenced by revivalist piety as they were, they knew quite Such views were, however, not allowed to pass unchallenged. well that all People's churches, like their own church, contained It was argued that the great results already achieved in Christian nominal Christians, and even unbelievers, along with the true dis­ missions demonstrated clearly that the time for the gathering-in of ciples of Christ. Since they were convinced that only those living a the heathen was at hand. It was the duty of the Danish church to life of genuine faith and love could shoulder the burden of the take part in this great work. This view met with increasing accep­ missionary task, they held that missionary societies consisting of tance; and in 1861, after a direct clash, it prevailed in the DMS.5 true Christians were the proper channels for missionary work­ This disagreement certainly had a crippling effect on the ac­ not the official church bodies. tivities of the OMS. On the other hand, it led to a critical examina­ As for the proper means of carrying out the missionary obli­ tion of the various missionary policies, and this scrutiny had gation: it was repeatedly stressed that one must not destroy the long-range positive effects in Danish thinking. Certain principles national and cultural character of the people to whom the mission­ were agreed upon that became the guiding lines for the missionary aries were sent. This emphasis was indisputably owing to the in­ policy of the DMS.6 fluence of N. F. S. Grundtvig (1783-1872), the commanding In the discussion that had persisted right from the beginning spiritual figure in Danish church life in the second third of the of the modem movement, whether evangelization or civilization century. Rejecting the prevalent pietistic view that salvation con­ sisted in salvation from this world, he maintained that God's salva­ tion meant a redemption and regeneration of people and all Torben Christensen is Professor of Ecclesiastical History and the History of Doctrine at creation. Since humankind existed only in and through a people or theUniversity of Copenhagen. nation that unfolds its own specific character in language and cul­

April1982 57 ture, this Folkelighed [Volkstumlichkeii) had lasting value and sig­ missions were now under severe attack from the secularism and nificance. And Christianity, accordingly, must express itself in and unbelief that, since the 1870s, had dominated the cultural scene in through a culture created by the specific historic life of a people or Denmark. It was necessary also to combat the mood of desponden­ a nation; only in this way could the Christian faith be truly human cy that had crept in with many "missionary friends" when they and truly relevant. The primary concern of the missionaries, there­ realized the difficulties that confronted the Indian missions of the fore, must be to work for an indigenous Christianity-and this OMS, and when they saw the small and fragile results its mission­ meant to preach the gospel and leave it to the various peoples to aries had achieved. In arguing for Christian missions the promoters grasp and express the significance of Christianity within their own used the same arguments as formerly. But they struck a new and frame of experience and insight, hammered out through their na­ urgent note by pointing to the desirability of bringing Christianity tionallife. to the non-Western peoples before the rapidly spreading secular Grundtvig had maintained that the Nordic countries-Den­ Western culture had got the upper hand. mark, Norway, Sweden-stood for a specific culture in contrast to This critical alertness on the part of the Danish missionaries to that of the French and Germans, though it was very much akin to the dangers of a conquering colonialism was undoubtedly shar­ Anglo-Saxon culture. On both accounts the Nordic people were pened by the fact that a newly powerful Prussia had in 1864 de­ destined to playa significant part in God's history of salvation. It feated Denmark and taken possession of the southern part of was through this idea, especially, that Grundtvig made his impact Jutland. This made even the emerging "Indre Mission"-the pi­ on Danish missionary thinking. Thus Christian Kalkar,? supported etists proper as distinct from the "Grundtvigian" wing of the Re­ by other leading "missionary friends," from 1859 onward at the vivalist movement-sensitive to the values of national autonomy Nordic church conferences proposed a plan for a Nordic mission.f and to the integrity of a national culture. Thus in the very heyday Although the Nordic peoples were indebted to Germany for Lu­ of colonialism the spokesman of the OMS in India and at home al­ ther and the Reformation, they had developed a Christianity in ways strongly criticized the colonial powers when the latter were which a true idea of the church was intimately linked with nation­ crushing small countries intent on preserving their national and allife. Being a gift of divine grace, it implied a specific calling and cultural heritage. The missionaries of small nations, it was insisted, task toward all the other nations, that they might be won for had the important task of standing up for the rights of other small Christ and in this way enrich the life of the universal church. countries. To the dismay of the OMS, the Danish government in 1847 The OMS considered itself a branch of the Danish church, had handed over the missionary churches and buildings in the for­ bound to carry out its missionary obligation within the framework mer Tranquebar colony to the rigid Lutheran Leipziger Missions­ of a Lutheran conception of Christianity. But, as suggested, this gesellschaft.? Since the Home Board lacked both sufficient was an "ecumenical Lutheranism," ready to cooperate with the missionary personnel and adequate funds, they could do nothing mainline Protestant churches. There was an openness, especially, about it. The missionary interest in Denmark had grown, however, toward British missionary work and thinking-the Anglican and the lack of a mission field was increasingly felt. Cooperation Church Missionary Society and the Scottish missionary societies with the German Lutherans in India was out of the question, one ranked high in Danish estimation, The OMS at the same time of the reasons being that the OMS Board was opposed to their le­ stood for an independent position vis-a-vis both German and An­ nient policy with regard to caste. In this situation Kalkar took the glo-Saxon missions. initiative. He called together representatives from the missionary The task of organizing Danish missions in India was beset societies in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, with the purpose of with difficulties. In the first instance it proved difficult to find the establishing Nordic missions in India. This project, however, right missionaries, not to speak of academics, who could shoulder proved a failure. Apart from the fact that the other Nordic mis­ the arduous pioneer work. It was in 1888 that fully trained theolo­ sionary representatives did not grasp the idea of a Nordic Chris­ gians first entered the missionary service. Second, they had to find tianity, it miscarried because the Norwegians did not want to their own way. The hope of making Ochs the leader of the new sacrifice their independence, having recently established their own Danish missionary enterprise, and of benefiting from his longtime mission field in Natal and Zululand. Likewise the Swedish Mis­ Indian experience, soon proved futile; his being a German did not sionary Society had no wish to jeopardize the cooperation they al­ make cooperation easier. ready had developed with the Leipziger missions in Tranquebar. The Danish missionaries did not, however, have to begin from So the Nordic missionary societies carried on their work separate­ scratch. Readily they learned from and adopted the working meth­ ly. ods that other missionary agencies had developed and found use­ It is true that Nordic missionary conferences were held regu­ ful. But they did it with discernment. They always tested the larly in the following years and that through them a sense of fel­ various missionary methods-as for instance schools and medical lowship was fostered among the Scandinavian "missionary work-by asking whether they served the primary purpose of friends.Y'? But for all that, each of the various missionary societies Christian missions: to plant the gospel firmly on Indian soil; to pursued its own course and shaped missionary policies in accord make the Indians living Christians who could take over the mis­ with specific religious and cultural traditions. sionary work and support and lead their own church. The mission­ The failure to establish common responsibility for a Nordic aries were quite willing to give up any method if it failed to mission had for the OMS the consequence that in 1863 it estab­ achieve this purpose. Since the missionaries were often of different lished its own mission field in the Arcot District of the Madras minds as to the right methods and their priorities, the time of ex­ Presidency. They did this by taking over a German missionary, periment lasted for decades. As a matter of fact, the Danish mis­ Carl Ochs, who had broken with the Leipzig Missionary Society sionary body never arrived at a common policy. The interesting on the caste issue. The OMS thereby entered a new phase of its thing is, however, that in spite of their divergent and often even history. incompatible ideas of the right missionary methods, it is possible Although the missionary cause had gained momentum, never­ to discern certain common characteristics in their attitude to the theless it engaged only a small section of the Danish church; the problems of the Indian field. greater part of the clergy remained quite unaffected. So there was In the first instance they displayed a strong awareness of the still a strong need to argue for the duty and necessity of mission­ danger of fusing Christianity with Western culture and civiliza­ ary work. This was even more imperative because the Christian tion. They were also very reluctant to rely too heavily on the Brit­

58 International Bulletin of Missionary Research ish authorities. Correspondingly they were eager to support all wise, because they maintained the distinctions between Indian national aspirations and promote a self-governing and self­ Christianity and Western culture, they were unable to adopt the propagating Indian church. They were averse to any attempt to "social gospel" aspects of the Anglo-Saxon missionary thinking, transplant any form of Western confessionalism to India. which had come to the fore. Though such emphases existed elsewhere, it seems significant The pattern that I have here outlined we also find among the that Danes embraced them from the beginning, and made them Danish missionaries who from 1895 worked in Manchuria. Right the touchstone for the probing of the right missionary methods. from the beginning they were determined to develop a genuine This insistence stemmed not only from Danish upbringing, but Chinese church, and they had the greatest respect for Chinese cul­ also from the impact of Grundtvig's idea of the indissoluble con­ ture. They watched with dismay as the European powers fought to nection between Christianity and national culture. The apparent dominate China and insulted the Chinese. Although they them­ failure of the foreign missionaries to reach the heart and mind of selves suffered severely from the Boxer uprising, they clearly real­ the Indian people merely underlined the necessity of working for a ized the many legitimate motives for the Chinese xenophobia. genuine Indian Christianity. Also, the Danish experience of fight­ They fully supported the demand for a strong and independent ing for national and cultural independence made missionaries China, and consequently also the demand of the Chinese Chris­ sympathize with the Indian demand for "home rule," and made tians for an independent national church. them understand the resentment toward foreigners. They were It must, however, be acknowledged that these tendencies and anxious to meet Indians on an equal footing as partners in the instinctive attitudes-toward national autonomy, toward the va­ great task of evangelizing the subcontinent. lidity of national cultures and the necessity of an indigenous This trend intensified when, increasingly after the turn of the Christianity-were never made the basis of a consistent mission­ century, fully qualified academics-theologians and medical doc­ ary policy, either theoretically or practically.II In actual fact, the tors-joined the missionary staff. (Foremost among these was L. P. Danish missionaries-a relatively tiny group-whether in India or Larsen, later professor and principal of Bangalore United Theologi­ in China were so deeply engrossed in practical problems of their cal College.) The missionaries also had contact with the YMCA mission field that they, even when they possessed the intellectual and the Student Christian Movement (SCM), some even belonging capabilities, did not find time and energy truly to shape an inde­ to the Student Volunteer Movement (SVM)i this meant a broaden­ pendent course. Furthermore, for all their sympathy with Indian ing of their religious and theological horizon, and it opened the and Chinese demands for national autonomy, the Danish mission­ way for a closer cooperation with the British and American repre­ aries were still perceived as part and parcel of the large flock of sentatives of this student revivalist movement. The young Danish Western missionaries representing Western culture and civiliza­ missionaries fully endorsed the SVM's great aim: to promote an tion, and advocating Western patterns of religious life and Indian Christian leadership that could be responsible for the thought. Christianization of India and its people. Likewise they grew ever From the preceding it is evident that the Danish missions in more impatient with a rigid confessional orthodoxy out of tune the imperialist era did not make an independent contribution to with India's life and problems. To the older ecumenicity was now missionary thinking and missionary practice. Looking merely from added a sharper concern for the lasting values of the Indian culture this angle, there would be no great interest in dealing with the his­ and the need of incorporating them in an Indian interpretation of tory of Danish missions. There must, however, be such an interest Christianity. when one considers the extent to which the experiences of a spe­ In many respects this represented agreement with the trend of cific national history, with its peculiar religious and cultural tradi­ the YMCA and the SCM toward a Christ-centered liberal theol­ tions, can affect the missionary outlook and stamp missionary ogy. But even here an independent attitude is to be perceived. thinking and policy. The Danish example may underline the need They wanted to safeguard the essence of Evangelical Christianity. for a varied treatment of the question of the relationship between Thus the uniqueness and absoluteness of God's revelation in "evangelization and civilization" in Protestant missionary thought Christ was never questioned, and consequently the traditional mo­ and practice. tivation for Christian missions was never called in doubt. Like­

Notes

1. For the beginnings of the Tranquebar mission, see J. F. Fenger, Den iran­ foundations of the modern Danish missionary movement. kebarske Missions Historie (Copenhagen: G. A. Reitzel, 1843) and A. E. 8. Cf. Niels Bundgaard, Dr. Christian Kalkars Betydning for dansk Kirkelio og Lehmann, Es begann in Tranquebar. Die Geschichte der ersten eoangelischen Missionsoirksomhed, Teologiske Studier, no. 12 (Copenhagen: G. E. C. Kirche in Indien (Berlin: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1956; English ed., Gad, 1951), pp. 205ff. Madras: Christian Literature Society, 1955). 9. Denmark had in 1845 sold Tranquebar to England but had reserved the 2. For details, see J. Oskar Andersen, Festskrif! i Anledningaf Deidanske Mis­ right to dispose of the "missionary field" at its will. sionsselskabs Hundrede-Aars-jubilaeum I Indledning og Bone Falck Rpnnes Liv 10. Cf. B. Sundkler in Missions from the North. Nordic Missionary Council 50 (Copenhagen: O. Lohse, 1921). Years (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1974), pp. 11ff. 3. Several attempts were made to start missionary work but they all came 11. C. E. Leventhal is here an exception. As a student at the Missionary to nothing; cf. Niels Bundgaard, Deidanske Missionsselskabs Historie I Mis­ School of the OMS he had developed a view of the missions that was sionsmenigheden i Danmark(Copenhagen: O. Lohse, 1935), pp. 61f£., 77ff. based upon Grundtvig's idea of the intimate relationship between 4. Published beginning in 1834. Christianity and national culture. He laid it before the Danish public in 5. Cf. Niels Bundgaard, Det danske Missionsselskabs Historie 1, pp. 64ff. 1871 in a book: Til den danske Menighed af Folkekirken. Mit Missionssyn [To 6. The missionary rationale was stated repeatedly year in and year out in the Danish Congregation of the People's Church. My View of Mis­ addresses at missionary conferences and in articles on missionary is­ sions] (Copenhagen: Axel Schiedtes Forlag, 1871). Although it bore the sues, all to be found in Dansk Missions-Blad. mark of originality it was written without any experience of the Indian 7. Kalkar was the foremost spokesman for the view of mission that won scene. It was therefore no wonder that Leventhal's ideas failed when the day in 1861. As chairman (1861-73) of the OMS, he in fact laid the put into practice.

April 1982 59 IV. The British

Andrew F. Walls

hundred years ago Sir John Seeley divided contemporary from the universities and the regular clergy." Its purpose, in other A commentators on the British empire into the bombastic words, was simply to provide enough literature, theology, and and the pessimistic. The former, full of the glories of empire, mis­ good manners for a man from the lower middle class to pass mus­ read both history and economics, for the British imperial story was ter as a clergyman. Only the Church of Scotland mission consis­ not particularly glorious, and it brought no financial profit at all. tently demanded a high level of education and training; and a high The latter, full of gloom as to the costs of maintaining colonies, proportion of this mission's activity before 1880 was devoted to and the likelihood of their dragging Britain down as Rome was higher education in India. Most missionaries believed that the an­ submerged by its provinces, equally misread political reality; for cient civilizations of India (or, later, of China) demanded the best­ technological progress, and the combination of the federal princi­ educated and most obviously able candidates, and Africa received ple with the representative (as in the United States), meant that it the leftovers, a sort of celestial cannon fodder. was no longer necessary for a large state to be a decadent one. In­ All this changed in the high imperial period. The universities, deed he foresaw that two very large powers, the United States and Cambridge above all, produced vast numbers of graduate volun­ Russia, might come to dominate the world through sheer size. teers, so much so that university students at length saw themselves Whether Britain became a third with them, or dropped back to be­ as the responsible body for world evangelization.' The English come a purely European power as Spain had done, would depend public schools, which earlier had produced the higher clergy as a on the relations it developed with the empire. One thing was cer­ matter of course without becoming a source of missionary recruit­ tain: the logic of British history meant that abdication from empire ment, now turned out eager young evangelists offering for service was impossible.! in inland Africa. It seemed possible and natural that the victories Missionary opinion, like most British opinion in the high im­ of the gospel would be won on the playing fields of Eton. perial age, for the most part took the empire for granted, and the A triple social revolution now hit British missions. First, one question of abdication was never seriously raised. I take the high saw the advent of women missionaries in large numbers, not just imperial era to extend from about 1880 to about 1920. This is, of as missionaries' wives but as mission workers in their own right. course, also the high missionary era. Before 1880 one can make a We have noted that between 1880 and 1904 the CMS produced 50 much better case than after it for Seeley's belief that the British percent more missionaries than it had done in the previous eighty empire was acquired in fits of absentmindedness. Before 1880 Brit­ years. In those twenty-five years they sent out 636 women. In ish missions could look back on almost a century of hard labor and eighty years previously they had sent 87. Second, the new men modest success. And if World War II was the final solvent for the from public school and university backgrounds brought presuppo­ British empire and the Seeleyite dream, the Great Depression that sitions quite different from those of the artisans and clerks who preceded it was the solvent for the missionary movement. had preceded them. One of the missions staffed by men of the In the same period we see a phenomenal increase in mission­ university type believed that preceding missions had suffered from ary recruitment. The curve of recruitment in the nineteenth cen­ the defective upbringing as well as the defective theology of their tury is by no means regular-it has surprising waves and missionaries; "gentlemen" would instinctively avoid some of their recessions-but the sharp upturn in the last two decades of the errors and their prejudices.P Third, this infusion of upper-class century is unmistakable. The Church Missionary Society (CMS), background and education took place at the same time, curiously for instance, founded in 1799, by the end of 1879 had sent out 991 enough, as the arrival of numbers of new missionaries, mostly missionaries. In the next twenty-six years it sent out 1,478.2 Simi­ through the new "faith" societies, with little education or training lar features can be seen in other societies and in the missions of at all. The older societies, though recruiting on the whole from the both the Scottish churches. In addition, within the period one lower social strata, had either demanded or imparted a measure of finds a plenitude of new societies that are not denominationally education and theological acquisition; but for some of the newer, affiliated-some directed to specific areas of the world or aspects such insistence reflected worldly judgment and distracted from the of work; some with specific doctrines or practices about the mis­ urgent task of preaching the gospel. sionary's status, expectations, and mode of life; some dissenting With this social revolution on the mission field must be taken from the ethos of the earlier societies, or from their ecclesiological another factor: the steady adoption of missions throughout the presuppositions. whole spectrum of church life. In origins, British missions had This missionary explosion also brings forward a totally new been almost exclusively an Evangelical enthusiasm. By 1830 in kind of missionary. For the first three-quarters of the century the both England and Scotland (though probably for different reasons standard missionary product had been a man of humble back­ in the two countries) missions had come to be generally approved ground and education who would often not have been accepted by serious churchmen of all sorts; yet Evangelicals had continued for the home ministry. Henry Venn, the celebrated midcentury to predominate in the missionary consciousness. secretary of the CMS, said of his society's missionary college that By the high imperial period a much wider range of church­ there would be no need of it if one could get enough missionaries manship was fully involved, with the result that rather varied ob­ jectives found expression. For those anxious to assert a theory of episcopacy that they believed was of apostolic origin and was too often compromised at home, the mission field offered an opportu­ Andrew F. Walls is Professor of Religious Studies at the University of Aberdeen. nity to demonstrate the essential nature of the church. For ecclesi­

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.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ astical reformers the position of the Church of England in the died, an old man, in 1873. There were good pragmatic as well as colonies called forth crusading zeal or offered hopeful new pat­ good theological reasons for it in Venn's heyday. There were sim­ terns. ply not enough missionaries available; and therefore, if the work British emigration added another dimension. Seeley argued was to be extended, one should get missionaries away from such that, apart from India, which was self-contained and self-support­ activities as superintending churches. Further, there was reason to ing (it could do Britain no harm and it must be hoped that Britain believe that Europeans could not satisfactorily live in inland Afri­ could do it some good), the heart of the empire lay in huge under­ ca, and that such areas must ultimately be evangelized by Africans. populated areas that had absorbed, and could still absorb, much of Thus in the middle decades of the century the native minister Britain's surplus population. Churchmen now held that, in duty to was more noticeable than the missionary in a surprising number of this population of overseas Britons, there must be an expansion of areas. Venn's "Native Pastorate" churches were organized in Sierra the British churches; and within ten years of Seeley's book called Leone and Lagos; in fields as diverse as West Africa and Ceylon, The Expansion of England a former Australian bishop had published "native" Wesleyan ministers outnumbered missionaries, and at one under the title TheEcclesiastical Expansion ofEngland. 6 In areas like one time African superintendents presided over the whole work in southern Africa and New Zealand such an expansion must take both Sierra Leone and Yorubaland. Sierra Leone produced an all- place alongside"cross-cultural" missionary activity. Was not mis­ African missionary force quite disporportionate to its population, sionary effort to be considered as part of ecclesiastical expansion? for service in lands as distant as the Niger and the Kenya coast. In the high imperial period, however, it was demonstrably no longer true that Europeans could not work in inland Africa. And there were eager young missionary recruits for all the "regions be­ ANNOUNCING yond"-to die there if need be, and with very clear ideas of what they should do there. No one ever formally abandoned the Three­ The American Society of Missiology will hold its 1982 annual Self policy, but it became a thing for the sweet by-and-by. What meeting at Garrett Evangelical Theological Seminary, Evanston, was the point of talking, like Venn, of the "euthanasia of a mis­ Illinois, June 18-20. The Association of Professors of Mission sion" as an objective when there was a self-evident need for more will meet June 17-18 in conjunction with the ASM. Further in­ and more missions? Some scandals, some disappointments has­ formation may be obtained from Wilbert R. Shenk, Secretary­ tened the process. Crowther's all-African Niger mission was aban­ Treasurer of the ASM, Box 1092, Elkhart, Indiana 46515. doned. Crowther and the Methodist superintendents were replaced by Europeans; and it was soon forgotten that it had ever been otherwise. In the midcentury period, too, mission thinking had often There are obvious parallels between the high imperial and the been dominated by a belief in the essential concomitance of Chris­ high missionary developments. First, missionary activity was ex­ tianity, commerce, and civilization. Missionary ideology, as a con­ tended into countless areas where it cannot be identified before sequence, had been integrated with politico-economic ideas and 1880. The frontiers of mission were thrown back, and the mission­ with policies related to slave-trade abolition; the same people, fre­ ary pioneer was spoken of in the vocabulary of the imperial pio­ quently, had been interested in all these things. Missionary ven­ neer. With some notable exceptions British missions became tures had reached principally into independent African and Pacific overwhelmingly concentrated in areas that were, or were to be­ states whose rulers held the power to admit or reject them, and come, part of the British empire. Sometimes missionary occupation who needed to be convinced of the value of missions. Since such preceded, sometimes it followed annexation or political penetra­ leaders were unlikely to be convinced in the first instance by pure­ tion; sometimes, as in Uganda, Nyasaland, and Bechuanaland, it ly spiritual considerations, attempts at "structural" change, at­ was intimately associated with the establishment of British over­ tempts to increase material prosperity, the development of cash rule; sometimes, as in eastern Nigeria, it was more obviously asso­ crops and export outlets-all had seemed a legitimate part of mis­ ciated with the reconciliation of annexed peoples to a new way of sion. life under the British crown. Occasionally, as in the Upper Niger, it In the period of our concern, however, British missions, took place against the desires of the representatives of secular speaking generally, turned away from such things. The Scottish power. missions in Malawi might demonstrate a microcosm of a Christian Two areas, however, which were never likely to be part of the society with a trained ministry, developed agriculture, a modest empire, absorbed a huge proportion of British missionary effort technology, and education appropriate to all three, but in most between 1880 and 1920. Britain, like other European powers, was areas missions backed away from institutional or structural in­ heavily interested in China; but the missionary vision for China volvement, except in the areas of education and medicine, both attained a scope far beyond the widest imperial vision; and British closely related to evangelism. The alliance with commerce had official opinion often thought of missionary activity in China as an gone sour. The "Christianity" of the trader was too often an em­ unmitigated nuisance. Similarly, though the Congo Free State per­ barrassment, and his trading was so heavily dependent on ardent haps brought more new missionary societies into being than any spirits that travelers drew unflattering comparisons between other single territory," there was never a likelihood that any sub­ drunken missionized communities and sober Islamized ones. It stantial portion would come under British rule. Protestant missions was, moreover, no longer the local ruler, but the local colonial ad­ concentrated heavily on the Congo for reasons of missionary, not ministration, that now held the key to the door. imperial, strategy. The dismantling of indigenous Christian structures, the sup­ The language of imperial occupation and missionary occupa­ planting of indigenous Christian leadership, paralleled the devel­ tion is sometimes interchangeable. When missionary strategists opments in colonial administration. Colonies were no longer a talk of a neck-and-neck race with Islam, one hears the tones of necessary evil, to be handled by local people as far as possible. British expansionists resisting French and German claims. W. E. H. Lecky spoke in 1894 of the way in which empire offered The great age of the theory of self-governing, self-supporting, "noble fields of employment, enterprise and ambition to a poor self-propagating churches of course antedates the high imperial struggling talent";8 and some of that talent deprived local educated period; Henry Venn, with whom it is most associated in Britain, elites of what they had been led to expect. From the point of view

62 International Bulletin of Missionary Research of the recipients, no longer were Christianity, commerce, and civi­ argues that most of the notable expansionists among the procon­ lization to be imparted through the same agency: there might be suls belonged to one of those three religious categories. The con­ close cooperation but, in general, there were proper spheres and sorting of evangelical religion with such peculiar bedfellows needs appropriate agencies for each. No more vigorous apostles of particular examination: it is perhaps related to that reformulation "Christianity, commerce, and civilization" can be found than the of evangelical piety that we have already noted. This had the ef­ Sierra Leonean missionary force of black Europeans. One is much fect of disembodying evangelical religion, divorcing it from the more likely to find a missionary wearing Hausa dress, or Chinese politico-economic concerns of the preceding period. By its revived dress, or refusing protection as a British subject in the high imperi­ concentration on evangelism, its new concentration on inward ho­ al period than before it. liness, and its abandonment of institutional change, it left "struc­ In the colonial sphere, aims and policy changed dramatically tural" matters to other agencies: those of empire. Missions could between 1840 and 1880. In the missionary sphere it was not so now see their social role as the conscience of empire, sounding much the aims as the means of their implementation that changed, warnings to government if some European agency overstepped its and the sudden rush of missionaries cannot be entirely explained limits. By combining solid education with a Christian religious by the burgeoning of the spirit of adventure or the need to find foundation and sound character building, they were also carrying expression for ambition and talent. Some quite independent fac­ out "civilizing work among the child-races of the Empire" in the tors are to be found in such sources as the effects of the Revival only way that real civilization could ever be successfully accom­ movements of 1859-60, the Moody missions, the Keswick Con­ plished. It is in such things, argued one mission-board chairman, vention, the reformulation of evangelical piety with its new stress that "our Empire's debt to missions" Iies.P on consecration and sacrifice; and in different but parallel develop­ A survey of missionary literature in the period 1880-1920 sug­ ments within Anglo-Catholic theology. These things helped to gests that, more than in the middle of the century, missions felt produce more missionaries; they also helped to define the sort of themselves embattled: administrators in the colonies, government missionaries they were. The number of available missionaries, at home, the evil ways of so-called Christians living abroad, the their ideas not only on race, but on conversion and holiness all superior attitudes of review editors, savants, explorers, devotees of probably played a part in such events as the dismantling of comparative religion-all seemed to be ranged against them. Far Crowther's Niger mission." from feeling that the empire's (or anyone else's) debt to missions These missionaries were children of their time, and their time had been recognized by all, missionary speakers felt a constant was that of the high empire. Almost without dissent they believed need to justify, to defend, to explain. in the essential beneficence of the empire. When they actively agi­ While many of the writers on missions saw a sort of "manifest tated for imperial expansion, however, the grounds were almost destiny" for Britain as the. principal Christian influence in the invariably pragmatic, local, and missionary. Scots missionaries world, this was balanced by an insistence, inherited from the pre­ asked for the extension of the British protectorate in Nyasaland to vious generation, that the profuse variety of the human race pre­ prevent the Portuguese from claiming territory they did not hold figures a similar variety in the kingdom of God. It is also and delivering it to Yao slavers (once the protectorate was de­ noteworthy that while contemporary political writers on the em­ clared, the same Scots missionaries were criticizing it furiously); a pire were never quite sure what to do with the United States in the protectorate in Bechuanaland would prevent exploitative rule by a glorious Anglo-Saxon future, the missionary writers invariably chartered trading company; and so on. In these cases, missionaries saw America as the staunch ally and partner in the task of world genuinely believed that British rule would be more beneficent evangelization. than the alternative-some other form of European power. In oth­ Curiously enough, under the British empire, and as a direct er cases they argued for British preemption lest French rule should result of British policy, Islam received infinitely more converts open Catholic doors: the converse, in fact, of the view of many than the jihads had ever brought it. It is also true that the British British administrators that Catholic missionaries would serve Raj, assisted in this respect by Christian missions, produced the French interests. conditions for a reformulation and revitalization of Hindu faith. In Of any more radical missionary critique of empire there is the end, is it possible that the other faiths of the world, more than hardly a trace; little, for instance, to recall Spurgeon's prediction to Christianity, will prove to have been the real beneficiaries of the the Baptist Missionary Society in 1859-two years after the Indian imperial period? Nevertheless, now, when the British empire has Mutiny-that the time would come when the statue of Napier almost disappeared, the center of gravity for the Christian faith outside would be replaced by one of John Wesley, Nelson's col­ has shifted to the southern continents. Nigeria and Kenya and umn already having been replaced by one of Saint Paul.l? Zaire-perhaps even India-are probably now more "central" to My colleague J. D. Hargreaves has propounded the thesis that the Christian faith than Britain is. And those countries all have a an "imperialist religion" developed in late nineteenth-century Christian history of their own, in which the missionary period is Britain, produced by a consensus of new forms of secular rational­ only an episode. ism, evangelical piety, and broad-based Christian humanism. He

Notes

1. J. R. Seeley, The Expansion ofEngland: Two Courses ofLectures (London: Mac­ 5. Cf. D. Hilliard, God's Gentlemen. A History of the Melanesian Missions (St. millan, 1883). Lucia, Queensland: Univ. of Queensland Press, 1978). 2. Figures from data provided in the Register ofMissionaries andNative Clergy, 6. Alfred Barry's Hulsean Lectures at Cambridge, 1894-95, published by published by the Church Missionary Society in 1896 and 1905. Macmillan (Seeley's publisher) in 1896. 3. Letter to F. Monod, February 5, 1855, quoted in W. Knight, Memoir of 7. See the astonishing list in C. Irvine, TheChurch of Christ in Zaire, A Hand­ theRev. Henry Venn (London: Longmans, Green, 1880), p. 247. book of Protestant Churches, Missions and Communities 1878-1978 (Indianapo­ 4. See especially the reports of the Student Volunteer Missionary Union lis: Christian Church [Disciples of Christ], 1978). conference at Liverpool 1896, published as Make Jesus King (London: 8. W. E. H. Lecky, The Empire: Its Value and Growth (London: Longmans, SVMU, n.d.) and at London 1900, published as Students and the Mission­ Green, 1894)/ p. 14. ary Problem (London: SVMU, 1900). 9. Compare the account of J.F. A. Ajayi, Christian Missions in Nigeria 1851­

April 1982 63 1891: TheMaking ofa New Elite(London: Longmans, 1965), chap. 8, with 11. J. N. Ogilvie, Our Empire's DebttoMissions (London: Hodder and Stough­ that of G. O. M. Tasie, "The Story of Samuel Ajayi Crowther and the ton, 1924). Ogilvie, convener of the Church of Scotland Foreign Mis­ C. M. S. Niger Mission Crisis," GhanaBulletin of Theology 4 (1974): 47-60. sion Committee, distinguished between "Eastern civilization" and the 10. Reprinted in Missionary Sermons: a Selection from the Discourses Delivered on "child-races" (i.e., Africa and the Pacific) as recipients of mission. Behalfof the Baptist Missionary Society on Various Occasions (London: Carey Press, 1924), pp. 3-18. v. Comment

William R. Hutchison

hese four vignettes, while they could scarcely be expected Finally, and along the same problematic lines, one is struck by T to lead us to firm or final comparative judgments, do raise the pervasive innocence (I think it is innocence, though one must intriguing questions about the similarities and differences among also speak of racial and cultural condescension) about the subtler "sending" cultures; and they provide leads to some possible an­ forms of cultural imperialism. Few spokesmen, if any, in this era swers. had come to realize that one culture can impose on another, or The clearest similarities, as one might expect, arise in official even tyrannize over it, by the questions it asks (and the way it asks or public professions about the fundamental purpose of missions. them) as well as by the answers it prescribes or imposes. Professor Mission spokespersons in all these countries agreed, in an era of Forman may be too harsh with the missionaries at some points­ rampant enthusiasm for "civilizing" on a Western model, that the for example, in denying them any significant place in American essential task of the missionary was not civilizing but evangelizing. anti-imperialism. But 1 think he is being too indulgent when he They were further agreed in their qualms about aligning the mis­ nearly exonerates the burgeoning social and educational ventures sionary enterprise even with the more altruistic programs of the of missions from involvement in cultural imperialism. It is not secular imperialists, except where such alignment plainly furthered simply that, as he acknowledges, the Westerners inevitably pic­ evangelizing objectives. Though missionaries and spokes-persons tured social and moral improvement through West-colored specta­ frequently, with this last criterion in mind, gave their support to cles. The agenda for enlightenment and reform was so thoroughly Western political or economic objectives, we also find a readiness and unreflectingly Western that non-Western wisdom was not or­ in all these instances to condemn imperial practices that the mis­ dinarily consulted even in formulating the issues or gathering the sion interest considered ruthless or venal or otherwise counterpro­ data. Thus a liberal and professedly IIempirical" student of mis­ ductive. Churchpeople chastised the cupidity, materialism, and sions such as James Dennis could devote three massive volumes to godlessness of their fellow Westerners abroad just as much as at "before-and-after" descriptions of the social impact of Christian­ home-though also with the same limits and forbearance that they ity abroad, without so much as sending a few questionnaires to exercised at home. non-Western observers-Christian or otherwise. Dennis's im­ A significant minority in each of these countries or regions mense production and seemingly exhilarating conclusions now went further and complained about particular economic and politi­ constitute a remote period piece; not because the data on mission cal structures, not merely about the performance of individuals activities are inaccurate (I don't believe they are), but because the within those structures. A much larger number, it would seem, entire analysis is undercut by the sort of unconscious or automatic were at least aware that these secular systems, whether seriously cultural patronage that is now acutely repellent to most scholars flawed or fundamentally sound and recommendable, must not be and practitioners of Christian world mission. included explicitly in the package that missionaries were offering. Along with such broad similarities in the views and assump­ Mission theorists, as well as missionaries on the scene, insisted tions of the various mission advocates, one readily observes differ­ regularly that bearers of the Word must seek diligently to avoid ences that may be equally important-forms of tension or what would later be called cultural imperialism. "dialogue" that had discernible effects in the development of mis­ Beyond that precise point-when we inquire, that is, what sions, and that therefore deserve further attention. One such divi­ such oft-expressed cultural diffidence really meant-the picture sion marked off pietist attitudes, still dominant in the mission becomes more complicated. But even the complications adhere theory of the Germanic churches, from the "activism" Anglo­ roughly to a common pattern. Most markedly in the German and Americans displayed in both theory and practice.' Others are re­ Scandinavian cases, but also in the others, an impulse like Roman­ flected in Professor Christensen's account of the Scandinavians: ticism was commonly taken to imply "indigenization." Yet that here are "sending cultures" that mediated, in their mission theory impulse could also serve, as Professor Gensichen's fascinating and practice, between the Germans and Anglo-Americans; and analysis shows, to give aid and comfort to delusions about a par­ that at the same time differed from all the others in being, at this ticular Western nation's God-given genius for reorganizing the point in history, virtually free of politically imperialist aspirations. other cultures and religious sensibilities of humankind. Not only Professor Walls, meanwhile, with his well-informed sensitivity to the ideology of Romanticism, but many other Western ideals-in­ British attitudes that ran below the surface of imperial complacen­ dividualism, Protestant congregationalism, laissez-faire econom­ cy, helps us distinguish societies in which the commitment to em­ ics-could be simultaneously instruments of indigenization and pire was new and accelerating (Germany, the United States) from rationalizations for a persisting Western domination. That sort of those whose Far-Flung imperialists were weary, and whose mis­ complication, I am suggesting, seems to have been generic. It signi­ sionaries were retreating from the"civilization" business. fied a difficulty that bedeviled all the honest efforts, in whatever These four papers, rich in providing clues for further com­ sending society or missionary theory, to eschew cultural imposi­ parative work, are also helpful in their implicit demands for clarifi­ tion. cations in definition and methodology. We shall need, as this work

64 International Bulletin of Missionary Research progresses and becomes more complex, to spell out the major subtle or benign varieties, necessarily be the same thing as the psy­ meanings that have been assigned to such standard concepts as co­ chological oppressiveness that Frantz Fanon and others have ana­ lonialism, imperialism, evangelization, and civilization-to say lyzed. nothing of loaded terms like "cultural imposition." And we must Clarity about one's use of such vital, but also volatile, terms take pains, methodologically, to specify the working definitions in and conceptions would of course be mandatory in any kind of his­ use at any given point in the analysis. tory. But in comparative analyses, fuzziness about these variables Missionary collaboration with colonial authorities may be would be especially disabling. The demand for precision, more­ judged in a given instance to have been beneficent or disastrous, over, like the commitment to comparison itself, needs to be voiced, completely inevitable or quite gratuitous. However that may be, and heeded, as early in the process as possible. These four prelimi­ relationships with colonialism on one hand, or with economic or nary studies, along with their other virtues, have the merit of plac­ cultural expansionism on the other, are likely to pose quite differ­ ing us in a better position to see what terminological and other ent questions. Nor will cultural expansionism, even of the more distinctions will be in order as comparative work proceeds.

Note

1. The asymmetry in that appraisal is intentional. The Germans and the they differed very little in the proportion of their efforts devoted to Americans differed a great deal in what they said about schools and schools and hospitals. One also sees that, in actual practice, the relations hospitals; but the numerous statistical surveys of the period show that of "pietist" missions to political activism can present a tangled story.

The Legacy of A. G. Hogg

Eric! Sharpe

uring the first half of the twentieth century, great num­ never sought) as the "theological conscience" of at least the British Dbers of Christian missionaries served in India, faithfully if part of the Indian missionary community; he also came to be ac­ not always wisely. It was a difficult time. India was changing, rap­ knowledged as a man of the Spirit as well as of the intellect, and as idly and sometimes violently, in the wake of the growing national a man to whom to defer. movement, while India's ancient faith was finding new forms of Hogg was in many ways an unusual missionary, who scarcely expression and a new impetus; at the same time the Christian faith fitted into any of the conventional categories of preparation and was being shaken to its very foundations by critical scholarship, training. In one respect, though, his credentials were impeccable. by the international impact of war and social upheaval, and by Both his parents, John Hogg and Bessie Hogg (nee Kay) came of growing uncertainty as to the final justification for the work of deeply devout Evangelical stock: his father was an outstanding Christian missions amid India's ancient faiths and cultures. Many pioneer missionary in Egypt, and A. G. Hogg was himself born on missionaries were not unnaturally forced onto the defensive, while a mission field, at Ramleh (near Alexandria) in Egypt." He was one having to sustain many and varied duties. The literature of the pe­ of thirteen children, eight of whom survived infancy, and several riod attempted to interpret what was going on, but often prag­ of his brothers and sisters also became missionaries. In 1893 he en­ matically and with a half-hidden sense of bewilderment. Few tered Edinburgh University to prepare himself for the ministry of missionaries had the time or the ability to reflect deeply on cardi­ the United Free Church of Scotland, naturally with a view to mis­ nal issues. There were exceptions, of course (and far be it from me sionary work. He completed his M.A. with honors in philosophy," to suggest that the Indian missionary corps as a whole was forced began the study of theology-and then his faith fell apart in one into a state of mental paralysis by the challenge of the hour), but of those shattering crises that were common in the 1890s, as the these were few, and became fewer as the period progressed. life of faith and the demands of the scientific world-view came Between 1903 and 1938 Alfred George Hogg (1875-1954) was into head-on conflict. In time the crisis was resolved (thanks not a professor on the staff of the Madras Christian College. In a sense least to his friendship with another outstanding Scottish theolo­ it might be argued that in missionary terms, he led something of a gian of his generation, David S. Cairns), but gone were many of sheltered life, bound up as he was in the round of the classroom, the old Evangelical affirmations. In effect Hogg emerged from his the study, and (particularly after 1928, when he became principal) time of trial a Ritschlian-and Ritschlians did not normally be­ the administration of the college. At times even some of his col­ come missionaries (if for no other reason than that their "liberal­ leagues may have thought him remote from the "real" problems of ism" made them suspect in the eyes of most missionary societies, the new India. But all the while he was thinking and writing inces­ who would therefore not accept them).3 santly about these very problems; and in the end the quality and In 1902, however, Hogg was appointed to teach on the staff of depth of his thought was such as to set him apart from most of his the Madras Christian College. He arrived in India early in 1903 still missionary colleagues. He in fact won an acceptance (which he a layman, and was in fact not ordained until 1915. His teaching rt:­ sponsibilities were initially in the area of ethics and economics, but soon he became professor of mental and moral science (philos­ ophy), a position he held until his elevation to the principalship in Eric! Sharpe, Professor of Religious Studies in the University of Sydney, Australia, studied comparative religion in Manchester under S. G. F. Brandon and missiology in 1928. A great deal of his most creative theological and philosophi­ Llppsala under Bengt Sundkler. His doctoral dissertation on [. N. Farquhar, Not to cal work was therefore done from a position of relative freedom, as Destroy but to Fulfil, was published in 1965. His other publications include The a lay missionary who was not bound by creeds and confessions. Theology of A. G. Hogg (1971) and Comparative Religion: A History (1975). But instead he felt himself bound by a much more serious moral

April 1982 65 obligation. In Edinburgh he had learned to think; and since that The beliefs of even the "higher Hinduism" Hogg admitted to find­ time, as he put it in 1935, ing "strange and rather dismal.r"? Nevertheless they had to be un­ derstood, as a means of access to the one unifying faith that to track out all unconscious preconceptions, and to examine with ruthless honesty their title to acceptance, has appeared to me to be underlay them. In the preface to Karma and Redemption he confessed one part of the serious business of life. It is not, indeed, by any to a belief "that the innermost faith of all religions which are still, means the duty of everyone; but for him who has the metaphysical at any time, worthy of the name must be one and the same"­ bent of mind and leisure to exercise that bent, it is a sacred obliga­ though he went on at once to record his conviction that he consid­ tion which he owes to humanity and to his own soul." ered "the divergences between the intellectual beliefs by which men seek to preserve this common spirit of faith to be nevertheless Three years after his ordination, he had spoken, in an article, of an immensely important matter."l! In his early years in India he the Scottish ministry as embodying "the ideal combination of gen­ was therefore working, not toward any lessening of belief in the uine piety with intellectual fearlessness and sound scholarship.r" uniqueness of Christ, but toward a restatement of that belief in These were very much Hogg's own characteristics. terms that India (or rather, that part of India with which he was Remaining in one teaching post for thirty-five years, the out­ most intimately concerned) could comprehend and accept. The ward circumstances of Hogg's missionary career were unspectacu­ root of the matter he believed lay in the area of ethics-and Hogg's lar. He was never at the forefront of controversy, except in minor theology was always of a strikingly ethical kind, consistent with matters, which need not detain us. In 1907 he married Mary M. his Kantian philosophy. It was this which drove him to an exami­ Patterson, a missionary teacher, but there were no children of the nation of the antithetical doctrines of karma and redemption, and marriage. He did not attend either the Edinburgh 1910 or the Jeru­ to his conclusion that the former, while it may be judicial, is not salem 1928 conferences of the International Missionary Council truly moral, since in true morality there is a reciprocity of rewards (IMC), though he played some part as a correspondent in shaping and punishments, which karma cannot embrace without losing its the Edinburgh Commission IV Report (not least since Cairns character. "The doctrine of Karma [he wrote] fits beautifully into a chaired that commission, and Hogg answered the original ques­ system which recognizes no purpose in life other than expiation, tionnaire at great length]." Not until 1938 did he actually appear on but there is no room for it in a universe the purpose of which is the international missionary scene in person, when the IMC met moral not judicial."12 The weakness of karma, in Hogg's view, was on the new campus of the Madras Christian College at Tambaram. that it was maintained wholly apart from a corresponding belief in There he stood out as one of the most astute critics of Hendrik the moral nature of God, and thus took the form of a judicial sys­ Kraemer-for reasons we shall examine shortly. tem without a judge, and therefore without the possibility of mer­ Hogg's intellectual career was marked by his various publica­ cy. This resulted in a quasi-moral belief in the isolation of every tions, which were actually quite extensive, though often in the person, ethically speaking, from one's fellows; whereas in Chris­ pages of journals rather than in book form. His major writings in­ tian belief, we may-indeed must-bear one another's burdens. cluded Karma andRedemption, which first appeared as a series of arti­ Hogg also pointed out that if the karma doctrine be true, then not cles in the Madras Christian College Magazine, and in book form first only are we prevented by it from harming our fellows: equally we in 1909;7 Christ's Message of the Kingdom (1911), a course of Bible are prevented from helping them, and love becomes an impossibil­ studies on the question of the kingdom of God, and by far the ity. On this view, then, one root difference between Hindu and most widely read of Hogg's writings; Redemption from This World Christian views of life has to do with the nature of the universe (1922), his weightiest theological work, delivered as lectures in Ed­ (judicial or moral), and there can be no deeper contrast than that. It inburgh; and after his retirement, The Christian Message to the Hindu was on reading this book that Cairns wrote of its author: "The (1947). It is perhaps worth noting that on his return to Scotland in Christian Church in India is fortunate in having not a few thinkers 1939, Hogg took up routine parish work in obscure corners of the of exceptional gifts of heart and mind, and this little treatise makes country. After the end of the war he was finally able to retire to plain that in its author the Church has one worthy to rank with the village of Elie, on the Fife coast, though by this time crippled the ablest of these, a constructive religious thinker of the best by rheumatoid arthritis; there he died on the last day of 1954. type...."13 It is difficult to write succinctly about Hogg's contribution to One further (and perhaps unintended) result of Hogg's Karma missionary thought, if for no other reason than that his own per­ and Redemption was that it inspired some Hindu thinkers to meet sonal Christian world of ideas was made up of intricately and Hogg's criticism that karma operates only on the judicial, and not tightly interwoven strands, which are not always easily unraveled. on the moral, level, partly by reinterpreting the doctrine itself. It is necessary first to bear in mind that Hogg always drew a Among Hogg's students at this time was Sarvepalli Radhakrish­ clear distinction between faith and beliefs in matters of religion. 8 nan, and it was not least in Radhakrishnan's subsequent work that Faith is immediate trust in God, the existential dimension of reli­ a new and more flexible pattern of Hindu ethics came to light, gion; beliefs are the intellectual and culturally conditioned formu­ partly if not wholly as a result of the stimulus provided by Hogg's lations to which people resort in attempting to delimit and explain thinking.14 faith. Faith is absolute; beliefs are relative, though frequently tak­ From the problem of finding a fundamental contrast of theo­ en in error to be themselves absolute. This is a matter of the ut­ .logical principle between Christian and Hindu modes of belief, most importance in the Christian encounter with Hinduism. Hogg next turned his attention to the question of the nature of Writing in his early article "The Christian Interpretation of Media­ faith. Intellectual beliefs are important, and Hogg was too much of tion," he put it this way: an intellectual himself not to take them fully into account; but un­ derlying the diversity of belief there is the oneness of faith. What Is it possible to state the Christian estimate of Jesus as the one is faith, though? Clearly it is absolute and unquestioning trust in a unique Mediator between God and man in a way which shall not God who reveals himself: so much is clear. Hinduism is by no repel sympathetic and thoughtful Hindus? In the formulation of this means without revelation; but to Hogg, God's revelation of him­ estimate preserved in the Creeds of Christendom there is much that appears hopelessly foreign to Indian ways of thinking, and it may self in Jesus Christ is final and normative. Although this position is not be rash to conjecture that, if Christianity had made its first abid­ in some ways not unlike that of the "fulfillment school" led by ing conquest in India instead of in Europe, its Creeds would have J. N. Farquhar, Hogg was strongly opposed to the suggestion that been couched in a terminology singularly different." Christianity fulfills Hinduism (a claim made by Farquhar only in the

66 International Bulletin of Missionary Research sense that Christ is Christianity-an extreme liberal point of view cisive mind grappling with interrelated problems, occasionally en­ which Hogg found somewhat naive), The claim that the fulfill­ tering into polite discussion with an intellectual partner, but after ment relationship subsists between religions Hogg therefore found 1928 being forced to concern itself more and more with the daily unacceptable: he found this claim both unintentionally conde­ round and common task of Christian higher education in Madras scending and theologically inadequate: "we feel [he wrote] that and in India generally. He tackled some quite formidable oppo­ the claim that Christ is the crown of Hinduism is little more than a nents-most notably Albert Schweitzer, whom he accused of do­ debating-point.... What Christ directly fulfills is not Hinduism ing outstandingly right things for the most inadequate intellectual but the need of which India has begun to be conscious, the need, reasons.s? In a politically hyperactive India he lectured on the same by making her feel conscious of which, he has made her no longer need for a solid basis for a belief in social progress, in his mono­ quite Hindu.T'" Hindu faith, in other words, must find a new graph The Challenge of the Temporal Process (1933). He opened a brief point of reference, rather than merely a smooth organic (or evolu­ but important correspondence with Lesslie Newbigin, in which he tionary) transition into a closely related, though theologically min­ discussed, among other things, the new "Barthianism": "I rejoice imal, Christianity. Again, though, one is forced back to the to see the Barthian lay low the Modernist, but I am rather appalled question of the nature of faith. at the cost at which it seems to me to be done. I feel as if the Hogg's second and third books (as well as numerous articles) Barthian bull had pursued the matador (Modernism) into the china deal with this question. Christ's Message of the Kingdom (1911) dis­ shop, and were disposing of him there, at a destructive cost to misses both the activist ethical notion that the kingdom of God is many precious things."2l A couple of years previously, on a slight­ to be "brought in" by humankind's moral effort, and the more ly different and more practical level, he had been much involved passive notion that God will bring in the kingdom in his own good behind the scenes in the work of the "Lindsay Commission" on time irrespective of what human beings mayor may not do; and Christian Higher Education in India.P points to the importance of faith as the missing factor in the argu­ There remain two further events to be recorded. In the late ment.l" There is no question of God's unwillingness to bring the 1920s and early 1930s Hogg's thought had undergone something of kingdom into being: merely of the human lack of faith preventing its a revolution, in that he had been forced for the first time to take coming. Hogg was to return to this question again and again in his seriously the fact of the church. Previously, he felt, his interpreta­ subsequent writing, though in greatly refined forms. In practical tion of the Christian faith had been far too individualistic, and ac­ terms, however, what it meant was that the Christian missionary cordingly he jettisoned much of his pre-1928 theology.P And in in India (or elsewhere) was called, not to a life of more and more 1938, at the Tambaram Conference of the IMC, he entered into a feverish activity, but first of all to a life of prayer and devotion-a direct confrontation with Hendrik Kraemer over the presupposi­ life of faith. Without this firm spiritual foundation, in which the tions of the latter's massive book The Christian Message in a Non­ life of the intellect was brought into accord with the life of the Christian World, which he found imprecise on a number of Spirit, and in which faith received fuller and more adequate ex­ important points.P The trouble with Kraemer, he felt, was that pression in terms of belief, the missionary's task would be a hope­ while the noted Dutch missionary scholar had wanted to leave less one. It was in Hogg's book Redemption from This World, or the open the possibility of a positive affirmation of God's revealing Supernatural in Christianity (1922) that the "faith" question received work in religions other than Christianity, he had been unable to its fullest treatment. This book centers on the problem of miracles; reconcile this possibility with a narrower view of revelation, in but in the end it is a full and impressive statement of Christian be­ which all religion (empirical Christianity included) is merely an ex­ lief in a God who is in no way bounded by the cause-and-effect pression of human self-assertion, and as such antithetical to divine categories associated with a mechanistic world-view. Again it was revelation. Kraemer would not have been in such difficulties, India that had taught Hogg the weakness of what was at that time Hogg maintained. the common liberal Christian assumption that "natural law" was, so to speak, God's only method of working in the world.l? In 1910 if he had held the conviction (grounded on faith in the Divine Love he wrote: revealed in Christ) that God is always seeking to reveal Himself to every man, and that the limited measure (or the no-measure) in We have become obsessed by the idea of natural law to the point of which the revelation succeeds in breaking through is man's fault tying down the infinite God to that single system of which science and not God's decree. 25 is spelling out the laws. But at the same time our sensibilities have been aroused to the ruthlessness of natural, social, and economic And why had Kraemer restricted to Christianity his separation be­ law. India's question has come home to us. Can such a tragedy, even tween the ideal and the actual in religion? The distinction between if just, worthily sum up God?18 faith and beliefs is everywhere apparent; and in Hogg's view it simply would not do to refer the latter to a human "religious con­ India denies that, provided that we can spell out all the laws of the sciousness" ("An abstract concept belonging to the psychologist's system in operation around us, we shall have succeeded in search­ stock-in-trade.r'-s] and restrict the former to a Christian gospel ing out the ultimate Reality which is God. Hogg, too, denied it, be­ having only an enigmatic and indistinct content. The Christian lieving the world instead to be, not maya, but "plastic, in an must not merely announce to his Hindu or Muslim brother that a incalculable degree, to a will that transcends our fullest acquaint­ certain revelation has taken place, he must be explicit as to the con­ ance"19 Of this belief, Redemption from This World was Hogg's fullest tent of the revelation of God in Christ. And for Hogg that content and most mature statement. This book is a work of missiology was perfectly summed up in the phrase "The Word was made only by implication; but we would do well to remember that al­ flesh": though delivered in lecture form in Edinburgh, it was the product of a Christian theological mind at work in an Indian context, and a Without some divine self-revelation there can be no real religion book the argument of which was organically related to the earlier anywhere or of any kind. For God is subject, not object, and so can­ Karma and Redemption articles. not be known except He expresses Himself. God really speaks; He It is not easy to divide up Hogg's career as a missionary by re­ has spoken in sundry places and by divers manners.F ferring it to external events, or even to dramatic internal develop­ ments: there were few enough of either. He left no diaries, and not It is perhaps also worth noting that several of the group of Indian many letters have survived. Only his published works show an in­ lay theologians who at the time of the Tambaram Conference pro­

April1982 67 duced that notable manifesto Rethinking Christianity in India had for­ such a man to the dimensions of one brief article. He was an intel­ merly been pupils of Hogg's at the Madras Christian College. That lectual giant, and a man whose writings can still inspire something Kraemer's book was in greater accord with the thinking of the Eu­ of the same awe that his contemporaries, whether fellow mission­ ropean delegates to the conference is clear; and yet one cannot es­ aries or students, so evidently felt in his presence. Briefly forgot­ cape the impression, forty years on, that Kraemer was unable ten, there are encouraging signs that Hogg may be well on the way either to answer Hogg's objections or to comprehend the position to rediscovery, not only as a missionary alongside Farquhar, Mac­ taken by the Rethinking Christianity group. nicol, Andrews, and Larsen, but equally (and perhaps still more) as Shortly after the end of this conference, Hogg left India for a theologian alongside Forsyth, Mackintosh, and the Baillies. In the last time, to become an obscure parish minister in obscure the last resort, though, it is perhaps best to try to sum up his life corners of wartime Scotland. But what had he left behind? and legacy not in philosophical or theological terms, but as an ex­ Most obviously, he had left a series of books and articles al­ ample of Christian devotion. In 1933 Hogg spoke these words as most unique in twentieth-century missionary literature-unique part of an ordination address: for their elegance of style and their refusal to opt for easy prag­ matic solutions to complex problems, unique for the tenacity with Christian preaching is the effort to put into words the distinctive which their author pursued cardinal issues and the firmness with spiritual secret of the life of the Church ... , and it possesses ready which he rejected the facile and the fashionable. As an education­ appeal only for those who have watched that life being lived.... In ist, Hogg left generations of devoted (if occasionally somewhat be­ a non-Christian land this predisposing cause of attentiveness to the Christian message is absent. So everywhere the foreign missionary wildered) students, both Christians (like P. D. Devanandan and organization has to exhibit the Christian life in operation before D. G. Moses) and Hindus (like Radhakrishnan and C. T. K. Chari); there can be much effective preaching.... Preaching is interpreta­ he also left the new Tambaram campus as the visible sign of his tion; and in order to be effectual, the missionary's preaching has to unfulfilled dream of a Christian university in India.F" On the spiri­ be the interpretation of a life which he is living with the people and tuallevel, his contribution is impossible to evaluate, but one is left for the people, directed to ends of which they appreciate the value. with the impression that whether or not his colleagues fully un­ And this life must be of a distinctive quality which will make men derstood him, very many looked up to him as a karmayogin. a man wish to discover its spiritual secret. Only then will they give inter­ of depth and burning sincerity of purpose who had looked more ested heed to the missionary's effort to interpret, in words and ideas deeply than most into the secret place of the Most High, but which they can understand, the Gospel that is his inspiration.P? whose devotion was never divorced from the practicalities of life in the India he loved. Hogg's life was of such quality; and that is why to some of us at Hogg's last book was called The Christian Message fo the Hindu least, both in India and beyond, the name of Alfred George Hogg (1947), and summed up the whole of the missionary thinking of is more than just another name in the history books, a representa­ his thirty-five years in India. To some extent a recapitulation, this tive of the missionary ideals and strategies of a bygone age. We is still a book of freshness and insight, and a notable contribution need the witness of his wholeness, the example of his devotion, both to missionary debate and to the wider field of Christian the­ and the exhilaration of following his disciplined mind today more ology. It shows a man who all his life had learned the lessons of than ever. We need his theological realism and the courage with sympathy of approach, accuracy of thought, and courtesy of dia­ which he rejected spurious simplicity, slogans, and cliches. Surely logue, and was prepared to compromise on none of them. It con­ the time 'is ripe for the rediscovery, not only of Hogg, but of the tains this exhortation to the missionary: generation of which he was a part. Perhaps their problems are not the precise prototypes of our problems; but we are not so rich that Let us make the offer of our gift, the vision of the glory of God in we can afford to ignore them, nor so wise that we can do without the face of Jesus Christ; and let us leave it, as far as may be, to the them. Hindu himself to assess the worth of the life which that vision in­ Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, a Hindu who generally did not like spires as compared with what may be otherwise attained. In any missionaries, wrote on Hogg's death-and with this testimony we case he [the Hindu] will accept no assessment but his own; and may end- rightly so, for only he to whom God has drawn near through Hin­ duism can tell how far within lithe secret of His tabernacle" God He was undoubtedly one of the greatest Christian teachers of his may set one whose thoughts and forms of worship are still Hindu.s? generation. His books are known for their philosophical penetration and religious sensitivity. He has left a permanent mark on the minds In writing thus briefly about Hogg, I have become more than of those who came under his influence.!' usually aware of the danger of scaling down the contribution of

Notes

(Books and articles by Hogg unless otherwise stated)

1. For background and family details, see Rena L. Hogg, A Master-Builder 6. Two copies are extant. One is in the Missionary Research Library, New on the Nile (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1914). York; the other is in the possession of Rev. Prof. David Cairns, Aber­ 2. His most influential teacher was Andrew Seth [Pringle-Pattison]. See deen. Sharpe, The Theology ofA. G. Hogg (Bangalore and Madras: C.I.S.R.S. and 7. Reprinted in 1970, with an introduction by the present writer. C.L.S., 1971), pp. 8ff. 8. Recent writers who have drawn attention to the same fundamental dis­ 3. For Hogg's estimate of Ritschlian principle, see "The Christian Inter­ tinction include Raimundo Panikkar, The Intra-Religious Dialogue (New pretation of Mediation" (1904), p. 5. York: Paulist Press, 1978), pp. 17ff; and Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Faith 4. "The Claim of Society on the Metaphysically-Minded," in The Philo­and Belief(Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1979), passim. sophical Quarterly (1936), p. 298. 9. "The Christian Interpretation of Mediation" (1904), p. 1. S. "The Authority of the Bible," in MCCM (1918), offprint pagination 10. Karma and Redemption (1923 ed.), p. vii. p.2. 11. Ibid., p. 5.

68 International Bulletin of Missionary Research 12. Ibid., p. 49. only been bred in the East, have counted it almost his only ethical obli­ 13. This quotation is from a 1909 book review, preserved in the Hogg Col­ gation to maintain a collected poise of soul and to further his own lection. I have not been able to trace its original source. spiritual development....?" "The Ethical Teaching of Dr. Schweitzer," 14. Radhakrishnan wrote his first book, Ethics ofthe Vedanta (1908), partly as in International Review ofMissions (1925), p. 239. an answer to Karma and Redemption. It was highly commended by Hogg 21. Letter, Hogg to Newbigin, June 13, 1937. for its "remarkable understanding of the main aspects of the philo­ 22. A. D. Lindsay, ed., Report of the Commission on Christian Higher Education in sophical problem." See Radhakrishnan, "My Search for Truth," in V. India (1931). Ferm, ed., Religion in Transition (London: Allen and Unwin, 1937), pp. 23. Characteristically, Hogg told the story of his "change of heart" in a let­ 19f. ter to a student, Mr. (later Professor) C. T. K. Chari, dated Jan. 27, 1939. 15. Review in International Review ofMissions (1914), p. 171. See also The Christian Message to the Hindu (1947), pp. 45ff. 16. In view of the importance to missiology of the kingdom-of-God idea, 24. See "The Christian Attitude to Non-Christian Faith," in TheAuthority of not least in the wake of the "Your Kingdom Come" conference (Mel­ theFaith (Tambaram Series I, 1939), pp. 102ff. Later Hogg elaborated his bourne 1980), it is a little surprising that earlier levels of the debate views in a pamphlet, "Towards Clarifying My Reactions to Dr. have aroused practically no attention. Would detailed examination Kraemer's Book" (privately printed, 1939). See also TheChristian Message show that the kingdom idea has been repeatedly pressed into service in to the Hindu (1947), p. 37f. support of a wide variety of conflicting missionary ideals? 25. "Towards Clarifying My Reactions ... ," p. 3. 17. The influence of Henry Drummond's book Natural Law in the Spiritual 26. Ibid., p. 5. World (1883) should be borne in mind. Within a decade this book had 27. Ibid., pp. 7f. Cf. Hogg's Christmas Day sermon to the Tambaram Con­ passed through some thirty editions-adequate testimony to the force ference delegates, reprinted in Addresses and OtherRecords (Tambaram Se­ of its impact. ries VII, 1939), pp. 131ff. 18. World Missionary Conference, Monthly NewsSheet4 (January 1910): 74. 28. The Challenge of the Hourfor the Madras Christian College (1930), p. 12. 19. "Christianity as Emancipation from This World" (1909), offprint, p. 22. 29. The Christian Message to the Hindu (1947), pp. 29f. 20. In his critique of Schweitzer, Hogg's question was: "With what right 30. The Charges at the ordination of the Rev. R. S. Macnicol, M.A. (May does the man of moral earnestness in the West reckon it a duty to toil 21, 1933). Manuscript in the Hogg Collection. for the betterment of the world, when more probably he would, had he 31. TheMadras Guardian, Feb. 3, 1955.

Selected Bibliography

Material Written by Hogg

1903 "Agnosticism and Faith." Madras Christian College Magazine 1911 Christ's Message of the Kingdom. Madras: Christian Literature Society. (MCCM), August 1903, pp. 75-84. 225 pp. Numerous later editions under this and other imprints. 1904 "The Christian Interpretation of Mediation." MCCM, January 1917 "The God That Must Needs Be Christ Jesus." The International Re­ 1904, pp. 357-69. Also printed separately as Papers on the Great view of Missions (IRM), 1917, pp. 62-73, 221-32, 383-94, 521-33. Truths of Christianity, no. 10. Madras. 1922 Redemption from This World, or theSupernatural in Christianity (Cunning­ ham Lectures). Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark. 278 pp. "Mr. S. Subrahmanya Sastri on Hindu Philosophy." MCCM, Sep­ 1930 The Challenge of the Hour for the Madras Christian College. Madras: tember 1904,.pp. 121-28. M.C.C. 20 pp. 1904-5 "Karma and Redemption." MCCM, December 1904, pp. 281-92; 1936 "The Claim of Society on the Metaphysically-Minded." ThePhilo­ January 1905, pp. 359-73; February 1905, pp. 393-409; March sophical Quarterly, January 1936, pp. 295-310. 1905, pp. 449-62; April 1905, pp. 505-22. 1939 "The Christian Attitude to Non-Christian Faith." The Authority of In book form, Madras: The Christian Literature Society, 1909. Re­ theFaith (Tambar am Series I), pp. 102-25. printed 1923 and 1970. 1947 TheChristian Message to the Hindu (Duff Missionary Lectures, 1945). 1909 "Christianity as Emancipation from this World." Reprinted from London: S.C.M. Press. 104 pp. MCCM, July and August 1909. 29 pp.

Material Written about Hogg

Chari, C. T. K. "Alfred George Hogg as a Teacher of Philosophy." Souvenir Thought for a Theology of Dialogue." TheScottish Journal of Theology, 1979, Volume: 38th Session of the Indian Philosophical Congress. Madras, 1964, pp. 61­ pp.241-56. 64. Reid, John K. S. "Under-estimated Theological Books: A. G. Hogg's Cox, James L. "The Development of A. G. Hogg's Theology in Relation to 'Christ's Message of the Kingdom.'" The Expository Times, July 1961, pp. Non-Christian Faith: Its Significance for the Tambaram Meeting of the 300-302. International Missionary Council 1938." Unpublished Ph.D. Disserta­ Sharpe, Eric J. The Theology of A. G. Hogg. Bangalore: C.I.S.R.S.; and Madras: tion, the University of Aberdeen, Scotland, 1977. C.L.S., 1971. 254 pp. ---. "Faith and Faiths: The Significance of A. G. Hogg's Missionary

April1982 69 Western Medicine and the Primal World-View

Russell L. Staples

estern medical workers in a primal country may have to sary to secure the spiritual force of the sacral world to make the W do with numerous situations that are rather different medicine efficacious or his wife would die. In his view the only in­ from those to which they are accustomed. The hospital and its fa­ strumentality that could achieve this end was the sacral "word." cilities may leave much to be desired. The range of the medical My scientific "rational" understanding of what constituted a rem­ practice they are called on to encompass may be intimidatingly edy had collided head-on with his primal concepts of the real wide and so also their general responsibilities in connection with forces that could effect a cure. the running and administration of an institution. Perhaps the On another occasion I observed a conversation between a ru­ greatest difficulty, however, after one has grown past an initial pe­ ral traditionalist and the friend who had brought him to see the riod of adjustment to all of this, is that of effective communication mission doctor. After seeing the physician, the tribesman was no­ across the cultural barrier between the medical practitioner and the ticeably agitated. He upbraided his friend severely for bringing local people. And of course the achievement of one's aims in him, "a sick man," all the distance to see"this gentleman." "How health care are very much tied up with the matter of sympathetic can he help?" he asked. "All he did was to ask me questions." The understanding and communication. implication, of course, was that the illness had a spiritual cause Different cultures are not simply social locations in which fa­ and a proper doctor would have "divined" the source and pre­ miliar things, institutions, and relationships are tagged with differ­ scribed an appropriate remedy (most likely a ritual procedure plus ent labels. If this were the case, cross-cultural communication some medicine) and not have spent an unconscionably long time would be merely a matter of learning the appropriate vocabulary. asking seemingly irrelevant questions. People in different cultures live in different worlds, and successful An old man who suffered with migraine headaches came into communication is not simply a matter of learning a new vocabu­ my office one afternoon and sank down onto the floor in a corner. lary; it is dependent upon the mastery of the fundamental gram­ Supporting his head with both hands, he asked me to do some­ mar of understanding of that other world-view. It is easy to learn thing for the terrible headaches he suffered. I told him I was not a new words, but it is a much more difficult and complex matter to doctor, and could not do anything, but that the nurse at the dis­ learn a way of thinking that is in conflict with established patterns pensary could give him pills that would help. He seemed to deflate of thought. The"scientific mind" is so certain of the correctness of into a heap, and a long silence ensued. When he had gathered its rationality that the resistance it raises-both conscious and un­ strength, he silently struggled to his feet and started to leave. As I conscious-to primal patterns of thought is a tremendous impedi­ helped him at the door, he gave me a long, anguished look and ment. The missionary is not accorded the opportunity of a then turned resolutely away. That look haunted me. It was as if he tabula-rasa approach: one cannot start from scratch as do small were saying, "Do you think I do not know all of this? Do you children; there is an uphill battle against deeply ingrained patterns. think I have not taken those pills? Do you, who arrived here yes­ However, the matter is worth working on, because effective com­ terday, so to say, need to show me, who was born on this place, munication-beyond the level of surface generalities-is depen­ the way to the dispensary?" Only later did I realize in what way dent upon the ability to think in terms of the categories and logic and how badly I had failed him. A recurring pain, as bad as that he of the other world-view. suffered, must have some spiritual origin. It is necessary to identi­ The medical practitioner is just as deeply involved in the fy the cause and deal with the problem at its source. The real pos­ problem of cross-cultural communication as is the teacher of the sibility in cases such as this is that the person will go to a diviner gospel. There are many reasons for this. Medical persons frequent­ who will listen sympathetically, divine the cause, and either render ly have to do with people in crisis situations in which the latter are or prescribe appropriate ritual and/or medicinal treatment. The strongly inclined to fall back on traditional understandings and church will then have failed to show that the gospel has meaning procedures of healing. Psychosomatic conditions may be grounded for every dimension of life, and so lose the battle by default. in traditional world-views, and success in health education may be If these experiences are reduced to a simple bipolar equation, promoted by an understanding of traditional concepts of causality then the dominant factors may be seen to be the same in each case. and the utilization of articulating ways of teaching the basics of At one pole are the scientific Westerners, with their rational inter­ healthful living. est in the etiology of the illness; at the other are the primal persons I was called to administer antisnakebite serum to a woman who personalize and externalize the forces of evil and therefore who had been bitten on the calf by a large cobra. The woman was look outside themselves to discover "who" has caused the illness, in extremis when I arrived on the scene about thirty min~tes after "how" it has been caused, and for "what reason." Of course, the the event. Hastily I filled the syringe and prepared to inject. As I basic epistemology at each pole is vastly different, and therefore was inserting the needle, the husband, who was not a Christian, also the approach to the problem. cried, "Stop! Pray first." He was sure that the medicine was not At the first pole, Westerners, in spite of a self-conscious reli­ powerful enough in itself to undo the death that was coming upon gious commitment, are inclined, in the first instance, to draw upon her. In terms of his understanding of reality it was vitally neces- the resources available in their pharmacopoeia of drugs. And per­ haps, and again in spite of themselves, in the final analysis they have greater faith in the hypodermic needle and the medical pro­ Russell L. Staples is Associate Professor of Mission at the Seventh-day Adventist Theo­ cesses within their control than in divine intervention. logical Seminary, Andrews University, Berrien Springs, Michigan. He served for ten At the other pole, the primal person is inclined to think of the years as a missionary in Rhodesia and is currently involved with missionary research in physician as a wonderfully competent technician, who neverthe­ Africa for the Adventist church. less is over-preoccupied with second-order concerns, and strangely

70 International Bulletin of Missionary Research blind to the real forces that control the circumstances of existence. Such moments of truth are intensely revealing. Theretore it is And, of course, for the primal person the healing brought about by perhaps not surprising that those fellow Christians in the primal the physician cannot be more than a precarious half-cure because world who get to know us best begin to detect certain tensions be­ it deals only with the effects of the illness and leaves untouched tween our attitudes and the world-view they seem to find in the the forces that have produced it. To prevent a recurrence, and to Bible. The Bible does indeed reveal a strange and wonderful world. make the person completely whole and safe, recourse must be had It is a world of miracles, of corporate oneness, of blessings and to instrumentalities and agents that can effectively squelch the cursings that attribute a phenomenal power to the spoken word, of disease at its source. divine interventions of many kinds, of healings that result from Relatively small and simple mission hospitals in which there the casting out of devils, and of resurrections from the dead. All are cordial personal relationships between patients and medical this is simply accepted as a commonplace in the primal world; . personnel and in which a supportive religious approach to healing there is no intellectual difficulty standing in the way of belief. is maintained would appear to be more congenial to the primal What may disturb the primal person is the truncated understand­ person than large sophisticated institutions that employ an imper­ ing the missionary appears to have of such things. And it is espe­ sonal high-technology approach. This is one of the reasons why cially the medical practitioners-if they are sensitive enough to mission hospitals have often been preferred by primal peoples to recognize it-who are vulnerable to this kind of scrutiny. Physi­ state hospitals. It is the religious approach to illness and healing cians or nurses do not heal by casting out demons-in fact, they that speaks to the primal need, and this seems to be the case even seem to know very little about such matters-and neither do they if the answer is provided by a religion other than that of the primal seem to know how to handle people who have been cursed or be­ person. witched, nor even to recognize the significance of dreams. And The sacral world-view of the primal person is certainly differ­ what of the category of persons who believe they have been resur­ ent from the theistic world-view reflected in the Bible. For one rected from the dead? And so it goes. thing, the primal world-view is local rather than universal. Primal As mission-sponsored health-care programs move along the religions are local in that they are closed systems of thought fo­ road of rational scientific medicine, in which illness is treated as a cused upon local deities and spirits, which sustain relationships purely medical problem, they move further away from the primal almost exclusively with a specific group of people. In contradis­ world in which religion and healing are parts of the same concep­ tinction, both the God and the man of the first chapters of Genesis tuality. Early medical practitioners may not have known much have universal significance. God is the creator, and Adam is the fa­ about the primal world-view, but their intensely religious ap­ ther, of all humankind. The universality of these chapters disturbs proach to the problem of illness engaged the primal conceptuality primal patterns of thought to the core. on a familiar wave length. And even if the details of the religious In the second instance, the primal world-view tends to be mo­ approach-what it included and what it left out-were bewilder­ nistic. Reality is regarded as being a vast network of interrelated ing to the primal patient, the latter at least had the feeling that the spiritual forces in which every being and every thing is related to proper dimensions of the illness were being attended to. Religion every other spiritual force. The good life is the life that is lived in and healing were held together in a tight unity. The most funda­ harmony with the moral order of reality. To offend against that mental weakness of many contemporary medical missionary en­ order is to bring calamity not only upon oneself, but also upon the terprises is that this unity is broken and the process of healing is whole community. The evil forces of reality must be restrained separated from the gospel. and rendered impotent, and the beneficent forces must be support­ This may be as much a problem of style as of fundamental re­ ed and kept well disposed toward the community. The means by ligious orientation. We Westerners compartmentalize (fragment?) which this may be accomplished is religious ritual. our lives. As a matter of professional respectability we separate the Ritual words and, actions are believed to have power to alter various roles we perform. Physicians are generally expected to iso­ the disposition of the spiritual forces toward the human society. A late their religion from their practice of medicine in all particulars person may be the target of malevolent mystical forces, or one may except for a basic underlying morality. These professional values initiate such action against another person. Evil in all its forms­ carryover into the situation of mission, and most Westerners have illness, calamity, drought, accident, etc.-is regarded as being a extreme difficulty in melding professional roles and the practice of consequence of forces set in motion by other human beings or de­ religion into a seamless lifestyle. Where this can be achieved in the ities or ancestors or spirits rather than the result of a natural cause primal world, it is a tremendous asset, for in that world life is all of or of chance. one piece, there are no shallow divisions between sacred and pro­ On this view the process of healing starts with the diviner. It fane, between church and state, between religion and healing. is essential to find out who has caused the difficulty and why it Many of the independent churches in Africa have joined to­ has been brought about. Only after this is known can proper re­ gether the gospel and healing in a way that has escaped most of storative measures be undertaken. If a deity or ancestor has been the mission churches. (See M. L. Daneel, Zionism andFaith-Healing in neglected or offended, then a sacrifice may be prescribed; if one Rhodesia [The Hague: Mouton, 1970] and the chapter on "Healing" has been "bewitched" by a sorcerer, then recourse must be had to in M. West, Bishops and Prophets in a Black City [Cape Town: David counteracting ritual action or medicine. Of course, it is recognized Philip, 1975], for African examples.) This constitutes the major at­ by the primal person that there are physical aspects of illness, and traction of some of these movements. Much can be learned from the importance of dealing with these is not missed, but this dimen­ these movements about the longings and desires of the local popu­ sion of illness remains a somewhat second-order concern. lace and the styles of treatment that answer to the problems they In spite of the important differences between primal and bib­ face. This is not at all to suggest that Christian medical practition­ lical patterns of thought, they would seem to have greater affinity ers should adopt the methods and instrumentalities of these agen­ with one another than either has with an out-and-out secular cies. We have our own religious understandings and commitments world-view. Medical practitioners are perhaps more children of and standards of medical practice, and these should not be com­ the times in which they live than might be realized. In moments promised. But we should be no less motivated than the leaders of that have forced a confrontation between primal and scientific ra­ these movements to join together the gospel and sympathetic tional ways of thinking, as in the cases cited above, I have been health care in the discharge of a ministry and in the search for the shocked into an awareness of my own incipient secularity. wholeness of life that is reflected in the gospel.

April 1982 71 Toward a New Missiology for the Church • Simon E. Smith, S.].

hat would happen if one were to invite a few creative remain so despite all efforts to homogenize cultures by technologi­ W theologians from different parts of the world, say one cal and other overlays; that Christ is the sacrament of God, a con­ from Asia and another from Africa, among others, to sit down to­ cept which (when spelled out in detail) renders less absolute a gether and start to share with each other their vision of what a great deal of our common thinking about the necessity of salvation missiology for the future would look like? What if a couple of in and through Jesus alone. these folk were to be themselves missionaries and a couple more In addition to making explicit these and other presupposi­ the recipients of former missionary care? What, furthermore, if tions, the four participants in this mini-conference also agreed on one invited each of them to critique our current theories and meth­ some essential points of departure in their thinking and writing, ods in mission and then challenged them to come up with a viable which are necessary if a new missiology is to be realistic and credi­ alternative? ble. They said, for example, that the fundamental point of depar­ Well, it happened. For a week together at Maryknoll, New ture is the option for the poor of today's world. They also said it York, in September 1981, four very different and supremely capa­ would be folly to proceed without a clear historico-social analysis ble individuals started a process to create a contemporary Catholic of any situation before taking action. Their view of the kingdom, missiology. the church, Jesus, and God was also spelled out so that each of Father Ngindu Mushete of the diocese of Kinshasa, Zaire, edi­ them saw clearly the theological bases from which each would tor of the Bulletin of African Theology, who has been doing some cre­ proceed. ative writing about the mission of the church in Africa and the With all this more or less in place, they then addressed the ba­ challenge of inculturation, was the first. He was joined by Father sic problem of starting to articulate a theology of mission that Aloysius Pieris, S.J., of Sri Lanka, editor of Dialogue, director of a would take account of the reality of the world, of the beliefs of Center for the Encounter of Christianity and Buddhism, a world­ other peoples, of the vast cultural differences that each continent renowned expert on Buddhism and a prolific author. presents, and the like. Then there was Father Juan Hernandez-Pico, S.j., a Basque The basic comprehensive goal of mission is, they said, to pro­ who has spent most of his Jesuit life in Central America, particu­ mote and serve the unification and healing of our divided, wound­ larly in Guatemala, and who has pseudonymously authored some ed humanity through bearing the burdens of all and through creative pieces of theological reflection on the present suffering of sharing resources, with full respect for humanity's invincible cul­ God's people in Central America. Finally, there was Father Eugene tural pluralism. That may sound a bit flowery or too rhetorical. Hillman, C.S.Sp., a professional missiologist, a long-time mission­ But it is packed with implications that will radically change the ary to the Masai in Kenya and Tanzania, and author of several way missionaries behave and even who is to be considered a mis­ books flowing out of his experience. sionary. For example, the agent of this "mission," as described The mix was rich; the participants previously unknown to above, is not necessarily a foreign missionary or even a cleric or a each other. So the first order of process was to spend over a full religious. Further, the solidarity that this "unification" calls for day just "telling each other their stories": the personal history, the will look different in each continent: for Latin America it will be a formative influences on one's life and thought, one's personal and solidarity against oppressive domination, for Asia it may be a soli­ theological priorities, and so forth. darity amid the density of religious pluralism, for Africa it may be Once those seeds of mutual understanding and trust were more a fraternity within and across autonomous cultures. planted, the group then spent a period of time critiquing both con­ What does all this have to do with being a missionary? How temporary and historical theories and practices of missionaries. does it alter or modify the missionary's behavior? The four theolo­ That laid some groundwork for the real work of the week, which gians suggested that the missionary of the future will be interested was to start to outline (and eventually flesh out) a whole new ap­ in helping people, of whatever culture, to retell the story of Jesus proach to mission, which could serve for decades to come. in their own way, using their own myths and metaphors, and will First there was the question of airing some commonly held be less worried about the orthodoxy of that retelling. The actual presuppositions that would underlie any fresh theory. They were, agents of that retelling are more likely to be the indigenous peo­ for example, that the present theoretical models of the conversion ples themselves, not foreigners and probably not theologians. And of infidels and even of "implantation" of the church are quite in­ the shape of the Jesus story will not be the same everywhere. In adequate (for many reasons, which the participants spelled out to Latin America Jesus will be seen as liberator, in Asia as taraka (the their mutual satisfaction); that proclamation today is more likely guide across the river), in Africa as the great ancestor. to be effective when it takes the form of dialogue, particularly A corollary to this is that missionaries will go out to discover with people who already have their own faith-convictions, which the seeds of the kingdom (not "to bring Christ") in another place must be reverenced; that our world is culturally pluriform and will or people or culture and will themselves participate in the growth toward the kingdom that is already underway there. The four theologians have now gone their various ways, but not without first committing themselves to writing down this new missiology. It will take a year or more and when they come back Simon E. Smith, S.f., is Executive Secretary ofJesuit Missions, Inc., Washington, D.C. together again in 1983 they will attempt to synthesize their respec­ He served in Baghdad, Iraq, 1953-58, and wasfor many yearsan editor of New Tes­ tive reflections and offer to the church a challenging, fresh theol­ tament Abstracts. This article is reprinted with permission from National Jesuit ogy of mission. News (Philadelphia, Pa.), October 1981.

72 International Bulletin of Missionary Research OXFORD------...... World Christian Encyclopedia A Comparative Survey of Churches and Religions in the Modern World, A.D. 1900-2000 Edited by David B. Barrett, Research Officer, Church of the Province of Kenya and Anglican Consultative Council G. Deroy, F. Houtart, M.I. McVeigh, and T.I. Padwick, Associate Editors

"In a class by itself. Never before have we had a work of such scope and detail."-Gerald H. Anderson, Overseas Ministries Study Center. "A gold mine of information, which scholars as well as ordinary Christians interested in world Christian mission will find invaluable."-Eugene L. Stockwell, National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A. "A very important reference addition to any library ...a valuable reference book for anyone interested in the situa­ tion of Christianity in the world."-Rev. Anthony Bellagamba, IMC, United States Catholic Mis­ sion Council. "Renders instantly obsolete all previous studies of the size, distribution, and character of any and all segments of the world-wide Christian movement."-Arthur F. Glasser, Fuller Theological Seminary; editor Missiology. UAn absolutely indispensable reference tool."-David M. Stowe, United Church Board for World Ministries. "Represents the most thorough documentation of the existence of Christianity in every nation of the world that has ever been produced."-Wade T. Coggins, World Evangelical Fellowship. Features • A complete, authoritative world survey of Christianity in one volume • Compilation by 500 experts in 190 countries • Data on 150 ecclesiastical traditions, 20,800 denominations and subdivisions, 15,000 Christian organizations • Country-by-country survey of Christianity in 223 nations • A wealth of illustrations, including 1,500 maps, ,photographs, diagrams (34 maps in color) • Global chronology, A.D. 30-2000 • Dictionary of terms • Future projections to A.D. 2000 • Extensive bibliographies • Who's Who in the Christian world • Seven quick-reference indexes

March 1982 1,028 pp.; 1,500 illus., 474 maps $74.50 $95.00 after July 31, 1982 Quantity discounts are available. For information, please contact our Sales Department, (212) 679-7300, ext. 223.

Oxford University Press, Box 900 16-00 Pollitt Drive, Fair Lawn, NJ 07410 Please send me copies of the World Christian Encyclopedia at $74.50 each. I enclose my check for $ .* All orders must be prepaid. (Institutions may submit purchase order.) Publisher will pay shipping and handling. Name _ Address _ City State Zip _ *California residents please add appropriate sales tax. This offer applies in the U. S. only. If you are dissatisfied for any reason, please return the book(s) for a full refund. 82-418 Hook Reviews

Christianity and Other Religions. Selected Readings.

Edited byJohn Hickand Brian Hebblethioaite. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1981. Pp. 253. Paperback $6.95. Mission Trends No.5: Faith Meets Faith.

Edited by Gerald H Anderson and Thomas F. StransKy, C.S.P. New York/Ramsey/Tor­ onto: Paulist Press; and GrandRapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1981. Pp. x, 306. Paperback $3.95.

The deepest and most perplexing mis­ Lordship of Jesus Christ is a cultural sion is not from an earlier "orthodoxy" siological issues today are not always by-product of earlier Christian provin­ to an emerging "relativism" but that those that make headlines at ecumeni­ cialism and/or Western dominance. the poles of "religious pluralism" and cal conferences. The World Council of Should it be seen as an orthodox ves­ "Christian absolutism" seem to criss­ Churches (WCC) Melbourne Confer­ tige to be abandoned in a day of multi­ cross and intersect each other. Thus ence laid down as a new missiological lateral contact and dialogue in favor of Hick appears as a Troeltsch redioious yardstick that God is on the side of the an updated doctrine of historical and with his frank invitation to join the poor, and called for the church to move cultural relativism? "Copernican revolution" in the theol­ from the centers of power to the mar­ "What is the meaning of personal ogy of religions, by which he means re­ gins of society. At Pattaya the world's and communal confessing of biblical moving Christian revelation from the evangelicals focused on "reaching the faith in Jesus Christ, the only name by center and democratizing our evalua­ unreached" and appealed for new which we must be saved?" (Mission tion of world religions. Barth's view of cross-cultural missions to complete the Trends No.5, p. ix). This proposition is divine revelation as wholly other (for task of world evangelization. Yet nei­ examined through the eyes of a well­ some reason Hendrik Kraemer is never ther conference spent much time ad­ balanced panel of essayists represent­ mentioned) is picked up by [iirgen dressing the foundation and basis for ing mainline Protestant, conservative Moltmann but given a fresh nuance; mission. evangelical, Orthodox, and Roman alongside the task of proclamation and Mission Trends No. 5 and Christianity Catholic positions, with significant church formation Moltmann assigns and Other Religions are significant be­ variations not only between but also Christian faith the role of "critical cata­ cause they raise the question of the within each "camp." The twenty-four lyst" for change among world religions. theological foundation for mission to­ essays are divided into three sections: John Taylor's thoughtful essay, with its day. That foundation has been an­ "Mission and Religious Pluralism," illuminating treatment of the "jealou­ chored traditionally in views about "Dialogue on Dialogue," and "Inter­ sies" of every faith-beliefs that are in­ Christology. The Mission Trends volume, faith Relations in Practice." Lesslie alienable and irreducible-is printed in edited by American missiologists An­ Newbigin, Carl Braaten, and others both collections. Some questions are derson and Stransky, raises the ques­ pose penetrating methodological ques­ left unanswered by both books. Is an tion of what happens when "faith tions. The volume provides many illus­ ecumenical Christian response to other meets faith." Can the historic Christian trations of ways in which individuals faiths really possible, or will Christian belief that Jesus Christ is the universal and particular traditions have respond­ faith simply fragment over the ultimate Lord and Savior of all nations, peoples, ed to the lead question about"confess­ meaning of Jesus Christ? Can there be and cultures stand up under the stress­ ing Christ," but we end with no agreed a viable mediating position between es and strains of interreligious encoun­ norms, only a catalogue of options. The that of religious relativists and theolog­ ter? Or must Christians redefine their nearest approach to an ecumenical ical absolutists-one that affirms the mission in terms of dialogue that un­ norm is the WCC's Chiang Mai State­ ultimacy and universality of Jesus derscores mutual understanding and ment on "Dialogue in Community." Christ but also takes the truth claims of respect, but renounces all efforts at Christianity and Other Religions is, by world religions with equal seriousness? conversion? Christianity and Other Reli­ contrast, a historical anthology of elev­ Finally, can missionary commitment gions, edited by two Britishers, Hick of en mostly well-known selections ar­ and specifically evangelistic proclama­ Birmingham and Hebblethwaite of ranged chronologically and spanning tion be sustained in the absence of the Cambridge, raises the question of approximately two generations of de­ traditional Christological foundation? whether or not faith in the unique bate-from Ernst Troeltsch (1923) and These books urgently cry out for an­ Karl Barth (1939) to John Hick (1974), swers to such questions. [iirgen Moltmann, and John V. Taylor -James A. Scherer (both 1977). Representative pieces by James A. Scherer is Professor of WorldMission and Tillich, Rahner, Cantwell Smith, and Church History at the Lutheran School of Theology Panikkar also appear. The anthology in Chicago. clearly demonstrates that the progres­

74 International Bulletin of Missionary Research Archbishop Romero: Martyr of Americans, "the correct analysis"-it is Salvador. because Romero and Casaldaliga, in their preaching, their ministry, their By Placido Erdozain. Translated from the witness, undoubtedly embody and project a kind of power that, when all Spanish by John McFadden and Ruth Wer­ is said and done, one cannot but con­ ner. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1981. clude is the root-cause of everything Pp. xix, 98. Paperback $4.95. they are and do. All of which makes me think that the crucial question that churches in Mystic of Liberation. A Portrait similar situations in the Third World of Bishop Pedro Casaldaliga of must honestly and seriously confront is Brazil. precisely the problem of power, their power: What should it be? How must By Teofi/o Cabestrero. Translated from the it be used? With what effect? To what Spanish by Donald D. Walsh. Maryknoll, end? NY: Orbis Books, 1981. Pp. xxii, 200. Pa­ The what, the how, the why of perback $7.95. church power (it is not always identical with gospel power)-Romero and Ca­ The two books-and the two lives they conscienceless armed might; the power saldaliga reduce these questions to ably portray-are probably best of multinational companies, of wealth­ their particularities and answer in the summed up in one word: tragedy. generating greed; the power of the context of those same particularities. In There is tragedy, obviously, in the church, of excessively institutionalized the answering, each has his own special murder of Archbishop Romero, as well religion; the power of little people, of understanding, each has his own spe­ as in the persecution of Bishop Casal­ primordial ideas of freedom, justice, cial style, but clearly both are moved daliga. There is tragedy too in the lives dignity; the power of men and women by the same Spirit. and deaths that Romero and Casalda­ of dedication, of compelling visions The authors, Erdozain for Romero, liga touch and are touched by. But the and dreams; the power of Jesus Christ, Cabestrero for Casaldaliga, do a good greatest tragedy could well be that the of the transforming faith of the gospel. job of limning the working of the Spirit gospel these two men of faith live by In the seething social cauldron of in these two men. Their English trans­ and die by is not always seen as the South America, particularly of El Sal­ lators, John McFadden and Ruth Wer­ gospel by those who hold power in the vador and Brazil, it is these powers­ ner for the former, Donald Walsh for church. and others more-that come into con­ the latter, are excellent in their render­ Power. In a very real sense, this is flict or form alliances with one another, ing into English of what I suspect, in what the books-and the tragedy-are in their very clashing and coming to­ original Spanish, are somewhat recalci­ all about: the power of governments, of gether creating the explosive condi­ trant, the one for being too episodic tions of living under which Christians and cut up, the other for being rather like these two churchmen must con­ too lyrical. Francisco F. Claoer, S.!, is currently the Bishop of cretely act out their Christianness. But the important thing is that the the Prelaiure of Malaybalay, Bukidnon, Philip­ If I simplify a vastly complex Spirit does shine through. And tragedy pines, and an anthropologist. In 1978 Orbis Books problematic to one of power-and I thereby becomes glory. published his The Stones Cry Out: Grassroots readily concede this may not be, to use -Francisco F. Claver, S]. Pastorals. a term of obsession to many South

Toward a Philosophy of Praxis. anthropology of a personalistic bent, no doubt directly related to Max By Karol Wojtyla (Pope John Paul If). An Scheler's personalistic phenomenology Anthology edited by Alfred Bloch and George (in the earlier stage of his thought) but T. Czuczka. New York: Crossroad Publishing clearly echoing Augustinian and Tho­ Co., 1981. Pp. 152. $10.95. mistic themes. This anthropological­ personalistic approach, moreover, It has not been frequent for popes to be sistency of John Paul II. The recently deepens a line visible since Pius XII and original theologians. One might even published encyclical on work only con­ dominant in Gaudium et Spes-the Vati­ think that there is a certain incompati­ firms this conviction. can II Constitution on the Church in bility between the two roles in the Ro­ It is quite clear that Wojtyla sets the Modern World-toward which the man Catholic self-understanding. This out to develop a vision of a new society then bishop Wojtyla made a not insig­ brief selection by Bloch and Czuczka of in opposition to a materialistic under­ nificant contribution. writings from the present pope that standing of the human as expressed In his attempt to "reestablish the cover the period from years before his both in Western capitalist individual­ primacy of individual morality as the election until the first encyclical con­ ism and in communist objective col­ basis of a moral society" (p. 12), the vince us of both the vigor and the con- lectivism. The traditional Catholic author tries to overcome the dichotomy categories of response to the problems between existentialism and essential­ of social ethics are natural law and the ism, between reflection and praxis, by JoseMiguez Bonino, a president ofthe WorldCoun­ common good. Wojtyla wants to affirm a philosophy of the act: "The act per se cil of Churches, is Professor of Systematic Theology them, but not in the traditional abstract is a specific manifestation of the princi­ andEthics at theInstitute Superior Eoangilico deEs­ and static terms. Rather, he reinterprets ple of operari" (p. 13). But this, in turn, tudios Teologicos, Buenos Aires, Argentina. them on the basis of a philosophical is related to an objective moral order so

April 1982 75 that "self-fulfillment in the sense of never conferred upon man as a gift, but logical considerations (p. 30). Thus the self-realization is not synonymous proposed to him as a task to be ful­ conditioning of consciousness and act with performance of the act, but de­ filled" (p. 28). by social structures, the role of ideolo­ pends upon its moral merit" (p. 15). On the basis of these philosophi­ gy, and the like are bracketed out. Can Equally, social relations are not super­ cal interpretations it is possible to as­ the challenge of shaping a new society, imposed on personal existence but are sert the strong position of the pope on "a civilization of love" as it is some­ constitutive of it: self-realization, while human rights, the dignity of the hu­ times called, be really met merely not "a mere function of society," can man person, marriage and sexuality, through a new philosophical under­ only be attained "in community with participation in the common good-to standing of humankind-no doubt others and, beyond that, with the help the point of joint ownership of the necessary--disconnected from the con­ of society itself" (p. 25). Thus "the means of production, etc. No doubt sideration of the determining weight of common good" is not a mere "quan­ this is the strength of this approach. objective and subjective social struc­ tum" but the dynamic interchange of One may, on the other hand, doubt the tures? persons, the participatory activity of wisdom-defended on a formal basis­ -Jose Miguez Bonino human beings: "Social community is of excluding from this analysis socio­

The Bible: Its Authority and biblical authority "relationally" to Interpretation in the Ecumenical accommodate modern cultural rein­ Movement. terpretation similar to the New Testa­ ment's reinterpretation of the Old. Edited by Ellen Flesseman-oan Leer. Geneva: Between these radically divergent com­ World Council of Churches, Faith and Order mitments stand the reports of Lund Paper No. 99, 1980. Pp. ix, 79. Paperback 1952, Montreal 1963, Bristol 1967, Lou­ $4.95. vain 1971, and Loccum 1977. Oxford 1949, as we said, began The instability inherent in contempo­ which this phrase is understood within with "the biblical message" and looked rary theories of biblical authority is the ecumenical community, but indi­ to the guidance 'of the Bible and of the graphically illustrated by continually cates also the constantly shifting posi­ Holy Spirit working through it, and not revised commitments of the World tions of theological leaders who have to general principles brought to Scrip­ Council of Churches Faith and Order broken with the historic Protestant em­ ture, in making social and political Commission study groups. This paper­ phasis on the objective cognitive au­ commitments. Montreal 1963 held that back gathers together for the first time thority of Scripture? Dr. Flesseman-van God's past revelation is not now acces­ in a single volume the relevant reports Leer, the editor, provides incisive intro­ sible as "a sum of fixed tenets" and, made by successive conferences during ductory comments that anticipate some amid the first Roman Catholic partici­ the past thirty years, from the Wad­ important perspectival changes. But pation, rejected an absolute distinction ham College, Oxford 1949 through the one must read all the reports to recog­ between the Bible and tradition. Bristol Bangalore 1978 sessions. nize that the continually altered per­ 1967 abandoned the theological unity During World War II the Europe­ spectives grow in some instances out of of the Bible, declared its diversity en­ an Reformation churches affirmed a re­ prior mediating positions and in others riching, and attributed even theological discovery of the Bible, and the wee out of creative exploration of alterna­ contradictions to Scripture. It promoted New Delhi 1961 assembly added to tives. a dynamic relational view that the Bi­ its basis the phrase that affiliated Oxford 1949 looked to grammati­ ble is authoritative only when experi­ churches confess Jesus Christ "accord­ cal-historical interpretation to identify enced as such. Louvain 1971 approved ing to the Scriptures." This series of as Word of God a fixed biblical mes­ other approaches than historical-gram­ Faith and Order documents not only sage that centers in christological wit­ matical exegesis, and adduced the con­ reflects the many divergent ways in ness and that addresses all issues. temporary situation and its problems as Bangalore 1978 welcomed the Old Tes­ an indispensable hermeneutical catego­ tament, and deuterocanonicalliterature ry. Loccum 1977 affirms the validity of alongside it, especially for their world­ varieties of interpretation and encour­ Carl F. H Henry, former editor of Christianity wide ethical and political significance; ages a liturgical nonintellective use of Today," is currently serving as lecturer-at-large for it considers biblical teaching "to us of­ Scripture. World Vision International. ten no longer convincing" and defines -Carl F. H. Henry

Light from the West. The Irish names on a map, but he is skilled in making people, long shrouded in the Mission and the Emergence of mists of history, step forward and be­ Modern Europe. come real persons with extraordinary gifts and, yes, failings. One could wish By William H Marnell. New York: Seabury all history were written so well, to say Press/Crossroad Book, 1978. Pp. viii, 208. nothing of a study so minutely re­ $11.95. searched and documented. The book is valuable for its biblio­ This book is an attractive example of a highly valuable, readable exposition graphical notes alone. I found myself how an industrious, journalistically ca­ of a significant topic. Not only does the automatically reading them as part of pable nonspecialist can take advantage author help his readers visualize what the text, and marking references I of modern library facilities to produce otherwise would remain only place­ might wish to add to my own library.

76 International Bulletin of Missionary Research Scholarly and yet full of fascinating most monumental tension s between did not stem from ton sur e and differ­ legend s, what I appreciated most was th e Celtic and Roman trad ition s. ent Easter date alone. Over and over th e author's own sensitivity and spiri­ Similarly, the au tho r refers to th e again you see th e disgust th ey felt at tual understanding of th e mot ivation Roman civiliza tion of th at da y as being Roman pride and condescensio n. that led th ese strange saints of so lon g highl y cultured and civilized . Cer tainly Suffice it to say, th is is a we lcome ago into such unprecedented and rarely it had been so. But th e onslaught of th e book on a fascinating subject. No sin­ followed paths. Let me quote only one barb arian hordes, banging at th e gates gle ph en omenon dated more th an a such passage: 'To call naive th e faith of Rome, had so cha nge d Rom e itself th ou sand years ago-outside of th e that inspired the saints in their self­ th at some authors have maintained biblical reco rd- has been so significant discipli ne and self-denial, as th e mod ­ th at Rom e had forgotten how to wo rk and at th e same time more inaccessible ern age is pron e to do, is itself na ive. metal and many of th e ot her civilized to modern students of th e Christian Th ere is nothing naive about the faith skill s. Th ey even assert th at onl y in th e mission as ha s been th is top ic. Thi s that moves mountains" (p. 3). mon asteries were these skills perpet­ book, more eff ectiv ely th an any other, The book is not, however, without uated du ring these ages, dark for Rom e now makes excitingly clear th e brigh t­ its flaws. Altho ugh five of th e earliest but a dawning light for the barb arian s. est component of th e early Dark Ages. pages are maps of Irish-founded mon­ In fact, th ere is some evidence to sug ­ -Robert a H. Winter asteries in Ireland, Scotland, England, gest th at Celtic missionaries eve n had France, and Germany, I found myself to go to Rome to teach Rom an s how to so frustrated at th e lack of two other spea k Latin again. Roberta H. Winter, after serving as a United Pres­ types of maps th at I finally put it down What I am saying is th at these byterian missionary in Guatemala from 1956 to until I could have these at my elbow. peopl e-the Rom an s and th e Celts­ 1966, has worked closely with her husband, Ralph One map was relatively easy to find­ were very different from each other. D. Winter, first at Fuller Theological Seminary a modern map of the areas he was dis­ Their differences, which to us tod ay Schoolof World M ission, and nowat the u.s. Cen ­ cussing. Th e other was more difficult seem very small, were to them monu­ ter for World Mission in Pasadena, California. to locate, but at last in Churchill 's vol­ mental chas ms, no doubt part ially re­ ume 1 of A His/ory of the English-Speaking lated to cultural expectations. Th e Peoples I found a map of England around Celtic distrust of Rom an Christianity the yea r A.D . 600. Only then could I lo­ cate many place-names the author used constantly- Deira, Bernicia, Strath­ clyd e, and Mercia. The seco nd "flaw" is to my mind more serious. Th ere are many scholars wh o would be in perfect agreement with Dr. Marnell. Yet becau se he tou ches on an issue that is highly con­ CLASSICS OF tro versial, with respe cted proponents on each side, I feel he does a disservice to leave th e read er almos t totally un­ CHRISTIAN MISSIONS awa re of th e wide range of opinio n on Francis M. DuBose , Editor such an imp ort ant topic. I refer to th e issue of Celtic and Roman unity (or Today there is a growing interest rather, the lack of it!). Marn ell points in missions and the preservation of out, qu ite fairly, th at it was not St. Au ­ all forms of mission data. In gusti ne and his mission to England th at response to this concern , Francis brou ght Ch risti anity to those islands M. DuBose, professor of missions but , rathe r, the Celtic mission aries. at Golden Gate Baptist Theological Only in th is cen tury have scholars gen­ Seminary, edits this one-volume erally been willing to admit th is. En­ study and reference book of some glish Protes tants were not eager to give of the great missionary literature credit to th e Irish, and Roman Catho­ of the centuries. lics were likewise un int erested in prais­ Classics of Christian Missions ing those wh om long ago th ey had contains representative wr itings in termed " followers of the Pelagian her ­ condensed fo rm from a wealth of esy." Even th e Irish themselves, who biblical studies, h istories, bio­ became Roman Catholic only after En­ graphies, journals, diaries, and gland, th eir old enemy, had become other sources. paper, $11.95 Prot estant with Henr y VIII, are a bit embarrassed at th e non -Roman atti ­ "A superb piece of work-one of tud es of th eir forebears. So when Ma r­ the best contributions to the nell says " there is no reason to wo nder field of miss iology in recent abou t its un ity [of Roman and Celti c years. " Christianity ], th e Irish Culdee in Ice­ C. Peter Wagner land and his brother mon k on Monreali Fuller Theological Seminary in Sicily were both and equa lly sons of At Christian Bookstores Rome" (p. 4), I wond er ho w he could have read Bede, sure ly th e most sober, reliabl e historian of the first mill enni­ um , and not ha ve seen plainly th e al- BEROADMAN

Ap ril 1982 77 Anti-Semitism and the Foundations shows a remarkable unity of address of Christianity. and focus, as well as being remarkably free from overlapping and repetition. Edited by Alan T Da vies. New York: The book serves a real need. Reu­ Paulisi Press, 1979. Pp. xoii, 258. Pa­ ther's volume has received wide atten­ perback $ 7.95. tion and has been quoted frequently. It will continue to receive attention, even though many reviewers have se­ In this volume, twelve authors explore as a scholarly work too slipshod." The riously challenged her conclusions. We the development and dynamics of anti­ final chapter is Rosemary Reuther's re­ have in this volume further challenges semitism in the Christian tradition. The sponse to the essays in the book. to her conclusions, alternative interpre­ essays respond in large part to the book Because the book focuses on the tations of data she employed, and at Faith and Fratricide by Rosemary Reu­ contents and conclusions of a specific times some unashamed, comfortable ther, a book which James Parkes (to writer and book, and because each back-scratching. whom this volume is dedicated) has writer writes from within the perspec­ A few significant chapters by per­ described as "written too hastily and tive of his or her own specialty, it sons such as Douglas R. A. Hare ("The Rejection of the Jews in the Synoptic Gospels and Acts"), Lloyd Gaston ("Paul and the Torah"), John T. Townsend ("The Gospel of John and the Jews") present significant alterna­ Mlssionarg Gold tive viewpoints to Reuther's main the­ ses . They do not, however, completely It's like gold to any theological library or exploring scholar in miSSIOn avoid some of the difficulties in her studies -- this volume with all 16 issues of the Occasional Bulletin of position. Missionary R esearch, 1977-1980, bound in red buckram, with vellum finish and embossed gold lettering. Gregory Baum's contribution, 60 "Catholic Dogma after Auschwitz," Limited edition: Only..2&O" bound presents the Roman Catholic view­ volumes are av ailable. Each volume is individually numbered and signed point as it was expressed by Vatican personally by the editor and associate II . Baum seeks to explain how it was editor. No additional complete sets possible, given the importance of tra­ of all the printed issues will be avail­ dition in the Roman church's faith, for able when these are gone. the Vatican Council to declare that the Includes: religion of the Jews remains for them a source of divine grace. His appeal • 240 contributors (a virtual "Who's Who" of contem­ is to the understanding of the univer­ porary missiology) sality of divine grace. Baum correctly • 210 book reviews observes that this conclusion also has • 245 doctoral dissertation implications for the church's teaching notices on world religions. I for one hope that • cumulative index other Roman Catholic scholars will be­ Special price: $46.95 gin to share their insights concerning Orders outside the U.S.A. add this matter as well as their answers $3.00 for postage and handling. to the proposed changes being called Payment must accompany all for in the church's Christology. Chris­ orders. tology is so intimately and inseparably connected with the church's mission that I find it impossible to separate the two. Can it really be that the Holy _ .I0--?r~e::. ~e...!:h~ coupon~elo~ _ Spirit has allowed the church to be Mail to: misguided for so many centuries on Publications Office this vital issue so that a radical re­ Overseas Ministries Study Center P.O. Box 2057 structuring of the church's Christology Ventnor, New Jersey 08406, U.S.A. is necessary today? One can profitably read this book Send me __ bound volume(s) of the Occasional Bulletin of Missionary without having read Reuther's book R esearch, 1977-1980. first. I Found it helpful, however, to have read it before reading this vol­ Name _ ume. Address _ -Richard R. De Ridder

Richard R. De Ridder, A ssociate Professor of Mis­ siology at Calvin Theological Seminary in Grand Rapids, Mi chigan, was a missionary in Sri Lanka Enclosed is my check in the amount of $ _made out to "Occasional for the Christian Reformed Church from 1956 10 Bulletin of Missionary Research". Orders outside U.S.A. add $3.00 for postage 1960. and handling. Payment must accompany all orders. Allow 5 weeks for delivery within the U.S.A.

78 International Bulletin of Missionary Research Response to Imperialism: The United understandable problems with Ameri­ States and the Philippine-American can policy, yet important Catholics War, 1899-1902. found ways to support it. Labor leaders were indeed anti-imperialists for the By Richard E. Welch, Jr. Chapel Hill: most part, but labor did not champion Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1979. Pp. the cause of the oppressed Filipino. xiii, 215. $17.95. Businessmen were not much interested in the islands. Blacks were more in­ liThe Philippine-American War was previous interpretations. clined to sympathize with the Filipinos our most quickly forgotten war," Following introductory chapters than whites, but black soldiers iden­ writes Richard E. Welch, Jr. (p. 148) .. on the decision to take the islands tified with the American cause and Filipinos did not forget, however; and' (which bolsters the more recent inter­ many black clergymen supported ex­ alleged similarities to the Vietnam War pretations of that decision) and on the pansion and war. Only scholars and have revived interest in the earlier war itself (a fine account that takes writers as a group were disgusted by struggle. issue with various interpretations), American participation in the war, A history professor at Lafayette Welch discusses the response to the though even here there were excep­ College and an authority on anti-im­ war of various components of Ameri­ tions. perialism, Welch has produced a can society: the Anti-Imperialist The refusal to follow any party learned series of essays based on ex­ League, the political parties, business line, the sense of complexity, suggest tensive research in primary materials, and labor, organized religion, black that the author has been true to the as well as in up-to-date secondary ac­ Americans, scholars and writers, and evidence. counts (of which he demonstrates a the press. If there is a criticism to be made, very good grasp). At times the book Along the way, Welch lays to rest it is that the "responses" to the war extends our knowledge; and even (or at least seriously challenges) nu­ sometimes turn out to be responses to when tracing generally familiar merous facile generalizations, for none the acquisition of the Philippines, or ground, the research lends credence to of the groups surveyed held the mono­ to American imperialism generally; the lithic views sometimes attributed to war itself occasionally disappears from them. Properly emphasizing the real view. Kenton! Clymer is a member of the history de­ differences that existed between But this is a fine book, well writ­ partment at the University of Texas at EI Paso. Democrats and Republicans on the war ten and stimulating. Anyone interested In 1977-78 he was Fulbright Lecturer at Silliman (and thus contradicting New Left in American involvement in the Phil­ University in the Philippines, and he is currently views), Welch is also careful to note ippines will want to read it. working on a book on Protestant missionaries in the various shades of opinion within -Kenton J. Clymer thePhilippines, 1898-1916. each party. The Catholic church had

Perceptions of Apartheid. The dilemma that is faced in South Africa. Churches and Political Change in His report is objective in that he comes South Africa. to the situation from the outside, with­ out, therefore, the emotional overtones By Ernie Regehr. Scottdale, Pa.: Herald that come when one has lived in the Press, 1979. Pp. 309. Paperback $7.95. situation. The emotional tone of the book is the result of what he actually South Africa is on the verge of rev­ Commitment to continued West­ sees through the research that he has olution. A caldron of unrest bubbles ern investment in this nation under done. beneath the surface of apparent calm. this system is serious. If action isn't The first part of the book is con­ Injustice is rife. It is made all the more taken to both speak out and act by cerned to state the nature of the so­ dangerous because the source of the withdrawing the alliances, then West­ ciological situation as it exists today. unrest is clearly racial. Injustice is ac­ ern nations with investments that The second part of the book portrays cepted as a way of life. suport this system will find themselves the historical background that has Foreign investment by the West in the same dilemma that America has given rise to the tragedy of South Af­ in Southern Africa aids in keeping a found itself in as a result of its support rica today. The final section of the racist white minority in power. The of the Shah of Iran. The investment book deals with the current ferment tragedy is that the policies of that gov­ will backfire. Change has to come in of unrest that was initiated with the ernment are sanctioned by the Dutch South Africa. Justice must be done. Sharpeville Massacre. Reformed Church of South Africa. The problem of the Western na­ It is a book that should be read Their attitude is a great stumbling tions is that they are ill-informed of by every person in the West with an block to the true message of Chris­ the true situation in South Africa. The interest in the South African scene. In tianity. God is always concerned for investor, generally speaking, knows particular for churchpeople concerned the weak and oppressed. The policy very little of the historical background about South Africa and foreign invest­ of apartheid mocks the compassion of of South Africa that has given rise to ments in South Africa, the reading of Christ. the problems that exist. Books need this book is a must. to be written that will bring to light -John R. Howell the true nature of the situation in fohn R. Howell, an Australian born in Zaire, South Africa from a historical and so­ is Deputy Executive Officer of the Lausanne ciological position. One such book is Committee for World Evangelization, on Ernie Regehr's Perceptions of Apartheid. secondment from World Vision International. His book is an excellent review of the

April 1982 79 Partner in Nation Building. The Catholic Church in Indonesia. for national independence and unity. The book is not primarily about the Catholic Church in Indonesia, but By M P.· M. Muskens. Aachen: Missio about its partner role in the nation's Akiuell Verlag, 1979. Pp. 339. DM 25. struggle to develop on its own distinc­ tive cultural foundation. This role, and This book, according to the preface, all parts of Indonesia, (2) the devel­ the unique cultural continuum char­ "endeavors to show how the Catholic opment of [avanism in the Buddhist acterized predominantly by "the minority in Indonesia makes its own and Hindu kingdoms of the fifth to cosmological character of the Old-Ma­ contribution to the development to­ the fourteenth centuries, I (3) the com­ lay civilization," in the view of the au­ wards a peaceful and prosperous com­ ing of Islam in the thirteenth century thor accounts for the church's having munity in the country...." The book and its only partly successful struggle become accepted and integrated in this follows closely a 1973 Indonesian to displace indigenous culture and re­ world's most populous Muslim nation. translation of the original 1969 Dutch ligion over six centuries, and (4) the The material on the Catholic disseration entitled "Indonesia: A Con­ entry of Eastern Rite, or Nestorian, Church itself (30 percent of the book) flict in National Identity. Nationalists, Christianity in the seventh century and discusses its history, its present struc­ Muslims, Catholics." Iberian Catholicism in the sixteenth ture, distribution, and recent growth, The author worked in Indonesia century and their subsequent develop­ its socioreligious situation, relations from 1970 to 1977 as director of the ment. A second chapter enlarges upon with non-Catholics, its relation to In­ Documentation-Information Depart­ the development and interrelationships donesian culture, and lastly the con­ ment of the Indonesian Bishop's Con­ of three streams within Indonesian so­ tributions of Catholics in the country's ference. In July 1978 Dr. Muskens was ciety-the national culture, Islam, and development since 1967. appointed rector of the Dutch College Catholic Christianity-through the This book is not popular in struc­ in Rome. twentieth century. ture or style. The grammar and vo­ Part One describes the cultural Part Two, entitled "Politics," ex­ cabulary suggest it was translated by background of (1) the indigenous re­ amines the political activities and in­ a European, not by a native English ligion, society, and culture common to teractions of these three streams since speaker. Further, it shows little sign 1908. The analysis concentrates on the of having been edited or proofread. forces and persons that shaped the ac­ The many grammatical and typograph­ Frank L. Cooley has worked in and with In­ tivities of the political parties of each ical errors detract markedly from its donesia since 1956. He is currently under re­ stream. It highlights particularly the readability. This is most unfortunate, appointment by the United Presbyterian divergences and tensions between the as it contains much of value not avail­ Church in the USA and awaiting a visa to hard-line Islamic and Nationalist able elsewhere in English. return to serve at Satya Wacana Christian streams, and the way in which Indo­ -Frank L. Cooley University in Salatiga, Java. nesian Catholics supported the struggle

Student Power in World Mis­ cific commitments and disciplines play sions. an important role in recruiting and holding volunteers for the work of By David M Howard. 2nd ed. Downers world evangelization. Without clearly Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1979. Pp. defined loyalties and obligations, 128. Paperback$2.25. movements soon lose their momentum. Finally, theology remains a foun­ David Howard writes out of his own the Holy Spirit as Empowerer, and the dational reality on which all "going" passionate involvement in the world Church as Agent are themes succinctly in the name of Christ rests. Howard mission of the church. This gives exis­ and insightfully considered. observes that from 1940 on, the Stu­ tential dimension to the briefly told In the second segment the author dent Volunteer Movement became in­ story of student participation in the turns to the history of student involve­ creasingly interested in political and extensive missionary enterprise origi­ ment in the Christian mission. Con­ social concerns. Concurrently, its en­ nating from the American continent. siderable space, in proportion to the thusiasm for the proclamation of the Howard's chronicle of the movement book's modest size, is given American gospel of eternal salvation waned. is sketched swiftly and with marked developments, beginning with the Without sound biblical theology, mis­ enthusiasm. "Haystack Movement" in 1806 and sion tends to become benevolence. The book is divided into two ending with the InterVarsity Christian It is heartening to see the contem­ nearly equal sections. In the first part Fellowship of our own time. porary Urbana Conferences concen­ attention is given to a setting out of A few final pages are devoted to trating focally on the gospel of Jesus the biblical theology of missions. God a consideration of "the contemporary Christ. That gospel orders our prior­ as Originator, Christ as Foundation, perspective"-an optimistic view of ities, preventing us from placing sec­ the future of Christian missionary out­ ond things first. reach to the world based on the re­ -Fred P. Thompson, Jr. newed enthusiasm of dedicated stu­ Fred P. Thompson, [r., is President of Em­ dents on our college and university manuel School of Religion, Johnson City, Ten­ campuses. nessee, a graduate seminary of the Christian One of the interesting and sug­ Churches. He was a Christian Church pastor gestive implications of this story of for thirty years before assuming his present student missionary activity is that spe­ position in 1969.

80 International Bulletin of Missionary Research The Extension Movement in To produce programmed texts is dif­ Theological Education. ficult, expensive, and time-consuming. Furthermore, even excellent traditional By F. Ross Kinsler. Pasadena, cau.. Wil­ material taught well can be effective in liam Carey Library, 1978. Pp. xv, 288. TEE. There is the suggestion of re­ Paperback $6.95. searching nonformal education in order to incorporate into theological educa­ In a book both stimulating and un­ "unordainable pastors." The author tion cultural patterns of learning. This settling, Ross Kinsler issues "a call to discusses the difficulty of producing would greatly enhance the educative the renewal of the ministry." He is programmed materials but still seems process. questioning the nature of the ministry to associate them too closely with TEE. Theological educators around the and of the church, and of how the Many of those working in TEE have world will benefit from this book. And church is to carry out its mission as come to realize that the exclusive use if Kinsler and others are taken seri­ reflected in theological education. Con­ of programmed texts is neither prac­ ously, long overdue revolution in theo­ cern is much broader than the exten­ tical nor desirable. Lack of capable logical education could result. What a sion movement itself. To wrestle with writers and adequate evaluation of ma­ blessing that would be! Kinsler's ideas, the reader must get be­ terials has been a worldwide problem. -David Moore yond the format of the book and the excessively high number of typograph­ ical errors. These are papers written Beyond Our Tribal Gods. The over a period of eight years, which ac­ Maturing of Faith. counts for considerable repetition. The three parts of the book deal with fun­ By Ronald Marstin. Maryknoll, N. Y: damental concepts and vision, regional Orbis Books, 1979. Pp. viii, 150. Pa­ issues and adaptations, and tools for perback $5.95. change and development in the exten­ sion movement. Ronald Marstin, in his Beyond Our temporary liberation theology, he pro­ Ministry belongs to the whole Tribal Gods, seeks to use the learnings vides insights for transcending the eco­ church not just to an elitist clergy. Es­ of social science regarding common nomic, political, and social boundaries tablished residence schools are often "life stages" as a guide and model for of our broken world. insensitive to the church and its needs. maturation in faith. Through the use Marstin was born in Sydney, Aus­ Theological education by extension of developmental psychology and con- tralia, and ordained into the Catholic (TEE) is an effort to train the church's leaders rather than to train leaders for the church; to train the leaders where they are culturally and geographically WHUTOI COLLEGE GRADUATE SCHOOL rather than to extract them from their local context. Reevaluation of tradi­ tional theological education has been COMMUNICATIONS stimulated by the extension move­ ment. The teacher should function as a facilitator of learning rather than a Our Communications program combines repository and dispenser of facts. Em­ audience research, practical skill, and phasis on instructional objectives in behavioral theory to prepare you to programming has forced teachers to communicate biblical truth in both domestic ask if there is any learning going on and international settings. Choose from four and if it is the right kind. concentrations: While Kinsler makes it clear that Journalism/Print-writing, editing, and TEE does not mean abolition of all res­ graphics within the context of secular and idence schools, he does not stress suf­ Christian channels. ficiently their essential place and the Telecommunications-production, theory, and creativity with importance of pushing them out to theological integration. where the church is. One reason is that Missions/ Cross-CuItural-evangeIism/church planting, theological in many areas graduation from the res­ education, media, interpersonal ministries, community development and idence school is required by the na­ ethnomusicology. tional church for ordination. Unless re­ General-integrated study among Communications concentrations with quirements are revised, serious special emphases on research, analysis, marketing and interpersonal organizational problems could be cre­ skills. ated by turning out a vast army of Interested? If so, let us hear from you today!

Graduate Admissions Office • Dept. IB42G David Moore is Director of Missions Studies WHEATON COLLEGE GRADUATE SCHOOL· Wheaton, Illinois 60187 • (312) 260-5195 at the Alliance Theological Seminary in Nyack, Please send me further information on: D Communications DOther _ New York. He served with the Christian and Other graduate programs of study include Psychological Studies, Educational Ministries, Theological Missionary Alliance as a missionary in In­ Studies, and Interdisciplinary Studies. donesia from 1963 to 1974, teaching primarily Name Phone ( at the Sekolah Theologia Tinggi faffray in Street City _ Ujung Pandang, Sulawesi, and working in State Zip Desired date of entrance _ theological education by extension throughout Wheaton College complies with state and federal requirements for non-discrimination on the basis of handicap, sex.. race, color, national Indonesia. or ethnic origin in admission and access to its programs and activities.

April1982 81 priesthood in 1963. While teaching or less as usual" (p. 19). Since that approach to human development and high school, his opposition to the Viet­ which is "peculiar about Christianity the biblical faith. One could wish for nam War brought him into conflict is that obedience to God is understood a little less of biblical generalizations, with his religious superiors. He came to involve the collective task of remak­ and a little more of wrestling with key to the United States in 1970, and stud­ ing this world" (p. 8), Christians seek passages from the Bible, but Marstin ied at Harvard Divinity School. After to mature in their faith and grow into does make it possible for each reader his studies he served as the Catholic an obedience that produces justice. to do this personally. His work pro­ chaplain at Rhode Island's adult cor­ Through chapters on the Chal­ vides new insights on the maturation rectional institution, where his advo­ lenge to Faith, How Faith Develops, of faith and a fundamental challenge cacy of the human and civil rights of How Faith Gets Sidetracked, Faith and to one's faith. the inmates brought him into conflict. Community, Faith and Authenticity, -Marvin D. Hoff He resigned this ministry, and worked Faith and Justice, and Faith and Af­ for a time in New York City. He later fluence, Marstin shows that the call served as the editor of an Appalachian for justice, from the poor and op­ Marvin D. Hoff serves as Secretary for Op­ community newspaper, but his report­ pressed of this world, is not an optional erations and Finance of the Reformed Church ing of the organizing by a parents' factor in a maturing faith. Using Fowl­ in America and Executive Director of the Foun­ group to protest conditions at the local er's work on stages of faith develop­ dation for Theological Education in Southeast high school brought him into conflict ment, he points toward a maturing Asia. He has served the Reformed Church in with powerful political forces, and he faith for persons who have been able America as Secretary for Asian Ministries and was forced to resign the position. to hear the cries of the oppressed and has been related to Christian work in Japan, Through his personal experiences, commit themselves to striving for Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, the Philip­ Marstin has learned that we "either God's justice. pines, and India. stand for actively resisting the unjust Marstin's book provides a helpful system or we stand for business more interaction between the social-science

Christian Conversion in Context. terns of response. (This, of course, is a matter of considerable discussion in By Hans Kasdorf. Scottdale, Pa.: Herald the pros and cons of church-growth Press, 1980. Pp. 208, Paperback $6.95. principles.) Part 4 emphasizes the re­ ciprocal nature of the new life in Christ "Conversion," writes Hans Kasdorf, This thematic study of conver­ for the convert; although conversion "describes the religious and ethical sion-the meaning and necessity of is intimately personal in appropriation, processes of man's spiritual transfor­ which seems almost "up for grabs" in it is never individualistic; it is ex­ mation in terms of his values, relation­ some circles-is divided into four parts. pressed in horizontal dimensions as ships, and attitudes to God, himself, In setting the stage for the discussion, well as in vertical relationships. and others within the matrix of his part 1 carefully defines current con­ The author, rich in years of cross­ own culture and social structure." This cepts and clarifies their meanings. Part cultural experiences, not only draws book is no "spiritual decision process" 2 demonstrates from the Old and New from the most recent insights of mis­ model, but a solid exploration of a piv­ Testaments that conversion is neces­ siology, but ably demonstrates the otal biblical theme by a careful scholar sary because human beings are sinners, value of the case-study method in il­ who is deeply committed to his estranged from God and alienated from luminating the ways in which God Anabaptist tradition. Kasdorf currently their fellow human beings. Part 3 is deals with humankind. The evangelical heads the Department of World Mis­ devoted to a treatment of the conver­ stance of the writer is evident by his sion at the Mennonite Brethren Biblical sion experience from an "ethnothe­ insistence that the conversion process Seminary, Fresno, California. ological" perspective. Refreshingly is the result of a divine/human inter­ exegetical, and without accommodat­ action; that is, the voluntary response ing too much to culture, Kasdorf main­ of the individual to the divine initia­ Donald D. Owens, Professor of Missions, tains that Christian conversion takes tive. This is an important contribution Nazarene Theological Seminary in Kansas place in the sociocultural context of the to the exciting and growing field of City, Missouri, served as a missionary to Korea converts where conversion may follow ethnotheology. for thirteen years. both personal and multipersonal pat­ -Donald D. Owens

Jesus of Gramoven Holy Week experiences of Christ and his disciples, Antonio Perez-Esclarin, a By Antonio Perez Esclarin. Translated by Venezuelan Jesuit with graduate de­ Dinah Livingstone. Maryknoll, N Y: grees in philosophy and theology, cre­ Orbis Books, 1980. Pp. 151. Paperback atively illustrates the parallels between $5.95. Christ's time and ours, his suffering and the suffering of many today. Even This modern-day parable brings the maintain the status quo) made by those more intriguing are the parallels be­ reader face to face with the stark re­ with economic and political power, the tween the emotional, intellectual, and alities of life in the urban jungles of helplessness of the masses are vividly religious struggles of those who sur­ Latin America. The harsh cruelties of portrayed in the lives of Jesus Rodri­ rounded Jesus Christ and those who economic oppression, the dehumaniz­ guez and his friends in a Caracas slum. surround the Jesus Rodriguezes of our ing effect of "sensible" decisions (to By placing his parable against the day.

82 International Bulletin of Missionary Research Jesus loves people. A natural-born Pioneer Missionary to the Bering leader, he attracts others to himself and Strait Eskimos: Bellarmine his ideas-ideas of justice, of sharing, Lafortune,S.J. of loving one another so that everyone can share more equally. But Jesus' ideas By Louis L. Renner, S.! Portland, Ore.: and ability to influence the poor ir­ Binford and Mort, 1979. Pp. 207. ritate those who are rich and powerful; $12.50. they fear him. His friends and followers were Pe­ Of the many active Catholic mission­ sources, Renner's narrative presents ter, John, Andrew, Simon, and others aries in nineteenth-century America, Bellarmine Lafortune's pathbreaking reflecting the character and back­ one Alaskan Jesuit priest's story has mission work with the Bering Strait ground of Jesus' disciples in the Gos­ been placed in the record by Louis Eskimos during the first half of this pels. Simon (the Zealot) wants Jesus Renner, also of the Society of Jesus. century. to instigate armed rebellion. Judas Drawn mostly from previously unused Jesui t house diaries as well as Martinez, owner of a grocery store, is influenced by Jesus, becomes his fol­ lower, but is constantly torn between Jesus' influence and the warnings of ~ Herald Press: Father Sanchez. Finally Judas, con­ vinced that it is his Christian duty, be­ 1/Recommended Books trays Jesus, falsely accusing him to government authorities who were for Missiologists looking for an excuse to be rid of Jesus; v Christian Conversion v Missions, Evangelism, then when Jesus has "disappeared," Ju­ in Context and Church Growth das, full of remorse, commits suicide. "Hans Kasdorf has blended the by C. Norman Kraus Perez-Esclarin puts his teaching in disciplines of theology, anthropology, and a "This 165 page paperback volume has the mouths of Jesus, Peter, even Crazy sprinkling of psychology together into a much to recommend it to those interested conceptual framework on which he in things concerning a missionary. The Marrero. Even "Pedrito," Peter's child, examines the relationship of culture to thrust of the book is overseas, but with a can ask the right questions: "If the rich conversion. In so doing he has made a very candid appraisal of efforts in the people aren't bad, why are there so significant contribution to evangelical United States There is no many poor people?" thought." -Evangelical Missions triumphalism but there is honesty and The author's teaching echoes Quarterly. Named one of the top 15 books truth." -Worldmission Paper $5.95 many themes of liberation theology. of 1980 by the editors of International v A Spirituality of the Road But his principal character does not ad­ Bulletin of Missionary Research. b D id B h Quality a erback $7.95 " Y a':'l osc. . vocate violent revolution. Rather, love p p There IS renewed interest today In must be lived and expressed; thus com­ V Soviet Evangelicals spiritualitywithin the church. However, the munities will be changed. Since World War II most popular conceptions of spiritualityare Evangelicals will find some defi­ Walter Sawatsky provides the most so remote from reality that they are both ciencies. We would like to see some thorough history of the evangelical distorted and impractical. . . . I believe that mention of the power of the gospel churches in the Soviet Union to date. He issues about the relationship of evangelism in changing lives; likewise, a clearer includes the faith, the conflicts, the power and social responsibility will not be resolved with~ut spi~tuality. definition of what faith in Christ is. struggles, including the tragic breakup of a new.definition.o.f the All-UnionCouncil of Evangelical Outsl~e the BIble,A Sprntualrty.o~~he We believe Christian faith is more than Christian-Baptist. "Through his discussion Road IS an excellent place to begin. ­ "a political struggle for a just society." of such matters as evangelical theology, Evangelical Missions Quarterly Paper $3.95 Faith in the people is not necessarily church life,youth and children's work, and v Leading the Family of God the same as faith in God. its numerous illustrations and anecdotes, it "For seasoned advice of an old hand at Even those who may not agree proves to be an engaging story about church affairs, read Paul Miller's with some of the author's doctrine will human beings strivingto be faithful." book .... Rejecting the corporation model find the book worthwhile. The author - Christian Century. Named one of the top of church administration and the country succeeds in his purpose of helping us 15 books of 1981 by the editors of the club model of church fellowship, he seeks understand the hopeless situation of International Bulletin ofMissionary to apply the model of familylifeto the masses who suffer under economic Research. congregational life.... Can easily serve as and social opression; he vividl y depicts Quality paperback $14.95 a guide in any church, irrespective of the ambiguities, doubts, and inward Hardcover $19.95 label." -Christian Century struggles of those who are sincerely v Practicing the Quality paperback $7.95 grappling with what to do about it. Presence of the Spirit v Evangelizing -Mervin Breneman "Myron Augsburger has given us a Neopagan North America thoughtful and practical book on the Alfred C. Krass provides insights into person and work of the Holy Spirit .... He what we can learn from the worldwide Mervin Breneman, formerly Old Testament professor rightlystresses that the Holy Spirit has not mission of the church in "pagan" societies in the Latin America Biblical Seminary, San Jose, been given to believers for their own selfish about the preaching of the gospel in'the Costa Rica, has served with Latin America Mission enjoyment or pride, but to draw us closer to "neopagan" West. A contemporary, for eighteen years. He presently is Theological Con­ God and to equip us to do Christ's willin challenging theology of evangelism that sultantfor Latin America Mission Publications and the world through service and evangelism. calls for a new focus on discipleship and lives in Buenos Aires, Argentina, where he is Sec­ May God use this book to challenge many community. Quality paperback $9.95 Christians to deeper commitment to Christ retary of Kairos and Visiting Professor of Old Tes­ and to help them walk in the power of the V Herald Press Dept. IBMR tament in the Buenos Aires Bible Institute and the Spirit every day." -Billy Graham ~ Baptist International Seminary. Quality paperback $7.95 616 Walnut Avenue M1hP 117 King Street West Scottdale, PA ~ Kitchener, ON 15683 N2G 4M5

April 1982 83 other contemporary record s including nous culture wa s exemplary among his tensively on the work of th e Catholic offi cial reports, corr espondence, and contemporaries. Church in Alaska. Renowned authority memoirs have yielded much of the ma­ He called the King Islanders "chil­ on Eskimo culture Dorothy Jean Ray terial for this book. Th e result of this dren of nature"-nearly idyllic in their collaborated on th e book and contrib­ meticulou s scholarship is an important untouched subsistence economy. He uted a foreword. An excellent bibliog­ historical and anthropological record sought to isolate them from corrupting raphy, extensive ind ex, and ove r forty written in an engaging style. white influence, th ereby encou raging photographs further encha nce this Th is story is a chronological nar ­ a pure strain of Native Christianity. highl y useful contribution to th e lit­ rative through the first 148 pages, th en However, th e traditional summer trips erature of American missionary his­ concludes with comments on th e his­ to Nome, occasiona l contact from pas s­ tory. torical significance of th e mission ary' s ing vessels, and th e eventual visitation -Michael D. Wa ggoner work . Father Lafortune wa s a robust , of world wa rs and government agen­ enterprising pioneer of ind om itable en­ cies precluded achieve ment of this uto­ ergy with equally vigorous convic tions. pia . Renner argues th at the mission­ His spartan lifest yle forbade a fire in ary 's presence did improve Native Michael D. Waggoner is head of the Depart­ his room until the temperature reached he alth and qua lity of life. ment of Continuing Studies at the University _20°F. While castigating cert ain Nati ve Dr. Loui s L. Renner, S.J., is a pro­ of A laska, Fairbanks. H is historical research customs, his appreciation for ada pting fessor of Germ an at the Un iver sity of centers on the missionary as an agent in the th e Christian message to th e indige­ Alaska, Fairbanks, and has written ex­ acculturation of A laskan Native peoples.

Buddhism and Christianity.

Edited by Claude Geffre and Mariasusai D havamony. New York : Seabury Press, "A Time to Seek . . . A Time to Keep" 19 79. Pp. x, 126. Paperback $4 .95. Ecclesiastes 3:6 This book is in the Rom an Catholic You have sought- and discovered-valuable th eological series called Concilium and, insights in the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF as is usual in th is series, th e contrib­ MISSIONARY RESEARCH . Keep every issue ut ors are dra wn from man y nation s for future reference. One sturdy slipcase protects and include lay as well as clerical a thr ee years' collection of the INTERNATIONAL (mos tly Catholic) specia lists. One of BULLETIN. No space wasted. No clutter. them is an Englishman wh ose personal faith is Buddhist. While th ere is som e Each slipcase spine is identi­ differ ence in the degree of seriousnes s fied with embossed -gold with which the authors approac h th eir lettering. tas k, all seem to represent a high level To order, use of academic competence. coupo n below. Th e book is divid ed into three part s. The first focuses up on "The Ex­ perience of Suffering and of Libera­ tion ," th at is, upon the central religious element of th e Buddhist tradition and its expression in th e life and teaching of th e Buddha and, to a somewha t lesser extent, in th e subsequent history of th e tradition . The second part , International Bulletin Prices: $5.95 eac h; thr ee for $17.00; six fo r "Theological Perspectives," gives us of Missionary $30.00. th e main purpose of th e book, which Research O rders outsid e U.S. add $2.50 per .slipcase is to refle ct upon the theological sig­ for po stage and handling. Pay ment must ac­ nifi cance of th e person and work of MAIL TO: co mpa ny order. Allow 5 weeks for delivery th e Buddha and of the movement th at Jesse Jones Box Corp . within the U .S. ow es its origin to him from perspec­ P.O. Box 5120 tives of Christian faith and th eology. Phil adelph ia . PA 19141 I en clo se $ for slipcase(s). Th is is an activity in which also con­ tributors in th e first part, especially the Germ an Jesuit lon g-time mission ary in Na me Japan and specialist in Zen Buddhism, Heinrich Dumoulin, do not hesitate to Addre ss _ part icipate. Rom an Catholic th eolo­ gians in particular have in th e past City qu art er-century don e increasingly fruitful and high-quality work in this Sta te Zip _ area . The third part of th e book is en­ Co unt ry _ titled " Bulletins" and consis ts of re­ port s of recent Buddhist-Christian dia­

84 Internati on al Bulletin of M ission ar y Research logue in Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and influence has been exercised upon a means of clearing away mistaken Japan. The final chapter, on "The In­ Western lands and cultures by Eastern conceptions of Buddhist teaching that fluence of Buddhism in Europe and religions, especially by Buddhism. Ac­ plague even Western academia. For this America," is written by the distin­ tually this process of influence has purpose Dumoulin's article is partic­ guished Belgian Catholic Orientalist been mutual, and Spae insists that it ularly helpful; for example, his very (especially Japanologist), Joseph Spae. is universal in the sense of touching positive interpretation of Nirvana and The book is not always easy read­ all persons at least to some degree in his perceptions of transcendence as an ing and is perhaps to be recommended all of the cultures concerned. He writes integral element in the Buddha's own primarily as a perceptive and sugges­ of "the creative tension between Bud­ teaching. tive stimulus to theological reflection dhism and theology in the West" and -Richard H. Drummond after one has had some exposure to notes that among earnest Christians at least the main elements of Buddhist who have no intent at all to abandon faith and teaching. But it is an im­ their faith, the number of serious Richard H Drummond, Professor of Ecumenical portant contribution to one of the ma­ searchers for Buddhist insights that Mission and History of Religions at University jor tasks currently confronting Chris­ may in fact illumine neglected or in­ of Dubuque Theological Seminary, was a tian theology and missiology. The adequately understood aspects of United Presbyterian missionary in Japan for editors point out in the beginning that Christian truth and praxis is growing fifteen years. within the last generation or two a fast. largely silent but nonetheless effective This book is also recommended as

Evangelicalism and Anabaptism, which evangelicals are reexploring not only their roots but also the influences Edited by C. Norman Kraus. Scottdale, of other movements. Pa.: Herald Press, 1979. Pp. 187. Pa­ The emergence of the church in perback $5.95. mission throughout the world has fo­ cused the issue even more sharply for Norman Kraus, professor of religion at careful to compare and contrast the evangelicals. They are and have been Goshen (Indiana) College, has put to­ two movements. committed to mission. That mission gether a virtual compendium on the The extensive discussion of the has been successful. Now that there evangelical movement. He and six historical roots of evangelicalism is not is an active partnership with the other essayists give a sweeping review matched by a similar treatment on church in other than American settings, of this twentieth-century phenomenon Anabaptism. Consequently, the docu­ the glare of their scrutiny exposes from the perspective of Anabaptist ment is somewhat unbalanced. Obvi­ cracks in the otherwise supposedly scholarship. ously most of the authors are writing solid foundation of American evangeli­ In the process, they manage a per­ from a sympathetic Anabaptist per­ calism. ceptive analysis of the roots and varied spective, with more objectivity and This book provides significant ma­ sources of evangelicalism. While the freedom to be critical in their evalua­ terial for self-understanding and heart­ writers are clearly Anabaptist-oriented, tion of the evangelical movement. searching and opens new ways of they write with objectivity and suf­ Kraus's final chapter is a most viewing the current issues that are aris­ ficient detachment to present a credible valuable comparison of the two move­ ing within the evangelical tradition. document. ments and, in fact, defines Anabaptism Those who may be wary of radical In fact, at least one writer sees the as a "theological corrective" for evan­ anabaptists will find they are among two movements as interdependent. gelicalism. Some chapters seem less rel­ friends here. Ron Sider comments: "If Evangelicals evant to the main thesis of the book, It should not be surprising that the were consistent, they would be Ana­ such as Wenger on the inerrancy con­ writers point back to evangelicalism's baptists and Anabaptists would be troversy, or Jeschke on pop eschatol­ own tradition for a heritage that is Evangelicals." Other writers are more ogy. broader and more significant than The current ferment in evangeli­ many current perceptions. In this the calism is calling in question the all too Anabaptist scholars are helpful and rel­ Paul N. Kraybill is Executive Secretary of prominent style of identification with evant, as evangelicals are led to ex­ Mennonite World Conference, Lombard, Illi­ national religion and flamboyant media amine not only the Anabaptist stream nois. His previous experience included fourteen techniques. Concerns for justice, com­ but their own history as well. years of service as administrator of Mennonite munity, peace, discipleship, and social -Paul N. Kraybill Overseas Mission Programs. action are creating a new milieu in

The New Religions of Africa. in a static anthropological present, tell us little or nothing of how these in­ Edited by Bennetta Jules-Rosette. Norwood, digenous institutions are responding to N.].: Ablex Publishing Corporation, contemporary social and religious 1979. Pp. xxii, 248. $22.50. changes. Even Marion Kilson's fasci­ nating account of the activities of a The only thing that is seriously wrong ego, it is concerned primarily not with kpele medium describes a cosmology with this book is its title. A collection new religions but with sex roles in Af­ that apparently, but unbelievably, has of eleven essays by various academics, rican religions, both old and new. Thus little or no contact with modern Ghana. edited by a professor of sociology at the descriptions in part 1 of a secret These descriptions do, however, pro­ the University of California, San Di­ society, rituals, and divination, all cast vide a good deal of interesting in­

April1982 85 tormation concerning the "traditional" creating a new community, while Lucy nial mteracnon as opposed to tormat separation of male and female religious Quimby describes how the political male authority derived from a hierar­ responsibilities, and this theme domi­ and economic bases of male dominance chy of offices, and her definition of nates the remaining accounts of Af­ among Dyula Muslims in Upper Volta a man's church "based on the relative rican Christian and Islamic movements. have disintegrated during the twenti­ absence of women from the church's In his analysis of a Harris church, eth century. oral lore, contemporary myths and on­ Paul Breidenbach emphasizes the com­ Appropriately the most suggestive going political processes" (p. 144) carry plementary roles played by Madame theoretical discussion comes from the forward an argument that should be Tani and Kwesi John Nackabah. Here, editor, though not so much in her edi­ of general interest. as with the Jamaa teachings reviewed torial comments (some of which are -Richard Gray afresh by Johannes Fabian, the mem­ distinctly misleading, such as her as­ bers of the new Christian communities sertion on page 18 that Simon see themselves as redefining kinship Kimbangu claimed to be a substitute and creating fresh lines of spiritual fili­ for, or the equal of, Christ) as in her Richard Gray is Professor of African History ation. In other important and authori­ specific contribution, which examines at the School of Oriental and African Studies, tative contributions, Catherine Robins the role of women among the Apostles University of London. Born in England, he reviews new evidence concerning the of John Maranke. The important dis­ has worked and visited extensively in sub-Sa­ conversion of women in the East Af­ tinction that she develops here be­ haran Africa. rican revival and analyzes their role in tween women's leadership in ceremo­

From the Other's Point of View. Perspectives from North and for economic independence and equal­ ity, and the seeming indifference of the South of the Rio Grande. affluent people to this struggle. "Wet­ back," the next chapter, deals with the By f. Daniel Hess. Scottdale, Pa.: Herald thousands of illegal Hispanic aliens en­ Press, 1980. Pp. 270. Paperback $7.95. tering the United States across the Mexican border. Poverty is alleged as J. Daniel Hess is an American (born problems. In the chapter on "Impres­ the "push" factor in this problem. For in the United States) who tries to es­ sions," he presents fascinating real-life a better understanding of the situation, tablish lines of communication be­ cases from the two cultures, illustrating Hess suggests that one should look at tween his people and those of Costa the differences that exist between the problem through two "lenses"­ Rica, where he has lived and taught. United States Americans and Costa Ri­ one providing a larger and longer view • He has done a magnificent job in por­ cans. He discusses the conditions that and the other a human point of view. traying the contrasting cultures of the separate and alienate North Americans "And All These Things," the final two countries. from Latin Americans-poverty, illegal chapter, describes in summary form The book has seven chapters entry into the United States, economic how the relationship of culture and packed with everyday-life anecdotes; imperialism, and refusal to try to un­ material things could cause two people shocking photographs, figures, and sta­ derstand each other. The chapter on to see the same thing from two dif­ tistics; and dialogues between persons "Bananas" deals with the attitude gen­ ferent perspectives. of the two cultures. The author dis­ erated by what the word implies to What Professor Hess tries to im­ plays a keen understanding of the each group; the North Americans who press upon his readers is the need and own and manage the United Fruit Cor­ the possibility for better understanding poration view it as an economic boon through effective communication. We to the people there, while Costa Ricans need to see ourselves as others see us. Jacob S. Quiambao, a Filipino, is Professor look at bananas as a symbol of eco­ -Jacob S. Quiambao of Religion at Wesleyan College, Macon, Geor­ nomic exploitation. The chapter on gia. He was formerly president of Union Theo­ "Liberation Theology" describes the logical Seminary, Manila, Philippines. life struggle of Third World peoples

Missions, Evangelism, and This reviewer feels that all three Church Growth. schools need the Mennonite perspec­ tive provided in this book. It provides Edited by C. Norman Kraus. Scottdale, a certain dimension of depth some­ Pa.: Herald Press, 1980. Pp. 165. Pa­ times lacking in these separate move­ perback $5.95. ments. As Kraus says, "It is the first book in Mennonite circles to speak to As a student of Free Church history a dialogue (or trialogue) among Ralph the theology as well as practice of con­ and a Mennonite missionary in Japan, Winter, Billy Graham, and Donald gregational witnessing, and to do it in C. Norman Kraus is qualified to gather McGavran! Seriously, Kraus has mar­ dialogue with current movements in pertinent materials in a volume that shaled a good cross-section of Men­ the church at large." treats the interdependence of move- . nonite reaction to these three contem­ The symposium is of great value ments for mission, evangelism, and porary "schools." His contributors, like because it looks at the three move­ church growth. An oversimplified way Kraus himself, are a well-balanced ments from the viewpoint of "the to describe the book is to say that it team that reflect practical, theological, gathered churches," which takes seri­ sounds like a Mennonite editorial on and innovative missionary elements. ously the discipline of faith and the

86 International Bulletin of Missionary Research centrality of the local congregation. For Our Kind of People. The Ethical instance, thi s reviewer, a Southern Dimensions of Church Growth in Bapti st, sees great valu e in thi s book America. because the Southern Baptist Conven­ tion missionary enterprise has been so greatly affected by the church-growth By C. Peter W agner. A tlanta: John Knox scho ol. This same impact ha s been felt Press, 19 79. Pp. 184. Paperback $ 8.95. by other evangelical denominations. However, on occasion, the method­ Dr. C. Peter Wagner, pro fessor of principle in church gro wth and to vin­ ology of the school has been tran s­ churc h grow th at Fuller Theological dicate it as an ethical, socia l, and bib ­ mitted without the proper theological Sem inary, School of World Mission, lical principl e. With thi s in mind , W ag­ mooring. This book can help fill th at Pasadena, California, presents us here ner argues from history, socio logy , and void. with a bo ok , polemi c in sty le, to justify th e Bible . I believe he ana lyzes th e The contents of the essays are re­ th e pra ctice of the homogen eou s unit present moment of American history sponses to questions, such as: Is evan­ gelism the mission of the church ? Is the goal numerical growth? What about th e nurturing, fellowship, and social service aspects of mission ? Are they fundamental to the church's spiri­ tual maturity? How shall we under­ stand "growth"? How should we un­ derstand "church growth" and "salvation"? All of these questions are treated from the collective standpoint of the local congregation as the wit­ nessing unit, rather than the individ­ ual. Th is "corporate nature" of the symposium is invaluable to the "in­ dividualistic syndrome" of so many evangelicals. It also should be heard by the legion of " parachurch" entities, which un cons ciously (or con sciou sly ?) prey on thi s syndrome and weaken the corporate witness. Harold Bauman 's chapter on the church-growth school is especially helpful as an ecclesiolog­ ical correction to some of the potential errors of the church-growth school. It is a worthy addition to the continuing evaluation of th at movement. In short , M issions, Evangelism, and Church Growth is another valuable ad­ dit ion to th e post-facto theological and bibli cal-and according to thi s re­ viewer, sorely needed-analysis of ". .. we can all hear these men speaking of the magnificence ofGod in our native language:'-Acts 2: 11 modern evan gelistic, church-growth meth ods. "God of Creation:' one of Moody 's most powerful films, is now avail­ -Justice C. Anderson able in 13 languages! In addition to English, Moody can supply th e film in: . Afrika an s French Korean Russian Arabic Italian Mandarin S pa nish Justice C. A nderson is Professor of Missions Croa tian Ja panese Portuguese Urdu at Southwestern Baptist Theologica l Semin ary in Forth Worth , Texas, where he has served To serve th e needs of th e mission field, Moody now has Serm ons fro m since 19 74 . Before that, fo r seventeen years Sc ience" films ava ilable in 23 lan guag es. And every film explicitly he worked as a Southern Baptist missionary ­ prese nts th e gosp el of Jesus Christ in term s th at peopl e of all cultures professor at the International Baptist Theolog­ ca n grasp . ical Seminary in Buenos Aires, Argentina . If you would like to enha nce your mission' s outreach, or get field work under way while you ar e learning th e lan guag e, contact Moody Institute of Science today. We will gladl y se nd you details on our films and subsidized mission­ ary lease pr ogram~

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April 1982 87 correctly when he indicates that we are breathes out of the book. Here is a nically relevant and related ways, pro­ experiencing a consciousness of ethnic­ wealth of sociological data, deep moti­ claim the gospel to their own people ity. As America has been free politi­ vation, and honest ambition (in the in their language and manner, and be cally and religiously, so it is now mov­ good sense), with broadness and com­ fully accepted as Christian churches. ing into ethnic freedom. The idea of prehensiveness, zeal and commitment, Should such churches and groups vol­ "assimilation into Americanism" as an and a clear statement of the author's untarily move into the WASP culture Anglo-Saxon Protestant culture is re­ position on the Bible (p. 87). I can sub­ and association, they should be free trea ting to make room for ethnic and scribe to much of what the book says, to do so. cultural pluralism. Wagner is aware of but not to what it intended to say, However, the book did not set out the critics of ethnic and cultural plu­ because it does not prove its original to establish this principle, but rather, ralism and does not discount them. thesis. It establishes the principle that to prove the dynamic function and ne­ I read the book with delight and ethnic minorities ought to have the cessity of homogeneous units within sadness. Delight over the honesty, sin­ privilege to establish their own ethnic groups in church growth. In this cerity, and passion for good that churches, worship in their own eth- the book fails. While it seeks to define concepts, it is inconsistent in the usage of them. Throughout the chapters it interchanges ethnic groups, minorities, homogeneity, and cultural units-and too often uses them as synonyms. The lines are neither clear nor consistent. Almost all illustrations are taken from the realm of ethnic minorities with em­ phasis upon ethnicity. It would have been better if chapter 5 on the Scrip­ tures had been omitted. It does no credit to the author, and adds no strength to his arguments or value to the book. The book stands as a "rea­ sonable" sociological interpretation and justification of the practice of eth­ The Role of nicity in the practice of evangelism and church growth. NorthAmericans in -George W. Peters George W Peters, professor emeritus of mis­ the Future ofthe siology at Dallas TheologicalSeminary, Dallas, Texas, is Academic Dean and Professor of Mis­ sions at the Seminar fiir missionarische Missionary Enterprise Fortbildung, Bad Liebenzell/,'Monbachtal. West Germany. A working conference on SPEAKERS: the changing contexts Anthony Bellagamba, I.M.C. of global witness, with Samuel Buti strategies and models for Barbara Hendricks, M.M. responsible participation. Patrick Kalilombe, W.~ Sacred Journeys: The Conversion Jorge Lara-Braud of Young Americans to Divine Alan Neely Light Mission. Registration: William O'Brien $50 plus room and meals. C. Rene Padilla By James V Downton, Jr. New York: For application and further Columbia Univ. Press, 1979. Pp. ix, 245. Melinda Roper, M.M. $12.95. information write to: Anna May Say Pa Gerald H. Anderson, Director Waldron Scott In 1971 a thirteen-year-old guru came Norman A. Horner, Associate Wilfred Cantwell Smith to Colorado from India and word ,. ~ r • , Director Eugene L. Stockwell spread quickly of his arrival. By the' Thomas ~ Stransky, C.S.~ close of 1973, some 50,000 young ( ~~~" Overseas Ministries Masao Takenaka Americans had become followers, as ~ I Study Center Ted Ward had another 70,000 in other countries...... Ventnor, N.J. 08406 The Divine Light Mission, as it was Publishers of the International Warren Webster called, provided easy steps to enlight­ Bulletin of Missionary Research Ralph Winter enment, ran medical clinics and secondhand stores for the poor, and Sponsored by: Committee on Overseas Personnel, National Council of Churches. offered millenarian visions of world­ Division of International Mission, Presbyterian Church in the U.S.• The Episcopal Church wide peace. U.S.A. • Foreign Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention. Lutheran World Professor Downton, who teaches Ministries. Maryknoll Mission Institute. Medical Mission Sisters. Overseas Ministries sociology at the University of Colo­ Study Center. United Church of Canada, Division of World Outreach. U.S. Catholic rado, became interested in the move­ Mission Association. in cooperation with the InternationalAssociation for Mission Studies ment in 1972. For a month he spent

88 International Bulletin of Missionary Research time at a local ashram observing the Prophets Denied Honor: An An­ group's activities, interviewing mem­ thology on the Hispano Church bers (eighteen in all), and administer­ in the United States. ing questionnaires. Over the next four years he maintained contact with those he had interviewed and in 1976 sent Edited by Antonio M Stevens Arroyo, them follow-up questionnaires explor­ C.P. Maryknoll, N. Y: Orbis Books, ing changes that had taken place as 1980. Pp. xoi, 379. Paperback $12.95. a result of their involvement in the movement. Sacred Journeys is a valuable As the author acknowledges, this book His selection of materials provides an summary of the information he ob­ is neither sociological analysis nor his­ excellent perspective on the internal tained about the lives and experiences tory, yet it is a book that should be complexity of a movement that may of Divine Light members. read by anyone who wishes to under­ seem to the outsider more uniform Part 1 consists of four verbatim stand Hispanic Christianity in the than it is. Using the National Hispano transcripts (averaging about fifteen United States. Father Stevens Arroyo, Encounters of 1972 and 1977 as the pages in length), each of which chron­ himself a Puerto Rican who has held foci around which to express the dy­ icles the early family life, religious positions of national leadership in PA­ namics of the growing sense of self­ seeking, and personal events leading DRES (Priests for Religious, Educa­ conscious identity, the author arranges the storyteller to join Divine Light. The tional, and Social Rights) and in youth his materials in a way that conveys chapters give an opportunity, all too ministries under the auspices of the a sense of the momentum and hope rare in modern social science, to gain United States Catholic Conference, has experienced within the Hispano a holistic picture of each person's bi­ been an active participant in the de­ Catholic community as it has struggled ography as reconstructed by himself or velopment of the "Hispano church." to achieve roles in decision-making and herself. pastoral action commensurate with its Part 2 examines more systemati­ importance in the total Catholic com­ cally the factors leading to conversion. Edwin E. Sylvest, Jr. is Associate Professor munity of the United States. That The results defy easy summarization, of the History of Christianity at Perkins School sense of momentum is enhanced, and but suggest generally that conversion of Theology, Southern Methodist University, the reader's ability to understand was a rational and relatively gradual Dallas, Texas. He has taught as visiting pro­ greatly improved, by the interpretive process, that it was motivated by fessor at the Seminario Evangelico Unido in comment with which the editor intro­ youthful idealism, that there was no Mexico, (1973-74) and at the Seminario duces his chapters and the materials single pattern in the converts' family Eoangelico Llnido, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico presented. experiences other than typical middle­ (Summer 1975). Father Stevens should not be class expectations and frustrations, that none of the converts had found spiri­ tual nourishment in their churches or synagogues while growing up, and that all had experimented with psychedelic CaYe~ LibYaY~ drugs. The drug experiences seem to wi{[iam have been particularly pivotal in shat­ tering personalistic Judeo-Christian concepts of God, thereby preparing the PRESENTS potential convert to picture God in the animistic terms espoused by the move­ PERSPECTIVES ON THE WORLD ment. CHRISTIAN MOVEMENT: A The book also explores the process Reader by which converts came to identify Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. with the goals of the movement and to restrict their contacts to other move­ Hawthorne, Editors. ment members. It does a masterful job of describing the changes of self-con­ A multi-faceted collection of cept accompanying conversion, show­ readings focused on the biblical, ing the significance of attachment to historical, cultural, and strategic the guru while avoiding simplistic dimensions of the task of world ideas about brainwashing. Of value evangelization. Over 70 authors also is a concluding discussion of the have contributed to the material tensions with the larger culture that which provides laymen and col­ have contributed to the movement's lege students with an introduction decline since 1976. to the history and potential of the -Robert Wuthnow World Christian Movement. 864 pages, Kivar $14.95x, Cloth $24.95

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April 1982 89 faulted for the relative lack of perspec­ The most serious criticism this re­ tensions between Puerto Ricans and tive from Hispanic Protestants. He rec­ viewer would offer is of Stevens Mexican Americans, "liberationists" ognizes that lack himself; and it is per­ Arroyo's use of the "Typology of and "pastoralists," is surely the case, fectly appropriate to report develop­ Hispano Catholic Leadership" (p, 176). but the use of that typology does not ments within the Catholic Church in In itself the typology is a helpful ana­ do justice to the fundamental commit­ its own right. One does, however, miss lytic device, but the author's use of ment to liberation held by the pas­ that perspective and could hope for a it tends to accentuate differences be­ toralists at MACC. But, that flaw in future volume by the same or another tween Mexican American "pastoral­ itself offers a very useful insight into author, which would expose the full ists" from the Mexican American Cul­ that reality, which is so helpfully dis­ range of Hispanic Christian experience tural Center in San Antonio and Puerto played in this book. in the United States. Rican "liberationists." That there are -Edwin E. Sylvest, Jr.

Religious Innovation in Africa: ology, economics, or politics, often to the virtual exclusion of the specifically Collected Essays on New Reli­ religious dimension. Similarly the facile gious Movements. use of Western categories and types (p. 112), even the Weber/Troeltsch ones of By Harold W Turner. Boston, Mass.: G. K. "sect-denomination-church," often Hall, 1979. Pp. x, 354. $25.00. obscures rather than clarifies the issues when the data are outside the familiar Ever since Professor Harold Turner be­ widening interest in these new move­ Western context. Essays 5, 6, and 7 at­ came interested in the study of African ments, and the published material is tempt to come to grips with this prob­ independent church movements (cf. his now baffling by its sheer abundance. lem of typology by suggesting other two-volume African Independent Church, Fortunately this increase in quantity distinctions than those made classical Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967) he has has been accompanied by a deeper in­ by the earlier work of Sundkler. The not stopped widening and deepening vestigation into crucial aspects of the results mayor may not be convincing. his research on the whole phenomenon whole phenomenon. Turner's essays But we are moving forward toward a of new religious movements. Witness offer us samples of such developments richer examination of both the nature his volumes on Bibliography of New Reli­ from one of the most authoritative and the dynamics of these reactions to gious Movements in Primal Societies, vols. 1 scholars in the field. They are grouped Christian evangelization. Turner breaks and 2 (Boston, Mass.: G. K. Hall, 1977, by topics into seven sections. In a re­ new ground in essay 18, "Monogamy: 1978). All those who have come to ap­ view such as this we can only touch on A Mark of the Church?" when he chal­ preciate his invaluable contributions in a few significant areas. In several es­ lenges several ingrained assumptions of this field will be grateful for this new says the decisive question of terminol­ Western Christianity. And in essay 22 book. It is a collection of twenty-seven ogy is faced. Essay 14 (pp. 165-72) in­ we are invited to begin to appreciate essays published by the author in dif­ dicates how such imprecise and unex­ some areas where the new movements ferent books and journals between amined terms as "pagan," "syncre­ may be making a stimulating contribu­ 1959 and 1978. tism," "worship," and "idolatry" are tion to the older churches. Finally, the These two decades have seen a less than helpful in that they prejudge author deserves our gratitude when in what it is intended to examine. In the essay 12 he takes a closer look at the methodological section (pp. 35-118) a relationship between Roman Catholi­ Bishop Kalilombe of Malawi is currently the Wil­ timely warning is given against several cism and these new movements. It is liam Paton Fellow at Selly Oak Colleges, Birming­ defects that tend to vitiate the study of not the Protestant churches alone, but ham, England. Bishop Kalilombe is on a research these movements. There is the danger also the Roman Catholic communion sabbatical, and his study is concerned with practical of "reductionism" whereby the evi­ that must learn from this challenging ecclesiology, especially in the context of the churches dence is assessed from the viewpoint of phenomenon. in Africa. only one or the other discipline: soci­ -Po A. Kalilombe, W.F.

example of a quiet infiltration!-this Locusts and Wild Honey. The dialogue is now overdue. In addition Charismatic Renewal and the to this, Rex Davis can show how this Ecumenical Movement. dialogue fits well into the overall con­ cerns of the WCC. He sees the rela­ By Rex Davis. Geneva: World Council tionships to the emerging African in­ of Churches, 1978. Pp. viii, 123. Pa­ dependent churches and to the perback $4.75. Pentecostal churches in Latin America. Both these developments are of great Canon Rex Davis, the author of this ready conducted a well-organized importance to a WCC which concerns small but important book, was with dialogue with Pentecostals and char­ itself with the situation in the Third the World Council of Churches from ismatics. World. In September 1978 the WCC 1969 to 1977. In this brilliantly written As all the member churches of the affirmed that "there is an obvious need report he describes the background to WCC have to come to grips with the to engage in direct dialogue with the the WCC's present study program on reality and the ideology of the char­ charismatic renewal in a broad ecu­ the charismatic movement. There are ismatic renewal, and as a great number menical context." In March 1980 an in­ several reasons why the WCC has of persons on the staff of the ecumeni­ ternational consultation took place in taken up the dialogue with the char­ cal center in Geneva are practicing the Ecumenical Institute in Bossey, ismatic renewal-albeit belatedly and charismatic spirituality-a marvelous whose findings will be published.

90 International Bulletin of Missionary Research There are a number of promises dency to become the opiruon leaders well by highlighting the importance of in this dialogue. The charismatic re­ of "Charismatics International Inc.," such a new ecumenical venture. newal liberates worship from the cult but also a tendency to exclude women -Walter J. Hollenweger of neutrality. Furthermore it creates a from many gifts of God. Charismatics language-bridge between Africa and have created strong and wealthy or­ Europe/America. And lastly it enables ganizations, which might (or might Walter f. Hollentoeger is a Swiss and has a new and direct involvement of the not) some day challenge ecclesiastical studied in Zurich and Basel. From 1965 to grassroots in ecumenical experiences and ecumenical structures. 1971 he was with the World Council of on a scale never seen previously. Both promises and problems are Churches as secretary for evangelism, and since But there are also a number of strong reasons for a dialogue between 1971 he has been Professor of Mission at the problems. Among the American the ecumenical and the charismatic University of Birmingham, England. charismatics there is not only a ten­ movements. Rex Davis has served us

Unreached Peoples '81. Center (MARC). It focuses on the peo­ ples of Asia and is divided into five Edited by C. Peter Wagner and Edward R. parts. The first discusses the people­ Dayton. Elgin, Ill.: David C. Cook Publishing group approach to evangelization and Co., 1981. Pp. 467. Paperback $8.95. applies it to Korea, China, and Thai­ land. Part 2 gives case studies on the Unreached peoples are significantly people such as the little-known, evangelization of particular groups in large sociological groupings who share 90,000-member Kolana Alor people of Singapore, Hong Kong, the Philippines, a common affinity and who have not Indonesia, 10,000 Chinese businessmen Sri Lanka, and Taiwan. In Part 3 Ralph been evangelized. It is estimated that in Hong Kong,S million central Thai­ Winter updates his statistical analysis there are over 16,000 groups of un­ land farmers, and 16,000 Zemi Naga of of the world missionary perspective. reached or minimally evangelized Assam, India. Part 4 contains extended descriptions The present volume is the third in of seventy Asian groups according to the Unreached Peoples series spon­ MARC's categories of size, distinguish­ Michael C. Reilly is a Jesuit priest who served ten sored by the Strategy Working Group ing characteristics, language, availabil­ years in thePhilippines and who is currently Profes­ of the Lausanne Committee for World ity of Scripture, literacy, religion, sor ofSystematic Theology at theMaryknoll School Evangelization and the Missions Ad­ openness to change and the gospel, and of Theology, Maryknoll, New York. vanced Research and Communication Christian presence. Finally, Part 5, half Take credit for your misslons interest You can enroll in these professional seminars conducted by the Billy Graham Center at Wheaton College. Missions oriented, each course may be taken for two hours graduate credit or audit.

r------­ , Please send seminar information on: I 0 Missions D Chinese Studies I name _ I address _ I ' mail to: Billy Graham Center, Wheaton College I Wheaton. IL 60187 Dept. IB42 I

Apri11982 91 the book, is a registry of 2,914 un­ church in its task of world mission by able the basic research necessary to ful­ reached peoples indexed by name, re­ identifying the many unreached people fill this challenge. I know of nothing ceptivity to the gospel, religion, that still exist and arguing that seeing similar being done by Catholic missio­ language, and country. the world as people groups gives new logists. Roman Catholics will not agree The editors present this impressive meaning and efficacy to cross-cultural with some of the theological positions array of information with a certain evangelization. Their hope is a church that appear in this book; but the basic amount of caution. An accuracy valid­ for each people group by the year 2000. information presented offers material ity code is attached to each expanded These data are fascinating to one for serious reflection and, one hopes, description of a people group and read­ in the Roman Catholic tradition. Pope dialogue among Christian commu­ ers are invited to contribute further in­ Paul VI in his 1975 letter, Evangelii Nun­ nions. Unreached Peoples '81 is a challenge formation if they possess it. The tiandi, urged the evangelization of "all to the whole church of Christ. purpose of this cataloging is not so strata of humanity" as well as human -Michael Collins Reilly,S.}. much the acquisition of information "culture and cultures." In volumes but its use. They hope to challenge the such as this" MARC is making avail­

Contextualization: A Theology of Gospel and Culture. Bockmuehl tackles his topic pri­ marily with a detailed analysis of Arti­ cle 5 of the Lausanne Covenant. In fact, By Bruce j. Nicholls. Downers Grove, Ill.: In­ the subtitle states that specifically. He terVarsity Press, 1979. Pp. 72. $2.95. analyzes several major addresses given at Lausanne 1974 by Samuel Escobar, Evangelicals and Social Ethics. Rene Padilla, Carl Henry, and John Stott, each of which contributed in one By Klaus Bockmuehl. Downers Grove, Ill.: In­ form or another to Article 5. He shows terVarsity Press, 1979. Pp. 47. $2.25. both the strengths and the weaknesses from a biblical standpoint of these ad­ These small volumes constitute num­ such anthropologists, missiologists, and dresses. He contends that Escobar, Pa­ bers three and four in the Outreach theologians as Louis Luzbetak, }ohn dilla, and Henry actually make social and Identity monograph series Mbiti, Daniel von Allmen, and Byang ethics a part of evangelism-a point sponsored by the World Evangelical Kato, to name a few. The essence of clearly denied in Article 5. At the same Fellowship Theological Commission. the debate is to distinguish between time he gives real credit to each of Although small in size both volumes what is truly biblical and what is cul­ these men for the vital contribution are rich in provocative theological in­ tural in the communication of the gos­ they made in clarifying evangelical sights. They deal with two of the most pel. Nicholls deals with this in chapter thinking on this crucial topic. widely debated issues in missiological 1 entitled "Cultural and Supra-Cultural The major portion of the book is circles today. Factors in the Communication of the given to a study of Nine Verbs of Ac­ Nicholls begins by pointing out Gospel." While a book of this size tion used in the Lausanne Covenant, that "Third World missionaries ... makes no pretense of being exhaustive which spell out The Social Responsi­ need to understand at least four cul­ on such a complicated topic, Nicholls bility of Christians. This section is par­ tures: the Bible's, that of the Western does lay down some helpful biblical ticularly valuable when the author missionary who first brought the gos­ foundations. expands the biblical foundations of the pel, their own and that of the people to Nicholls rightly warns of the dan­ Covenant and shows additional pas­ whom they take the gospel." He then ger of an uncritical contextualization sages that undergird a theology of so­ reviews the present debate in the area leading to syncretism, which can be cial ethics. of gospel and culture, showing himself both cultural and theological. In his The lucid writing, the biblical familiar with contemporary writings of chapter on "Understanding Biblical foundations, and the theological in­ Theology," the author emphasizes the sights make this one of the most valu­ authority of the Bible as the indispens­ able, albeit short, contributions that David M Howard, Assistant to the President, In­ able foundation for developing the this reviewer has read on this topic. It terVarsity Christian Fellowship, U.S.A., served in dynamics of cross-cultural communi­ is a delight to follow the clear thinking Costa Rica and Colombia from 1953 to 1968 with cation. This monograph is an excellent and precise expressions of Professor Latin AmericaMission; teasdirector of the Urbana summary of the present status of this Bockmuehl. Mission conferences in 1973 and 1976; and wasdi­ vital debate and should be useful to ev­ -David M. Howard rector of the Consultation on World Evangelization eryone concerned with the worldwide at'Paffaya, Thailandin 1980. mission of the church.

"faith" missions in becoming foreign Life and Work on the Mission missionaries. The familiar matter of a Field. "call" initiates the opening section of the book, which deals with preparation By j. Herbert Kane. Grand Rapids, Mich.: while, predictably, the subject of "fur­ Baker Book House, 1980. Pp. xii, 366. lough" occupies the final position in $12.95. the second major section, which is giv­ en to missionary life. Between these }. Herbert Kane, former China mission­ School, has meticulously detailed the two issues the author deals with all the ary and more recently professor of mis­ processes that persons encounter in the subjects that are encountered in the sions at Trinity Evangelical Divinity evangelical, independent, or so-called book's predecessor, Harold R. Cook's

92 International Bulletin of Missionary Research Missionary Life and Work (Chicago: have benefited from the ability of na­ between the "is" and the IIought" in Moody Press, 1959). The third major tional Christians not only to sympa­ missionary practice is a major liability. section of the book examines various thize but also to offer constructive This is particularly so when the inde­ types of ministries that are in vogue on counsel and genuine friendship would pendent mission movement stands in the field today. dispute this contention. Indeed, one such need of new models for mission­ The author has chosen to deal might argue instead for the enlarged ary service. with his subject in a descriptive and involvement of national Christians in -Donald E. Douglas anecdotal manner. One wishes that he the design and execution of the newly had chosen an analytical mode instead. arrived missionary's initial orientation In the absence of such critical evalua­ as well as ongoing acculturation. tion one is left with the feeling, upon The subject of life and work on Donald E. Douglas, on the pastoral staff of Huron reading the book, that there is more se­ the mission field merits serious atten­ Hills Baptist Church in Ann Arbor, Michigan, rious question about most of the topics tion. This Professor Kane has done. wasa missionary in the Philippines (J963-72) with that are introduced than is apparent However, his failure to provide linkage Far Eastern Gospel Crusade. from the author's development of these topics. This would appear to stem from two essential weaknesses in Kane's treatment of his subject. The first re­ lates to the matter of perspective. The author's approach is aligned with the "Lord, current pattern of the North American sending agencies and the procedures followed in assigning missionaries when did abroad. The assumption is implicit throughout that this provides the most efficient and effective means for the we see you completion of the task of the church. Scant reference is made to the na­ tional or receiving churches and the hungry.. crucial part they must increasingly play • " in the selection, evaluation, prepara­ tion, and orientation of North Ameri­ FAMINE WORLD HUNGER can missionary personnel, not to Kevin M. Cahill, M.D., ed. The Responsibility of mention the matter of participating in In Famine, the most comprehensive Christian Education the determination of missionary-sup­ book on the subject, experts from vari­ by Suzanne C. Toton port levels. As older paradigms break ous disciplines consider the history of down, new ones must be proposed. "Suzanne Toton has brought together famine, the economics of famine, the in this one volume all of the resources This is perhaps the most critical task reality of famine, the response to that faces the missionary enterprise on this topic that are useful for an famine, and the ethical aspects of educator. She has analyzed world which Kane represents. famine. A second weakness, which is ap­ hunger as a moral problem in the first Contributors include: Dennis G. parent throughout the book but which world rather than an economic problem Carlson, Victor H. Palmieri, Lillian M. is most conspicuous in his chapter on of underdevelopment in the third world. Li, John Bongaarts, Mead Cain, Kevin culture shock, is the absence of refer­ Religious educators will be especially in­ M. Cahill, M.D., William J. Byron, ence to the mounting body of research terested in the third part of the book S.J.~ Mark Perlman, D. Gale Johnson, from the social sciences that bears on which critically examines educational Harvey Leibenstein, Sudhir Sen, Eileen the matter of cross-cultural accommo­ practice and describes some of the Egan, Stephen Green, Arthur Simon. dation. Much of this material, while things which the author has done with cloth $15.95, paper $8.95 not necessarily designed specifically for this issue in her own classes. " missionaries, is directly applicable to GABRIEL MORAN, New York University issues Kane raises and which mission­ paper $7.95 aries daily encounter. Integration of WORLD CITIZEN this material into the text would have Action for Global Justice Also ofinterest: served to make the author's work more by Adam Daniel Corson-Finnerty objective. "Out of his personal involvement in HUNGER FOR JUSTICE Some social scientists have turned working for social justice, Finnerty The Politics of Food and Faith from the study of differences between gives us tangible answers to the recur­ by Jack A. Nelson peoples as a basis for cross-cultural un­ ring question, 'But what can I do?' He paper $5.95 derstanding to an examination of the surveys global problems in human values and behavioral patterns that hu­ PARENTING FOR PEACE AND terms. Then he guides us to further JUSTICE man beings hold in common. This, for reading and to a wide choice of organ­ the practice of mission, should suggest izations through which we can act. by Kathleen and James McGinnis paper $4.95 the potential for reciproci ty in encoun­ This impressive compendium of con­ ter with those of another culture at a cern will help empower all those who much deeper level than has been expe­ want to live out their faith in this Write for new catalog rienced by many missionaries. Kane, troubled world." OLCUTT SANDERS, however, in referring to culture shock, Friends Journal says that "... nationals can't be ex­ paper $6.95 ORBISBOOKS pected to sympathize because they Maryknoll, NY 10545 don't understand it" (p. 82). Those who

April1982 93 Readings in Dynamic Indigeneity. concept is built. Smalley and Tippett move into the cultural relationship, Edited by Charles H Kraftand Tom N Wis­ while Kasdorf reviews some of the his­ ley. Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, torical data. Kraft concludes the section 1979. Pp. xxxii, 547. Paperback $12.95. with a proposal for dynamic equiva­ lence churches for today. Kraft and Wisley begin with an as­ sired, among all believers of all cultures Section II is a consideration of the sumption, namely, that the indigenous is a foundation upon which the book is application of the dynamic equivalence principle of selfhood of the church built. pattern as seen in different models, within any given ethnic group is a val­ The editors have chosen contribu­ looking at attempts in Papua New id concept and to be sought after. Their tions from a broad spectrum of missio­ Guinea, Southeast Asia, African tribal presupposition that a "dynamic equiv­ logists and the book has one desire: to cultures, and the Philippines. Section alent" is to be found, or at least de- find the answers to the questions posed III deals with the matter of theological that are facing mission endeavor today. indigeneity as theory, and Section IV That means biblical, cultural, ethnical, presents a call for application. Edward C. Pentecost is Assistant Professor of World practical answers. All of the writers are sincerely Missionsand Associate Director of WorldMissions In Section I Melvin Hodges grappling with the realities and issues Research Center at Dallas Theological Seminary in presents the basic theory of the indig­ that face mission endeavor. It is a book Dallas, Texas. From J945 to J962 he was a mis­enous church principles. Peter Beyer­ that no missiologist or missionary can sionary in Mexico with the International Fellowship haus adds his word concerning the afford to ignore. of Evangelical Students. biblical foundation upon which the -Edward C. Pentecost

Dissertation Notices Carson, Ralph Logan. Lynch, Patrick! Smith, Brian.

IIA Study of Selected Problems as "The Relationship of Church and "The Catholic Church and Political Experienced in the History of World in the Theology of Karl Change in Chile, 1925-1975." Protestant Missionism, 1841-1970." Rahner." Ph.D. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ., Ph.D. Madison, N!: Drew Univ., 1980. Ph.D. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago, 1980. 1978.

Del Rosario, Romeo. Naidoff, Bruce D. Staples, Russell Lynn. "The Schism in the Methodist "Israel and the Nations in Deutero­ "Christianity and the Cult of the Church in the Philippines in 1933." Isaiah: The Political Terminology in Ancestors: Belief and Ritual among Ph.D. Boston, Mass.: Boston Univ., 1981. Form-Critical Perspective." the Bantu-Speaking Peoples of Ph.D. Nashville, Tenn.: Vanderbilt Univ., Southern Africa." Dinter, Paul E., Jr. 1980. Ph.D. Princeton, N!: Princeton Seminary, "The Remnant of Israel and the 1981. Stone of Stumbling in Zion Schipani, Daniel Serafin. according to Paul (Romans 9-11)." "Conscientization and Creativity: A Stevens-Arroyo, AntonioM Ph.D. New York: Union Theological Re-interpretation of Paulo Freire "The Indigenous Elements in the Seminary, 1980. Focused on his Epistemological and Popular Religion of Puerto Ricans." Theological Foundations with Ph.D. New York: Fordham Univ., 1981. Grau, James, Jr. Implications for Christian Education "The Gentiles in Genesis: Israel and Theory." Young, Doyle L. the Nations in the Primeval and Ph.D. Princeton, N!: Princeton Seminary, "The Place of Andrew Fuller in the Patriarchal Histories." 1981. Developing Modern Missions Ph.D. Dallas, Tex.: Southern Methodist Movement." Univ., 1980. Schneider, Robert Alan. Ph.D. Fort Worth, Tex.: Southwestern "The Senior Secretary: Rufus Baptist Seminary, 1981. Knoebel, Thomas L. Anderson and the American Board "Grace in the Theology of Karl of Commissioners for Foreign Rahner: A Systematic Presentation." Missions, 1810-1880." Ph.D. New York: Fordham Univ., 1980. Ph.D. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ., 1980. Long, Paul Brown. " 'Disciple the Nations': Training Brazilians for Inter-Cultural Mission." Ph.D. Pasadena, cau. Fuller Theological Seminary, 1981.

94 International Bulletin of Missionary Research Acomprehensive, illustrated guide to the world's reliUions from man's earliest forms of worship to Ihe present day...

Cloth, 456 pages, $21.95

This newest addition to Eerdmans' popular Handbook series . ions include: a comprehensive introduction to the world's religions from ancient • The Development of Religion • TheAncient ReligionsEgypt, Greece,Rome Egypt, Greece, andRome, to present day primal religions andthe • The Primal Religions greatreligions - Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Islam, and Illustratedwithcase-studies from manydifferent parts Christianity. And like the Eerdmans' handbooks which have pre­ of the worldtoday • Living Religions of the East 'ceded it, thisguide offers clear andstimulating information Hinduism, Buddhism. Jainism, Parsis. SHills presented in a highly readable and organized fashion. • People of a Book Judaism, Islam Illustrated with more than 200 photographs and numerous charts • Religion: or the Fulfillmentof Religion? Christianity andmaps. • Rapid Fact-finder Book Notes In Coming Appiah-Kubi, Kofi. Man Cures, God Heals. Religion and Medical Practice among the Akans of Ghana. Issues New York: Friendship Press, 1981. Pp. xio, 173. Paperback $10.95. Beyond Liberation Theology: Evangelical Missiology in Latin Bertsch, Ludwig and Felix Schlosser, eds. America Evangelisation in der Dritten Welt. Anstosse fiir Europa. Samuel Escobar Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 1981. Pp. 128. Paperback. No price indicated. Ethical Decision-making and the Bowden, Henry Warner. Missionary Role American Indians and Christian Missions. Studies in Cultural Conflict. Robert L. Ramseyer Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1981. Pp. xix, 255. $14.95. Protestant Missionaries and the Broomhall, A. / Study of the Bhagavad Gita Hudson Taylor & China's Open Century. Book One: Barbarians at the Gate. Eric I Sharpe London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1981. Pp. 432. Paperback £2.50. Human Rights and Interreligious Caraman, Philip. Dialogue: The Challenge to University of the Nations. The Story of the Gregorian University. Mission in a Pluralist World Ramsey, N/: Paulist Press, 1981. Pp. 157. Paperback $6.95. David Hollenbach, 5.1

Cook, Bruce L. Language Learning Is Understanding Pictures in Papua New Guinea. Communication-Is Ministry! Elgin, Ill.: David C. Cook Foundation, 1981. Pp. 113. Paperback $8.95. E. Thomas and Elizabeth S. Brewster

Gyan, Satish Chandra. In our series on the Legacy of Sivananda and His Ashram. Outstanding Missionary Figures Madras: Christian Literature Society, 1980. Pp. xii, 172. Paperback Rs. 17. of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, articles about King, Michael Christopher. E. Stanley Jones The Palestinians and the Churches. Vol. I: 1948-1956. Frank Laubach Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1981. Pp. vi, 138. Paperback $8.95. William Paton Samuel M. Zwemer Rudin, James and Marcia. Prison or Paradise? The New Religious Cults. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980. Pp. 164. $8.95. Book reviews by Leelamma Athyal, DavidM Beckmann, Spindler, M R. and P. R. Middelkoop, eds. Peter Beyerhaus, E. Luther Copeland, Bible and Mission: A Partially Annotated Bibliography, 1960-1980. Kenneth Cracknell, Hugo H Culpepper, Leiden: Interuniversity Institute for Missiology and Ecumenics, 1981. Pp. xii, 96. Paperback Sarah Cunningham, LuisM Dolan, DG 10.00. C.P., John Eagleson, Per Hassing, James A. Scherer, Roger L. Shinn, Steele, Francis R. I Dudley Woodberry, and others. Not in Vain. The Story of North Africa Mission. Pasadena, Calif: William Carey Library, 1981. Pp. xoi, 167. Paperback $4.95.

Swanson, A lien [. The Church in Taiwan: Profile 1980. Pasadena, Calif: William Carey Library, 1981. Pp. xxv, 440. Paperback $7.95.

Van der Bent, Ans / Major Studies and Themes in the Ecumenical Movement. Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1981. Pp. vii, 133. Paperback $5.95.

Van Engen, Charles Edward. The Growth of the True Church. An Analysis of Church Growth Theory. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1981.Pp. 545. Paperback. No price indicated.

Wilson, I Christy, Jr. Afghanistan: The Forbidden Harvest. Elgin, Ill.: David C. Cook Publishing Co., 1981. Pp. 130. Paperback $4.95.