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Home , Bonfire toffee, Christmas in Scotland, Shrove Monday

MASARYK UNIVERSITY BRNO FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Department of English Language and Literature

Bachelor Thesis

Brno 2012

Jan Škoda

MASARYK UNIVERSITY BRNO FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Department of English Language and Literature

Differences in and Easter in Great Britain and the United States

Bachelor Thesis

Brno 2012

Supervisor: Author:

Michael George M.A. Jan Škoda

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Prohlášení:

“Prohlašuji, že jsem závěrečnou bakalářskou práci vypracoval samostatně, s využitím pouze citovaných literárních pramenů, dalších informací a zdrojů v souladu s Disciplinárním řádem pro studenty Pedagogické fakulty Masarykovy Univerzity a se zákonem č. 121/2000 Sb., o právu autorském, o právech souvisejících s právem autorským a o změně některých zákonů (autorský zákon), ve znění pozdějších předpisů.”

Declaration:

“I declare that I have compiled this bachelor thesis by myself and that I have used only the sources listed in the bibliography.”

Brno 9th December 2012 Jan Škoda

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Acknowledgments:

I would like to express my thanks especially to my supervisor, Michael George, M.A., for his interesting and inspiring ideas during my work on the thesis. I am also very indebted to my family and friends who were capable with me and encouraged me during the time I have been working on my thesis.

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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ...... 7 1. HISTORY OF CHRISTMAS ...... 9 1.1. Christmas symbols and customs ...... 13 1.1.1. Angels ...... 13 1.1.2. Bells ...... 14 1.1.3. ...... 14 1.1.4. Christmas carols ...... 15 1.1.5. ...... 15 1.1.6. Holly, ivy and ...... 16 1.1.7. The crèche ...... 17 1.1.8. Christmas gifts ...... 17 1.1.9. ...... 17 1.2. CHRISTMAS IN BRITAIN THEN AND NOW ...... 18 1.2.1. Christmas in ...... 20 1.2.2. Scottish ...... 21 1.2.3. Christmas in Wales ...... 22 1.2.4. Welsh Christmas traditions ...... 22 1.2.5. Christmas in Northern Ireland ...... 24 1.2.6. Northern Ireland Christmas traditions ...... 24 1.3. CHRISTMAS IN THE UNITED STATES THEN AND NOW ...... 25 1.3.1. Christmas in New England ...... 29 1.3.2. New England Christmas traditions...... 30 1.3.3. Christmas in the South ...... 31 1.3.4. Southern Christmas traditions ...... 31 1.3.5. African-American Christmas ...... 32 1.3.6. African-American Christmas traditions ...... 32 2. HISTORY OF EASTER ...... 35 2.1. Days of and Easter ...... 36 2.1.1. (Fat Tuesday or Pancake Tuesday) ...... 36 2.1.2. ...... 36 2.1.3. Palm Sunday ...... 37 2.1.4. Maundy Thursday (Holy Thursday) ...... 37 2.1.5. Good Friday ...... 37 2.1.6. Easter (Easter Sunday) ...... 38 2.1.7. Easter Monday ...... 38 2.2. Easter symbols and customs ...... 38 2.2.1. Easter Bunny ...... 39 2.2.2. Easter Eggs ...... 39 2.2.3. Paschal Candle ...... 39 2.2.4. Paschal Lamb ...... 40 2.3. EASTER IN BRITAIN ...... 40 2.3.1. Shrove Tuesday ...... 41 2.3.2. Ash Wednesday ...... 42 2.3.3. Palm Sunday ...... 42 2.3.4. Maundy Thursday (Sheer Thursday) ...... 43 2.3.5. Good Friday ...... 43 2.3.6. Easter (Easter Sunday) ...... 44 2.3.7. Easter Monday ...... 45

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2.4. EASTER IN UNITED STATES ...... 46 2.4.1. Shrove Tuesday () ...... 48 2.4.2. Ash Wednesday ...... 48 2.4.3. Palm Sunday ...... 49 2.4.4. Maundy Thursday ...... 49 2.4.5. Good Friday ...... 49 2.4.6. Easter (Easter Sunday) ...... 50 2.4.7. Easter Monday ...... 50 CONCLUSION ...... 52 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 54

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INTRODUCTION

The theme of my bachelor thesis is Differences in Christmas and Easter in Great Britain and the United States. Christmas and Easter are the most widely celebrated holidays among Christians and non-Christians all over the world. Each country, region, or ethnicity is unique. It can be said that holidays teach us about traditions and customs of the country and they are a rich source of cultural information. I decided for this topic when I was thinking about the principle of holidays. I was always wondering why we celebrate holidays. I found interesting the idea about differences in Christmas and Easter in Great Britain and United States because I thought that there are any, but I was mistaken. I like Christmas more than Easter, therefore I began to describe Christmas and subsequently Easter, even though Easter may seem more important concerning Christians. The thesis deals with both religious and secular aspects. The thesis is divided into two main chapters involving Christmas and Easter. The main aim of my thesis is to focus on regional differences in celebration and customs of these two holidays in Great Britain and the United States and try to find out how these regional differences originated and why are certain traditions or customs important and significant in some region and in another not. It is a comparison of two popular holidays. In my thesis is Great Britain mentioned first concerning both holidays, because it historically influenced the United States in many aspects. The first part of the thesis is devoted to analysis of Christmas from historical point of view and nowadays significance. It focuses on why and for what reason is Christmas celebrated. I chose main symbols that are connected with Christmas in common and described their origin and significance. It deals with an analysis of Christmas in Great Britain and its historical countries, and focuses on description of regional differences in celebration and customs in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. It analyzes local customs and traditions and their significance for local people. The same structure has the following subchapter which is devoted to the historical background of Christmas in the United States. It describes how Christmas began to be celebrated in America and how significant is Christmas for today’s Americans. I divided the United States into three main areas with similar features of celebration Christmas into New England, South and African-American society, and depicted differences in celebration of Christmas.

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The second part is devoted to analysis of Easter from historical point of view and nowadays significance. It describes why and for what reason is Easter celebrated. I depicted days of Lent and Easter and main Easter symbols which are common in both countries. Great Britain and the United States are not divided according to differences in regions, but according to distinctions in days of Lent and Easter. At first it focuses on history of Easter celebrations in Britain and deals with differences in customs according to days of Lent and Easter. The same structure has the final subchapter concerning history of Easter in United States and its unique celebrations and customs.

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1. HISTORY OF CHRISTMAS

Christmas and Easter are the two most important feasts in Christianity. Christmas is widely celebrated even in many countries that are officially non-religious, like the United States, where it has achieved the status of a national holiday. For many people who do not celebrate it religiously is Christmas still a secular holiday (Kelly 12). The word Christmas comes from the Old English Christes messe, meaning Christ’s Mass. Meaning of these words is a festival celebrating the birth of Christ. The word Christmas is often represented by the word because X is the Greek equivalent to Ch and Ch represents Christ (Heller 5). Schwarz claims, that the word Xmas is a secular attempt to remove the religious tradition from Christmas “by taking Christ from Christmas” (205). However, there is a common misconception that Xmas tends to be a pagan spelling of Christmas because the letter X really comes from Greek and it is only an abbreviation. For Christians and believers, is Christmas one of the most significant holidays, which celebrates the birth of who died more than two thousand years ago. Christians believe that Jesus Christ was the son of God. Many believers are persuaded that Christmas is a celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ, however many scholars claim, that the origin of Christmas goes farther into the history when pagan tribes occupied the world. Although the exact date of the Jesus’ birth is unknown, there were good reasons for choosing December 25 for the Christ’s Mass, or the feast day (Barth and Arndt 8). Heller claims that the establishment of the date of Christmas was maybe connected with the winter solstice festival of the pagan Romans, Teutons, Britons and Gauls (5). Barth and Arndt write:

Four hundreds of years before Christ, people had worshiped the sun. Those in the northern hemisphere noticed, with fear, a time of the year when the sun god seemed to forsake them. Each day was a little shorter than the one before. If this continued, there would be no light or life left on Earth at all. But in the end, the god always relented, they discovered, for the days gradually became longer. We now call this time of the shortest days the winter solstice. (8)

The people in the Northern Europe worshiped the Sun and believed that it was the provider of life and light. They observed their festivals near the shortest day of the

9 year. For people at that time the Sun was thought of as a wheel which was known as wheol. The Sun seemed to stand still for twelve days before it began to go upwards again. It is highly probable that the term or Yuletide comes from the word wheol (Heller 5). Yule or Yuletide was a pagan festival for the Germanic people and Northern European people, held near the twelve shortest days of the year. Later Yule was being absorbed into the Christian festival of Christmas. Also some Yule customs such as in Britain were absorbed into Christmas. For example in Scotland, Yule is the traditional name for Christmas in the Scottish language (Morrison 3). It is very interesting that the Hebrew festival Hanukkah, which is known as Festival of Lights, is also celebrated at the same time of the year. In 165 B.C. after defeating the army of Syrians, Judas Maccabaeus entered Jerusalem and found a desolated place. Heller claims: “He began to work of purification which was finished on 25th day of Kislev (approximately the same as the 25th day of December). A sacred light was lighted from a jar of oil which had been found in the temple. It was thought that this light would last for but one day, but miraculously it lasted for eight” (5). Therefore from that time Jews celebrate the eight days previous to December 25 as a festival called Hanukkah. Also in ancient Rome celebrated their annual holiday called Saturnalia, which was observed from December 17 to December 24 (Heller 5). This feast was celebrated more than two hundred years before Christ. It probably originated in some agricultural harvest festival. The word Saturnalia has been derived from the name of the Roman God Saturn (Henderson 797). According to legends he taught people how to cultivate the soil and controlled the peace, happiness and prosperity. During the period of Saturnalia people could not work on their fields because the days were becoming shorter. They at least feasted and believed that Saturn will assure them of better crop for the next year. Moreover, people exchanged small gifts such as things made from wax like wax fruit and wax candles. Great halls, homes and also streets were decorated with evergreens, laurel and lighted candles and even lamps (B. D. Forbes 8). Nowadays custom of gift giving and decorating houses comes from this period. Another interesting celebration associated with the end of December was held in pagan Rome. The birthday of Mithras was celebrated on December 25. Romans believed that he was a prophet of the sun worshipers (Heller 6). They claimed that this day was the birthday of the solar disc.

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Therefore it can be said that the selection of December 25 as the Christ’s birthday was particularly influenced by these two Roman feasts. The theory about fixing or determination of the exact date for the celebration of Christmas, confirms one apt description from Heller:

Justification for the choice was given by St. Chrisostom, Bishop of Constantinopole at the end of the fourth century. In a discourse he said, “On this day also the Birthday of Christ was lately fixed at Rome in order that while the heathen were busy with their profane ceremonies, the Christians might perform their sacred rites undisturbed. They call this (December 25th, or viii Kal. Jan, as the Romans wrote it), the Birthday of the Invincible one (Mithras); but who is so invincible as the Lord? They call it the Birthday of the Solar Disc, but Christ is the Sun of Righteousness. (6)

Earlier Christians celebrated Christmas at various times because the actual date was unknown. In 350 A.D. the Church of Rome agreed on fixing the December 25 as the commemoration of Jesus’ birth (Barth and Arndt 10). In 1582 the Gregorian calendar replaced the Julian calendar and eleven days were dropped to compensate a mismatch which has formed during the centuries. Countries of Roman Catholic origin promptly accepted the new change. After this change, people in England and Scotland had a problem with the acceptation of the new calendar, because they did not want a new calendar. Another two hundred years, they celebrated Christmas on what was now January 5. Even after the acceptance of the Gregorian calendar in Britain in 1752, people who lived in distant rural places still observed the Old Christmas Day on January 5. The new calendar was never accepted by some Eastern churches and even in (Henderson 126). From the fifth century most Christians celebrate the December 25 as Jesus Christ’s Birthday. It can be said that most Christians all around the world accepted this date but there are some nations like Armenians who did not want to celebrate Christmas on December 25, because it is closely connected with other pagan holidays and therefore they keep celebrating Christmas on January 6 (Barth and Arndt 11). For most people around the world, December 25 is the most important day of Christmas period. There are also another two days connected with Christmas such as December 24 and December 25.

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The December 24 is called Christmas Day and marks the night before the anniversary of the birth of Jesus Christ. means the end of the season, which is the period of preparation for Christmas. It begins four Sundays before Christmas on the Sunday nearest November 30 and ends on Christmas Eve. The name Advent comes from a Latin word meaning coming or arrival (Moehn 1). Henderson writes: “It was on this night that the shepherds keeping watch over their flocks outside saw the bright star in the sky that signalled the birth of Jesus Christ” (138). The December 26 is called St. Stephen’s Day. This religious holiday commemorates the first Christian martyr St. Stephen who was denounced as a blasphemer and stoned to death in Jerusalem. His death is considered by Christians as an example of the highest martyrdom, because he gave his life for Christ (Henderson 896). In Great Britain, Canada and Australia St. Stephen’s Day is called and it is a secular holiday. The name probably comes from Middle Ages when servants and businessmen carried little boxes to collect tips and gifts. During the whole year they collected and waited to open the boxes until the day after Christmas because it was the time when people gave the most money (Moehn 10). On the other hand Henderson writes about the theory that Boxing received its name after the church alms-boxes which were not opened until the day after December 25 (897). No matter the origin, Boxing Day has preserved until today when people are saying thanks and giving large tips (Moehn 10). More about Boxing Day and traditions joined with its celebration described in chapter Christmas in Britain. For most of the Christian world Christmas season ends on the (), on January 6. Twelfth Night is the last of the traditional . The custom of extending Christmas may have derived from the pagan custom of marking the winter solstice that lasted number of days. But the actual date that marks the end of the season is really ambiguous. According to Henderson, to some people, “Twelfth Night means the evening before the Twelfth Day, or January 5. To others, it means the evening of the Twelfth Day, or January 6. In any case, it is often observed on the night of Epiphany rather than the night before” (982). The word Epiphany means manifestation. Early Christians observed the birth of Jesus on this day. Henderson claims that early Christians believed that “God manifested himself in human form” on this day (236). According to authors, the most commonly accepted conclusion is that Christmas is a combination of various secular customs combined with the commemoration of

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Jesus’ birth. Many secular customs have been influenced by earlier pagan winter festivals. As the time went many pagan customs like singing, feasting, gift giving and dancing began to be inseparable part of Christmas merry-making. In the end, these customs were assimilated and connected with religious aspect of Christmas.

1.1. Christmas symbols and customs

Christmas symbolic is unique. Mystery, gifts, joy and surprise make the real Christmas. Symbols are connected with Christmas from its beginnings. Whether pagan, or Christian, people always needed symbols for their existence. This particular sub- chapter is devoted to the most familiar Christmas symbols and customs, and their historical point of view. Although it does not seem, there are lots of symbols and customs associated with Christmas. Therefore it was necessary to depict major dominant Christmas symbols commonly occurring in both mentioned countries and made a list of them. It deals with how particular symbols originated and why and for what reason are being celebrated.

1.1.1. Angels

The word angel comes from a Greek word angelos, which means messenger or herald. These beings are pictured on various Christmas displays such as Christmas cards, trees, bulbs and nativity scenes. And moreover an angel named is connected with Jesus’ birth and is one of the most important heaven creatures which played a very important role in Jesus Christ’s life at the beginning and also in the end of his life. Gabriel visited Mary to deliver her a message that she is expecting a child. Later on the night when the Jesus was born, an angel appeared to shepherds to inform them of the glorious event (Henderson 126-127). Henderson also claims: “Christmas angels frequently appear as winged human beings in flowing white robes with feminine faces and haloes. Some scholars believe that early Christian artists patterned the image of winged angels after the winged Greek goddess of victory, Nike” (127). It is no wonder that angels became one of the most significant Christmas symbols mainly because they have been directly connected with the Jesus’ birth.

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1.1.2. Bells

In order to understand the connection between bells and Christmas, we have to go back to the Middle Age. Almost in every church were more than four bells. In those days Church officials started to use them when they celebrated and worshiped. For calling parishioners to religious services were used larger bells. It depended on how significant the occasion was. During larger occasions were used as many bells as possible. For example during Christmas pealed four or five bells and high mass requested three bells (Henderson 127). Today, bells belong to a favourite kind of Christmas decorations. They are depicted on various kinds of Christmas greetings and Christmas tree ornaments.

1.1.3. Christmas card

This nice tradition comes from ancient Rome where they exchanged greetings on January 1. With increase of Christianity across Europe, the giving and receiving greetings took the form of New Year’s cards. They had nothing to do with Christmas because these cards were sent out after December 25 in order to come on the first day of the New Year (Henderson 128). In England, greeting cards combined Christmas and the New Year, with the emphasis on Christmas. The invention of the modern Christmas cards was just the matter of time. The modern sending of Christmas greeting cards began in Victorian era. The first printed Christmas card was produced in London, England in 1843 and was designed by John Callcott Horsley (First Christmas Card). For the first time there were issued 1000 pieces of Christmas cards and sold in London. In the United States it took longer time than the tradition of Christmas cards has been undertaken. The production of Christmas cards in the United States started in 1875. It was the manufacturer Louis Prang who started to make it in Roxbury, Massachusetts. Nowadays it is the heart of the American greeting card industry (Henderson 129). Today, there are various types and shapes of greeting cards with many symbols depicted on them. Christmas cards are popular not only in English-speaking countries, but also in the rest of the world.

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1.1.4. Christmas carols

The origin of carols as a part of Christmas custom is probably unknown and according to used literature, authors differ in their attitude to the origin of carols. However it is certain that the word carol comes from the Italian word carolare which was a medieval dance connected with singing (Heller 6). When the first Christmas carols were written, Christmas has been celebrated for more than 800 years (Henderson 129). Another author Phillips writes: “The very first carol ever heard by mortal ears was that which was sung by the angles over the fields of Bethlehem, when our Lord was born” (1). This was kind of religious point of view. The most probable origin of carols is connected with St. Francis of Assisi. It was in 1223 when St. Francis of Assisi with his brethren began to sing simple carols by performing the first . The idea of crèche and carolling quickly expanded into other European countries (Heller 6). Henderson claims: “From Italy, the carol passed to Spain, France and Germany, where it retained its cheerfulness, childish simplicity, and religious fervour. The earliest known English carol dates from about 1410 and describes the Virgin Mary singing a lullaby to her child” (129-130). Also today’s carols typically describe religious events and also scenes which are closely connected with the birth of Jesus Christ.

1.1.5. Christmas tree

A fine decorated evergreen tree with coloured lights means real Christmas for most nowadays people. A decorated tree was also very important for people who lived long before Christmas was celebrated. It was Druids who lived thousand years ago in an area of nowadays England and France. They worshiped nature and held ceremonies in sacred groves. During the winter solstice they practised a ritual which consisted of decorating oak tree with gilded apples and lighted candles (Barth and Arndt 16). They observed this ritual in honour to their Sun god. Later the Romans during their Saturnalia in December decorated with candlelit trees and on the first day of January brought evergreens into their houses (Henderson 130). They considered evergreens and candles as a symbol of life.

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A legend says that on one Christmas Eve about twelve hundred years ago, the first Christmas tree was revealed by a miracle. It was when Winfrid, later named St. Boniface, was in Germany trying to defeat some pagan tribes. Finally he stopped them by cutting down the blood oak before their eyes. When the tree felt down a young fir tree sprang up. Winfrid said that the fir tree was the tree of Christ and should be taken into their homes (Barth and Arndt 17). This was only a legend but the first real record of a Christmas tree comes from a German book from 1604. By the nineteenth century it had spread from Germany throughout Europe but not in England. It was because the Puritans in England in the seventeenth century banned celebration of Christmas and therefore the first English Christmas tree appeared only in 1841 at Windsor Castle (ibid. 18-19). Nowadays, the popularity of Christmas tree is enormous throughout the World. Each family has its own fine decorated tree, illuminated with lights. The smell of needles is everywhere which represents Christmas magic and glamour. Municipalities in both Europe and the United States erect their own trees on squares and public places and illuminate them with and decorate with ornaments.

1.1.6. Holly, ivy and Mistletoe

Holly and ivy belong to another popular Christmas decorations. For ancient Romans it was the symbol of peace and joy as well as victory. Later for the Christians it meant that Christ had entered their home when they placed it in their windows (Heller 10). Mistletoe is often a part of the Christmas fun. Who wouldn’t know the habit to kiss someone or to be kissed under a bunch of mistletoe? Mistletoe is also of pagan origin. We have to go back again to the Roman Saturnalia. They decorated indoors which indicated an offer of hospitality to the spirits that haunted the woods (Henderson 134). The custom of hanging a sprig of mistletoe in a doorway comes from Scandinavia. It was an old tradition at that time. When enemies met under mistletoe in the forest, they had to lay their arms until the following day (ibid. 135). Mistletoe is an inseparable symbol of Christmas. Sometimes gold is sprayed on mistletoe to signalize Christmas atmosphere.

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1.1.7. The crèche

It was again St. Francis of Assisi who created the idea of building a life-sized representation of the Nativity scene. In 1223 he built a full-sized stable next to his church and reconstructed the birth of Jesus with the help of real people and animals. From Graecia near Assisi his idea spread all over Europe (Heller 7). Nowadays the crèche is used in homes, churches, public places and squares.

1.1.8. Christmas gifts

Christmas gifts are connected with joy and merry-making. Heller claims that the origin of a nowadays custom of gift giving at Christmas is probably connected with the Three Wise Men. According to a legend they brought the gifts to the Christ Child (7). Griffin and Shurgin suggest that they brought “gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh to the infant Jesus” (76). But authorities like Henderson suppose that only the ancient Romans gave presents during the Saturnalia and exchanged greetings on the first day of January. They believed that giving people gifts will bring them good luck in the coming year (133). Whatever the origin, the main reason of gift giving is simple and still the same. A gift giving is connected with good will, joy, generosity and love. The original idea of giving a small gift is today often replaced by a proverb the more presents the better. It is caused by commercialism and mass production of all products connected with Christmas.

1.1.9. Santa Claus

Saint Nicholas of was the inspiration for the Christian figure of , from which the modern figure of Santa Claus has been derived. Santa Claus is a Christmas symbol which is based on a real figure of of Myra. He was a Greek Christian who lived in the 4th century in Myra, now in Turkey. He devoted all his life to Christianity and during his life was known for giving generous gifts to the poor. Saint Nicholas was claimed as a patron saint of children, archers and sailors (Griffin and Shurgin 85).

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It is highly probable that the familiar figure of Santa Claus has been derived from the real figure of Saint Nicholas. Santa Claus, , Saint Nicholas or simply Santa is in western countries connected with gift-giving. According to Henderson, Santa Claus is traditionally portrayed as an older dumpy man with a white beard wearing a red coat with white collar and cuffs, white-cuffed red trousers, and black leather belt and boots (141). Santa Claus as it is known today was depicted by American illustrator Thomas Nest. He published in Harper’s Weekly his series about Santa Claus from 1863 to 1886. He “delineated not only the characteristics and dress but all enchanting activities of the real Santa Claus” (Tennant 101). Nast created a magic figure that even the twenty first century could embrace. A legend says that Santa Claus lives in the North Pole. He travels in a sleigh pulled by flying reindeer around the World to deliver gifts to children. On Christmas Eve he comes down the chimney and brings Christmas presents to them. In these days, there is no child in Western countries, who would not be able to imagine Christmas without Santa Claus.

1.2. CHRISTMAS IN BRITAIN THEN AND NOW

British Christmas has its own glamour and beauty. It is simply unique. Each habit or custom is more or less connected with history. There are lots of Christmas and New Year’s traditions in Britain and each country of the United Kingdom has its own traditions and customs. Many customs of the pagan Druids were adopted by early Christians in Britain. For example in England holly and ivy were placed in windows as a protection against witches. Also mistletoe was believed among the Druids that it had power to heal. Another custom which is of Druidic origin is the Yule log. The log was brought home on Christmas Eve and people believed that saluting the log will bring them good luck. The Yule log custom still exists in England. In pagan days The Boar’s Head custom also originated. The Druids offered a boar’s head as a sacrifice to Goddess Freya (Heller 12). Later in the sixteenth century came out The Boar’s Head Carol. Sean Spurr writes that in 1521 it was the first carol published in English. This carol is still very popular among British people. A special Christmas family meal is a traditional part of the Christmas celebration. A , also known as minced pie is a traditional Christmas dish in

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Britain. It is a Christmas sweet pie which originated in the thirteenth century. It used to be a main course dish but it has transformed into a dessert. Nowadays is still very popular. Plum pudding was also one of the Christmas dishes originating in medieval England. To be called a plum pudding, it must always consist of real plum flesh. It is still an important part of the English Christmas (Heller 13). Also carols became an integral part of the British Christmas tradition which preserved to this day (ibid.). Groups of singers go from house to house, collect money and sing traditional Christmas carols and songs. Among the most popular belong: Good King Wenceslas, The Holly and The Ivy, and We Three Kings (Rabley 13). Christmas tree has appeared in England by the middle of the nineteenth century. In 1841 Queen Victoria’s husband Prince Albert, who was born in Germany, brought a German custom of the Christmas tree to England. Prince Albert and Queen Victoria had the first Christmas tree at Windsor castle. Few years later, nearly every house in Britain had its own Christmas tree (Griffin and Shurgin 87). Today people celebrate Christmas for both religious and fun-filled reasons. Christmas is a time of meeting families and friends. There are lots of Christmas and New Year’s traditions in Britain. Everything starts many weeks before Christmas when people start to buy decorations, gifts and cards. In the United Kingdom celebration of Christmas begins with the Advent and continues on Christmas Eve (December 24), December 25 (Christmas Day) and Boxing Day on December 26. The end of Christmas is on January 6 (Twelfth Night). Christmas Eve in England is traditionally joined with a tradition that children hang up their stockings on that day. They do not open presents on Christmas Eve but they are expecting Father Christmas who is supposed to come down the chimney and bring them gifts in the night. Some people leave out a mince pie, biscuits and brandy for Santa and carrot for the reindeer (Rabley 13). On Christmas Day children wake up early in the morning to see filled stockings from Father Christmas. Families attend churches in the morning to offer a prayer (Dennis 1370). The most important meal is which consists of roast turkey with potatoes, carrots, peas, sprouts and gravy. Nearly all Christmas food is traditional, but some traditions are not very old such as turkey. There were no turkeys in Britain before 1800. Until the nineteenth century, the most favourite Christmas food in Britain was goose (Rabley 14). Turkey comes from North America, when first settlers

19 called Pilgrim Fathers observed their first Thanksgiving and used a native bird turkey. Later English took over the tradition and turkey replaced goose as a traditional Christmas food (Tennant 30). After the turkey a traditional is served. A lot of families have their own Christmas pudding recipes. Some people like a lot of brandy, other put a lot fruit in it. A traditional pudding is decorated with a piece of holly on the top (Rabley 14, 28). In the afternoon families gather around the Christmas tree and sing carols. The main goal of the evening is the Queen’s annual Christmas speech. Her speech is broadcasted on television and radio (Dennis 1370). Boxing Day, held on December 26, is a secular holiday. In the 21st century, fewer people carry boxes and gifts. Nevertheless, most people still observe the tradition by saying thanks and giving tips on that day to milkmen, dustmen, and other trades people. It is interesting especially among children (Moehn 10). The end of Christmas season indicates the Twelfth Night on January 6. Most people take down the Christmas tree decorations on that day. Christmas celebrations in old Britain were often very hilarious and hospitable. The season of joy began on December 16 and ended on January 6. The lords opened their houses to feast almost everyone from friends to strangers. However in 1643, the Cromwell’s parliament banned celebration of Christmas and Easter (Heller 14). It was caused by the fact that the Puritans considered Christmas as a wasteful festival that endangered Christian beliefs. After the return of English royalty, the dissipated English Christmas were back but it has never been as joyful as it was before the Puritan ban. Later, during Christmas festivities in Elizabethan era was no work of any type performed.

1.2.1. Christmas in Scotland

Scotland is a country that is a part of the United Kingdom. It has its own history and traditions which are more or less connected with British history. The most unusual fact about the history of Christmas in Scotland is that the celebration of Christmas was prohibited for almost 400 years because of the Cromwell’s ban in 1643. With the restoration of the monarchy in 1661, the ban was abolished in the United Kingdom, but not in Scotland. According to Tracey Kelley, the Presbyterian Church in Scotland

20 continued with prohibition of all Christmas festivities and in case of the breach of prohibition people were punished. With coming twentieth century the situation was getting better. Children could even receive small gifts and adults prepared a light Christmas dinner. Also decorating their homes with small evergreens was allowed. It was not until 1950’s when Christmas and its traditions were recognised in Scotland. Maybe because of the ban of Christmas, the Scottish New Year’s festival called became very popular. It is a celebration of the last day of the year. The celebration of Hogmanay was prohibited only fifteen years during the Cromwell’s ban. From the second part of the 17th century it has been vividly celebrated. According to Henderson the word Hogmanay probably comes from the ancient Scandinavian celebration called Huggunott with the combination of Mennie. Mennie was the cup which was drained at the Yule fest and Huggunott was a ritual which consisted of sacrificing and slaughtering cattle. People were celebrating Hogmanay during the shortest days of the year because they wanted to be assured of the crops will return next year (367). Heller writes: “It was believed in Scotland that Christ was born at the midnight hour, and at that time performed the miracle of turning water into wine. It was also believed one born on Christmas day would be able to see spirits and even to have power over them” (14). Hogmanay is the last day of the year and is connected with New Year’s hilarious celebration all over the Scotland.

1.2.2. Scottish Christmas traditions

Nollaig Chridheil means Merry Christmas in (Bailey 106). In Scotland is traditional Scottish Christmas celebrated on December 25. December 24 is called Christmas Eve and December 26 is called Boxing Day. When the prohibition of Christmas in Scotland was over, the Scottish adopted many of the English and American traditions like decorating the Christmas tree, gifts, hanging of stockings and Father Christmas. Despite the main traditions are the same, differences in celebration of the Christmas are evident. Here are the main Christmas traditions that are different from the whole United Kingdom. One of them is baking of the Yule bread. It is one of the different Scottish Christmas traditions. Baking of the bread was also prohibited during the ban. A tradition persisted and today the loaf of bread is baked for each person in the family. If someone

21 finds a trinket in it, it will bring him good luck next year. Another popular habit is divination. On Christmas Eve you have to crack an egg into a cup. The shape of the egg white that will appear will determine the profession of the possible mate (Traditional Scottish Christmas). Than the egg is added into a cake, and if the cracks during baking it will bring you a bad luck next year. Many people in Scotland still burn a twig of the rowen tree to clear away bad feelings of disbelief and jealousy. Many Scots place candles in the windows to welcome a stranger. If you honour a stranger, you honour the Holy Family. A typical Scottish Christmas dessert is called . It is a fruit cake that consists of raisins, citrus peer, almonds, allspice, cinnamon, ginger and pepper (ibid.). Scotland is simply unique part of the United Kingdom.

1.2.3. Christmas in Wales

Wales a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Although Wales shares a history and social background with the rest of the United Kingdom, the country has preserved its own cultural identity and is officially bilingual. Official languages are Welsh and English (Facts About Wales). In Wales as in the whole Great Britain was Christmas banned only in the middle of the 17th century during the Cromwell’s reign. With the restoration of the monarchy, Christmas became celebrated again without any punishment. From that time many traditions and customs have originated and many have preserved. Generally the celebration of Christmas in Wales is the same as in the rest of the United Kingdom. Nevertheless, every country has its Christmas customs, therefore Wales is no exception.

1.2.4. Welsh Christmas traditions

In Wales, dates for Christmas celebration are the same as in the whole United Kingdom. In Wales is traditional Christmas celebrated on December 25. December 24 is called Christmas Eve and December 26 is called Boxing Day. Nadolig llawen is Merry Christmas in Welsh (Bailey 106).

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Welsh customs are very interesting and unique. Maria Hubert states that there are three main Christmas customs in Wales like Plygain, Mari Lwyd and Calenigg, different from the rest of Britain. Plygain is a welsh custom of singing carols at dawn on Christmas morning. It comes from a pre-Reformation Christmas service held in church which was modified to correspond to the new Protestant conditions. It was in the sixteenth century an ordinary morning service which was gradually modified into the Christmas morning service (Plygain Singing). Plygain lasts for almost two hours of carol singing and nowadays is still very popular. After Plygain is over, people stay awake to decorate the house, play cards, eat cake or pikelets, or make bonfire (Barer-Stein 455). Bonfire toffee is usually prepared on Halloween or Guy Fawkes Night, but it is also considered as Christmas meal. It consists of or , , and sometimes white vinegar. It has got a unique slightly bitter flavour (Ingre 146). Mari Lwyd is seldom seen today. Maria Hubert claims that Mari Lwyd comes from pre-Christian times and it is a horse skull covered with a sheet and bedecked with ribbons that is carried from door to door by a group of male singers. After performance they are invited in for refreshments. In these times it died out in most areas in Wales because groups of singers drank too much which could give offence to children. The last from these three customs is Calenigg. It comes from the 3rd and 4th century when the Romans colonized Britain. Romans gave olive branches in order to wish prosperity for the coming year or say sorry. Maria Hubert stated that in areas which were colonized by the Romans is Calenigg still given, but it is an apple with three twig legs. An apple is stuck with almonds and decorated with a small sprig of evergreens around the stalk. Nowadays it is very popular among children who carry an apple from door to door and receive money in return for their Lucky Calenigg. In Wales December 26 is also celebrated as the Day of Wren. This origin comes from ancient Druids who predicted future according to study of the flight of wrens during their Yule festival. Another explanation is according to a legend. A legend says that a chattering wren betrayed St. Stephen’s hiding place when he hid in a bush against his enemies. From that comes the custom when groups of boys celebrate it by dressing up in masks, wearing colourful clothes, dancing and singing. The leader of the group carries a dead wren on a pole which was over time replaced by a fake bird. In past, an actual bird was hunted on St. Stephen’s day and tied to the leader’s pole (Dennis 1476).

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These Welsh customs above are the most distinctive and strictly Welsh, apart from the Day of the Wren which is held also in Northern Ireland.

1.2.5. Christmas in Northern Ireland

Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom in the north-east of the island of Ireland. The whole Ireland used to be a part of the United Kingdom. During the 19th century English started to replace Irish language. The Irish nationalists were not satisfied with it and in 1918 Irish republicans declared independence which led to Anglo-Irish war (1919-1921). The Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1921 granted independence to 26 Irish counties but Northern Ireland remained part of Great Britain. Therefore the whole island has common history, customs and traditions. Even though in Ireland are Roman Catholics and in Northern Ireland are Protestants (Dennis 626). Due to a common history it is difficult to find where exactly the particular habit or custom comes from.

1.2.6. Northern Ireland Christmas traditions

Although Ireland and Northern Ireland are two separate political entities, geographically it is the same island. Therefore it is difficult to say where the particular custom originated in. Generally, in Ireland is celebrated December 24 (Christmas Eve), December 25 (Christmas Day) and December 26 (Boxing Day). Nollaig shona dhuit is in Irish Merry Christmas (Bailey 106). Irish Christmas traditions are similar to those in most Western countries. Apart from classical Christmas traditions like Christmas tree, decorations, gifts and Advent, other Irish Christmas customs and traditions are specific. One of the most wide-spread Christmas traditions is to attend church either on Christmas morning or at midnight on Christmas Eve. Irish sing carols and pray. The placing of a lighted candle in the window is the same like in Scotland. Many homes in Ireland place a Christmas crib in the window where the Holy Family is displayed. With Christmas is connected traditional Irish Christmas meal. According to Barbara Ballard it consists of roast turkey, roast potatoes, baked ham, sprouts, potato or bread , gravy and . After the turkey a traditional dessert is

24 served. It is usually Christmas pudding in Irish style that is set on fire before serving it. Rum or brandy is fired up and glazed over the pudding with a sprig of holly decorated on the top. The custom of placing a ring of holly comes from Ireland because holly was one of the plants that flourished during Christmas period. Placing a ring of holly is still very popular in Ireland. As well as in Scotland the Day of Wren is celebrated on December 26 for the same reasons.

1.3. CHRISTMAS IN THE UNITED STATES THEN AND NOW

The United States of America has many different traditions and ways how people celebrate Christmas, because of the multi-cultural society. America is a mixture of traditions from countries across the world. Apart from large number of similarities, each region in America has its own specialities. As the beginning of Christmas in America can be denoted discovery by Columbus itself. Tennant describes an event connected with Columbus:

Christopher Columbus had marked the discovery of America by planting the cross of Christianity and the banner of Spain on an island of what he thought was the Indies. He called the island San Salvador. Venturing to a further island, seeking treasures of the Orient, his flagship, the Santa Maria, was wrecked while trying to make landfall on Christmas Eve, 1492. The sailors were saved by friendly natives, and from broken timbers of the ship they constructed a crude fort, which Columbus, with prayers of thanks, dubbed La Navidad (The Nativity). Christmas too had landed in the New World. (8)

The first real Christmas customs and traditions were brought by pioneer settlers and adventurers in the beginning of seventeenth century. It was the English Christmas customs that first entered early Virginia and New England. The newcomers arriving in the New World welcomed Christmas as a day of rest from everyday’s hard work. Some celebrated, at least in part, as a holy day (Restad 8). In 1620 arrived the Pilgrim Fathers on Mayflower in Plymouth Bay. It was an orthodox group of puritan settlers who had fled the volatile political environment of England. In the New World were seeking for religious freedom and believed only in

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Bible (Tennant 29). The story of seeking religious freedom has become a central theme of the history and culture of the United States. The Puritans who settled in America brought the custom of not celebrating Christmas with them. Restad claims that the Mayflower Pilgrims spent their first Christmas in 1620 building “the first house for common use to receive them and their goods” (8). According to Tennant, they spent their first year in the New World with the help of friendly Indians, who taught them how to plant to have a crop. In the autumn, after the first harvest they felt secure to observe thanksgiving. It lasted three days and consisted of praying and thanking God for blessings accompanied with food. Such a food they used a native bird the turkey, which has later become a traditional symbol of Christmas food in both America and Europe. Later English took a fancy to turkey and adopted it like their traditional Christmas food (30). Today is Thanksgiving celebrated on fourth Thursday in November and indicates beginning of the Christmas period. In winter of 1621 were settlers against working on Christmas Day, therefore Governor Bradford allowed them to have a rest. But at noon he found them playing games and said that “if they desired to keep Christmas as a matter of devotion, they should stay in their houses, but there should be no gameing or revelling in the streets” (Tennant 31). After that for decades, the observance of Christmas was prohibited in the Puritan colonies of New England. Christmas customs like gift-giving, festivities or decorations were banned (Tennant 31). In the second half of the seventeenth century the dominance of the Puritans began to decline, partly because of their own intolerant religious views and witch hunts. Finally in 1681, Massachusetts abolished a ban on Christmas (Restad 14). With the increasing number of new inhabitants the settlement grew and more villages were built. These villages had autonomous government and were dependent. Not only the Puritans but other dissenters from the Anglican Church settled down in New England. As the population grew and more ethnic groups became diversified, specific patterns of Christmas celebrations appeared. Groups of people like Quakers in Pennsylvania disdained Christmas as the Puritans did. Other ethnic groups like Huguenots, Dutch, Anglicans, and Moravians, who also lived in their own villages, observed Christmas on their own (Restad 9). For example Dutch Christmas in New Amsterdam was connected with groups of carol singers in the streets. Tennant claims,

26 that among the Dutch was common placing “the medieval Christmas candle, big and thick, was dipped with gunpowder in the tripod base to ward off evil spirits” (34). The increasing number of newcomers caused the mixture of all European habits and nationalities. Tennant writes that the majority of people were from Holland, Germany and England. The Dutch brought with them their symbol of San Claas, from which has been derived nowadays symbol of Christmas Santa Claus (50). The German settlers then brought with them another symbol of Christmas – the Christmas tree. The first record of Christmas tree in America was on Christmas 1747 in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Actually it was a wooden pyramid covered with evergreen branches, candles and apples (Tennant 70). For today Americans is Christmas tree an inseparable part of Christmas time. In the United States the festive season traditionally begins on Thanksgiving Day, the fourth Thursday in November. It indicates the beginning of the Christmas shopping season (Henderson 952). Many people in the United Sates celebrate Christmas Day on December 25. It is a combination of celebrating the Jesus’ birth with pre-Christian winter celebrations. Griffin and Shurgin suggest that before the final days leading to December 25, many people decorate their homes with evergreens, coloured lights, , angel, stars, ornaments, and erect Christmas trees (88). Christmas Eve is not official holiday in the United States therefore many people have to go to work on that day. However, many working places hold special Christmas parties and celebrations. Schools are usually closed on December 24 and therefore it is a day of great joy for children. During the day, many Americans erect and decorate the Christmas tree, and travel to visit family members or friends. Roman Catholics attend the connected with singing carols. Also some Protestant churches hold special services on Christmas Eve (Christmas in United States). The traditional Christmas dinner on Christmas Eve consists of turkey or ham, potatoes and pie. Also goose is popular, but it depends on family tradition. Traditional are also many different cakes and desserts. One of the favourite desserts is called Crostoli. It is made according to Italian-American tradition. It is fried bread, spiced with orange peel. Another dessert made from bread full of sweet spices is called Pfeffernuesse. It is made according to German-American tradition (ibid.). After dinner children hang up their stockings either on the fireplace or at the end of their bed, to wait to be filled by Santa Claus during the night. On December 25 they

27 wake up to look what Santa had brought to them. They are unwrapping presents under the Christmas tree (Dennis 1384). The traditional Christmas plant is with its bright red upper leaves. It comes from Mexico and was brought to the United States in 1828 where it has become a favourite Christmas plant. According to legend, a poor Mexican boy had no gift to place before the Nativity scene at church. He knelt in the snow to pray when a poinsettia sprang up from and the poor boy gave it to the Christ child (Griffin and Shurgin 76). From Mexico and later from the United States it has spread all over the world and became a traditional plant associated with Christmas time. December 25 is a public holiday in the United States. Christmas Day is also time for visiting friends and families. Many people travel across the United States to spend their time by the closest family members. Boxing Day on December 26 is not celebrated in the United States. It is simply the day after Christmas and it is not a public holiday. January 6 marks the end of Christmas season. In the United States, it is traditional to take down the Christmas tree, and other evergreen decorations, on Twelfth Night. They make a pile of it and burn it on Twelfth Night (Henderson 983). Americans believe that Christmas should be a great time for everyone. Therefore giving to charity has become an American Christmas tradition. During the Christmas season, shoppers drop change and dollar bills into their collection buckets to help the poor, people feed the homeless in soup kitchens. Children sing carols to bring cheer to people who are in nursing homes (Griffin and Shurgin 124). For most people, Christmas has become commercialised. In many ways is this holiday very stressful and expensive. According to common features, three main categories with similar celebrating of Christmas can be depicted in the United States. These three main categories with common features and traditions are: New England, American South, and African American Christmas. In Great Britain it was divided according to historical countries because Britain is a country with old tradition. However in the United States, were already arisen traditions either from Britain, or Europe, adopting into the new background. Traditions began to live their own life. Some of them preserved without any change, but majority of them have been transformed.

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1.3.1. Christmas in New England

New England is a region in the northeast corner of the United States of America. It was the first region where the first settlers came. So called Pilgrim Fathers and the Puritans settled in area near Plymouth. Christmas in this region can be characterised as the European style Christmas. Traditional New England Christmas was influenced by the first settlers and traditions that brought with them to America. It can be presumed according to nationalities that came first into New England. The first settlers were English, Irish, Dutch, and German immigrants who were looking for religious freedom and also new beginnings. Each of the inhabitants brought its own traditions and habits. Therefore it can be said that New England Christmas set an example for nowadays traditional Christmas across the United States. Despite the fact that for many years was Christmas banned in the seventeenth century and after the American Revolution English customs felt out of favour. The newly established thirteen colonies wanted to break from English traditions (Griffin and Shurgin 117). With increasing industry, commerce and when the cities developed, people wanted a return of old-fashioned Christmas traditions (ibid.). Ancient customs and fragments of celebration Christmas from many homelands joined with distinctly American innovations to become old-fashioned Christmas. Tennant writes:

Ironically, it was New England, land of the Puritan Fathers, who had come to America to purify their faith of all extraneous embellishments, which, two hundred years later typified the warm and joyous old-fashioned Christmas. Here there was snow in December, in dramatic contrast to the blazing fires and warm love inside the picturesque Early American houses. Here the landscape was just right-not rolling prairies or crowded cities, but small towns with fine old churches and fine old trees. Here too was an American tradition of scholarship and piety which no longer hesitated to express Christmas sentiments. (99)

Before the Civil War there were different ideas on the issue of Christmas between the North and South. Many people in the North saw sin in the observance of Christmas unlike people in the South celebrated Christmas abundantly. The first three states that legalised Christmas were in the South. It was Alabama in 1836, Louisiana in 1837, and Arkansas in 1838. After the Civil War Christmas traditions spread across the

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United States. It was not easy to restore Christmas traditions, however finally in 1870 was Christmas declared a federal holiday (Griffin and Shurgin 117). Nowadays traditions associated with Christmas like Santa Claus, the Christmas tree, the Christmas greeting card, poinsettia, and the snowman – these all had been formed during the nineteenth century.

1.3.2. New England Christmas traditions

Traditional Christmas greeting in New England, not to say in the whole United States is Merry Christmas. In the United States generally the Christmas season begins with the Thanksgiving Day on the fourth Thursday in November. Then Christmas Eve is observed on December 24, and the Christmas Day itself is observed on December 25. December 26 is the day after Christmas and it is not a public holiday. Christmas season in the United States ends on the Twelfth Night, January 6 (Henderson 981). Traditions originating in New England became the most widespread across the United States. Above all are Santa Claus, the Christmas tree, the Christmas greeting card, and – the traditional Christmas figure from snow. It is especially popular among children. It is also an animated television figure. New Englanders share a common idea of sparkling holiday table that consists of a main course and a dessert. Betty Rosbottom writes about Christmas dinner which is served on Christmas Eve and typically consists of roast beef and spiced pumpkin cake. Roast beef is surrounded by potatoes, onions, and other root vegetables. As a dessert, is served spiced pumpkin cake with caramel icing. New England’s Christmas meal traditions are influenced by English traditions. Because the New England lies on the coast, there are many kinds of sea food. One of them is lobster chowder, a traditional Christmas soup. Other popular non fish dishes are , tourtiere, and . Traditional fruitcake is made from dried cranberries, blueberries, apples, and walnuts soaked in rum mixed into a spice and finished with apple brandy. A meat pie called tourtiere is a French-Canadian dish that was introduced into New England by Canadian ancestors. It is made from pork, veal, beef, or in some coastal areas from fish (ibid.). Wassail is a hot mulled cider drink that originated in ancient southern England, where it was drunk to ensure a plentiful harvest next year. The settlers of the New England brought this habit with them from England.

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1.3.3. Christmas in the South

Southern part of the United States of America is unique. Christmas celebrations in the South developed in a different way. There was no ban on Christmas in contrast to the North. People in the South observed Christmas plentifully. Likewise in the South there were lot of new inhabitants from European countries like England and Germany. Nevertheless, the life was affected by southern climate and different life conditions in comparison to the North. During Christmas in the South, plantation owners gave slaves the day off and shared holiday food and drinks with them. Some of the plantation owners followed an English custom of Boxing Day. They gave slaves clothing or small amounts of money into a Christmas box (Griffin and Shurgin 117). Southern states were also the first to make Christmas a legal holiday. Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas were the first and other states of the Union subsequently followed (ibid. 117). The climate, nature, and the presence of slaves make Southern Christmas unique and in many aspects different.

1.3.4. Southern Christmas traditions

The southern colonists brought many old English Christmas traditions to the New World such as carolling, Yule log, kissing under mistletoe, eggnog, and decorations with evergreens. They celebrate Christmas with feasting, dancing, singing, horse racing, and even cock fighting. Wealthy plantation owners could afford almost everything. The most luxurious Christmas food included delicacies such as oysters, turtle soup, crab, venison, boiled mutton, roast turkey, and many kinds of biscuits, pies, cakes, and puddings (Christmas in Colonial America). Southerners also saluted Christmas morning by shooting off their guns and making a noise of all kind. Nowadays traditions of the southerners are still influenced by celebrations of the ancestors. In the former French territories of Louisiana and Missouri is Christmas observed with French customs. These customs include building Nativity scene, and attending Midnight Mass (ibid.). It can be said that Christmas in American South has ever been a holiday full of joy and feasting in contrast to Northern Christmas traditions. In the Puritan era was Christmas solely commemorated as the birth of Christ and did not accepted feasting.

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1.3.5. African-American Christmas

The African-American community is connected with the American South. During centuries people from Africa were transported into American colonies to work on fields and do all the hard work. In the colonial South, at most plantations, they worked also during the Christmas holidays. Some slave owners prohibited Christmas celebration to slaves who had displeased them during the year. Sometimes their owners gave the slaves meat at Christmas, which was rarely eaten by slaves during the year. A better variant was that sometimes slave owners distributed presents like clothing, blankets, and shoes to their slaves at Christmas. However, slaves developed their Christmas customs on their own. In North Carolina some slaves celebrated Jonkonnu. It was an all night vigil held on Christmas Eve, during which they danced, sang, and prayed (Christmas in Nineteenth-Century America). After abolition of slavery in 1865, Christmas celebration among African- Americans could have developed. In the late nineteenth century, African-American Christmas festivities differed a bit. Many of them celebrated a modest Christmas. They attended church on Christmas Eve, made and gave homemade gifts, and prepared homemade food (ibid.). African-American families have always had rich traditions of food, decorating their houses, songs, and spirituality during Christmas time. Within the African culture lies a spirit of passion and pride like none other. African-American holidays and traditions are unique and are a significant aspect of American history.

1.3.6. African-American Christmas traditions

Celebration of Christmas in African-American community is more about family celebration. They decorate their homes with homemade items and prepare a fancy food for the whole family. However, the festival itself is for African-Americans more important, than joy and merry making connected with Christmas. They observe this festival in a very meaningful way.

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For most African-Americans, the Christmas season is called Kwanzaa. It is a harvest time festival that begins on December 26 and ends on January 1 (McCarthy 61). Moehn writes about the beginnings of this festival:

Dr. Maulana Karenga of Nigeria, a professor at the University of California at Los Angeles, created the holiday in 1966. Believing that African-Americans were losing touch with their African heritage, he decided to promote African culture. Karenga studied various harvest festivals celebrated by different peoples in Africa and decided to create a similar celebration. He named the new holiday Kwanzaa, which means first fruits in Swahili. The number seven has great significance in many African cultures, so Karenga made it an important feature of the holiday. The name Kwanzaa has seven letters, the celebration lasts for seven days, and people reflect upon seven principles. Each day is devoted to one of these principles: unity (umoja), self-determination (kujichagulia), collective work and responsibility (ujima), cooperative economics (ujamma), creativity (kuumba), purpose (nia), and faith (imani). (53)

According to McCarthy, a candle is lit for each principle. These seven candles are placed in a holder and lit. They begin with the black candle of unity on December 26, and other candles are lit in the following days. Traditional colours of candles are black, red, and green (61). African-American greeting connected with this festival is Happy Kwanzaa (Griffin and Shurgin 326). The night before the last day of Kwanzaa is called Karamu. On this day communities meet at the dinner to share a dish. Each family brings its own dish. As a traditional food, is considered Romaine salad with orange and radish (McCarthy 62). Accompanied by food, they are playing, giving speeches on African culture, and wearing colourful African clothes. African-Americans also perform songs, music, and dance during the Karamu (Moehn 53). On January 1, the last day of Kwanzaa, people take time to look over the past year and think how could be their life improved in the future. Children receive gifts from adults with the emphasis on giving rather than receiving (Griffin and Shurgin 326). It can be said that Kwanzaa is even more traditional than Christmas. African- Americans try to avoid the commercialization so prevalent at Christmastime.

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Traditional Christmas puts the accent on the quantity of presents in contrast to Kwanzaa, when children often receive small handmade gifts from their parents.

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2. HISTORY OF EASTER

Easter and Christmas are the most important festivals in Christianity. Easter is celebrated by Christians throughout the world and always falls on the first Sunday following the first full moon after March 21. Alike Christmas, the history of Easter is almost the same. This Christian holiday has also pagan roots. The ancient annual rituals of pagans celebrated the arrival of spring. Henderson claims: “The name Easter may have come from the Anglo-Saxon goddess Eostre, whose feast was celebrated in the spring and who was associated with spring and fertility” (216). They worshiped the goddess by serving tiny cakes, often decorated with a cross, at their annual spring festival (Henderson 305). Easter celebrates the Jesus’ resurrection from the dead three days after his crucifixion. Moehn claims:

According to the New Testament, a part of the Christian holy book, the Bible, Jesus spent his life preaching and showing people how they should live. Many powerful people at the time did not believe in God and thought that Jesus was trying to cause trouble. They arrested him and crucified him. Three hours later, Jesus died. He was buried in a tomb that was sealed with a huge . Because he had predicted that he would rise from the dead, guards watched to make sure that no one removed the body. Three days after the burial, Jesus’ followers went to the tomb. It was empty. Jesus had risen from the dead. (28)

The forty days leading to Easter form the season called Lent. It begins on Ash Wednesday and ends on Easter Eve. It is a season of fasting, observed in Christian communities throughout the world. Forty is a symbolic number in Christianity. It represents forty days of Jesus Christ’s, who had fasted for forty days in the wilderness. Lent is a time of preparation for the coming of Easter. The word Lent comes from Anglo-Saxon word meaning spring (Henderson 506). For centuries, Lent has been observed with periods of strict fasting. People could not eat meat, dairy products, or drink wine or olive oil. They could not even hold additional prayer services, and other penitential activities. With the beginning of the nineteenth century, fish and eggs were allowed, and the strict rules were loosened. Today, modern Christians do not hold such a strict fasting. They try to simplify their

35 lives giving up a favourite food or other pleasures to concentrate on prayer and practice sacrifice. Children may give up watching television or playing video games during Lent. It is customary for weddings and other celebrations to be prohibited (Moehn 55). Moehn also writes: “During Lent people pray, ask God to forgive their sins, and reflect on the meaning of their faith” (56). The last week of Lent is called Holy Week, which begins on Palm Sunday. During The Holy Week, Christians all over the world remember the events that led up to Jesus’ crucifixion.

2.1. Days of Lent and Easter

To have a complete idea about Easter holidays, the days associated with Lent and Easter, have to be depicted. Their significance and origin is important for the insight into the whole Easter. These are the main days connected with Easter. They are equal in both Great Britain and the United States, but customs connected with a particular day are different. Distinctions are depicted closer in the chapters Easter in Great Britain and Easter in United States.

2.1.1. Shrove Tuesday (Fat Tuesday or Pancake Tuesday)

Shrove Tuesday is a day full of fun before the serious days of the following Lent. It is a day before Ash Wednesday – the beginning of the Lent when people have fun and enjoy the day before fasting (Moehn 56). In the history, church officials insisted that people officially confess their sins on Shrove Tuesday (Henderson 551). Nowadays it is not so strict. People do not have to strictly confess, it is voluntary.

2.1.2. Ash Wednesday

Ash Wednesday is a significant holiday for Christians and marks the beginning of Lent. Ashes are symbol of mortality and the shortness of life on Earth. Henderson writes: “When churchgoers have ashes placed on their foreheads on Ash Wednesday, they are reminded of the penitential nature of the Lenten season and of their human bodies, which will return to ashes when they die” (52). It is also a moveable fast.

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2.1.3. Palm Sunday

It is the sixth Sunday of Lent and the beginning of Holy Week, which commemorates the last week of Jesus Christ’s mortal life. It is about his triumphal entry into Jerusalem (Moehn 57). Dennis writes that “the people of Jerusalem welcomed him by waving palm and olive branches” (1394). Therefore this day has received its name. Henderson claims: “Probably the greatest present day observance of Palm Sunday takes place in Rome, where the Pope, carried in St. Peter’s Chair on the shoulders of eight men, comes out of St. Peter’s Basilica to bless the palms” (687). The palm branch is considered to be a symbol of victory and reverence.

2.1.4. Maundy Thursday (Holy Thursday)

Maundy Thursday in the Holy Week is the Thursday before Easter. Maundy means command (Moehn 57). It was the day of the Last Supper of Jesus Christ and his apostles, when they gathered to have the Passover meal (Henderson 557). According to Dennis, Jesus Christ washed the feet of his disciples in preparation for the Last Supper. He wanted to teach them how to love through the humbleness. Foot washing is still popular among few Churches as a part of Holy Thursday liturgies (1368). It is interesting that this ancient custom has been a part of this day since early days of the Church.

2.1.5. Good Friday

It is a Christian holy day that commemorates the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Good Friday is the Friday before Easter. This is a day of mourning for Christians and it is traditionally associated with black colour, a symbol of death (Dennis 1369). According to Henderson, there are several theories why the day is called Good Friday. “Some scholars think it is a corruption of God’s Friday, while others take good to mean observed as holy” (304). It may seem paradoxical that Christians consider the death of Jesus as a good, but it is in meaning of everlasting life.

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2.1.6. Easter (Easter Sunday)

It is held on first Sunday after Lent. Easter commemorates the resurrection of Jesus Christ three days after his crucifixion. It is considered to be the most important holiday in the Christian year (Moehn 28). On Easter, people attend church services and pray. Dennis claims: “This day is of utmost importance because the fundamental teaching of Christianity is that Jesus, through his death, freed all his followers from the penalty of sin” (1369). Easter is a symbol of new beginning and marks the end of Holy week. According to legend, some of Jesus’ followers went to his tomb on the first Easter Sunday only to find it empty. Henderson writes: “In one biblical account, Jesus appears to Mary Magdalene as she wept outside his tomb and tells her of his resurrection” (216). Whatever happened had serious influence on followers of Jesus. Through Jesus and his teachings, followers believed in the new life and possibility of salvation.

2.1.7. Easter Monday

Easter Monday is observed on the day after Easter. It is a holiday in more than eighty countries around the world. Unlike Easter, which is more religious, the Easter Monday is more about fun and folk customs, than emphasis on religious themes. There are many different customs connected with Easter Monday. For example in Northern and Central Europe, people still observe many folk customs such as egg rolling, dousing, switching, and Emmaus walks (Henderson 222). In Middle age, the day was part of a weeklong celebration. Later it was made a one day holiday.

2.2. Easter symbols and customs

Some of the symbols associated with Easter originated in the ancient rituals celebrating the arrival of spring. There are many symbols and customs associated with Easter and each country has its own Easter habits. Nevertheless, the main Easter symbols are the same among Christians throughout the world. These are the four main symbols: Easter Bunny, Easter Eggs, Paschal Candle, and Paschal Lamb.

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2.2.1. Easter Bunny

Rabbits were common long time ago in pre-Christian times. They symbolised the abundance of new life associated with spring. According to legend, the goddess Eostre was always accompanied by a hare, who is considered to be ancestor of Easter Bunny. Although there is no real connection of rabbits and hares to Christian symbolism, they play an important part of today’s Easter, especially for children. It is Easter Bunny who fills their Easter baskets with candy, and who leaves Easter eggs on Easter morning (Henderson 217). No one can really claim for what reason would rabbit lay eggs. Some religious purists claim that Easter Bunny has nothing to do with Easter. They believe that it has destructed Easter as well as Santa Claus did with Christmas.

2.2.2. Easter Eggs

Easter Eggs are considered as a symbol of new life, fertility, and immortality. Henderson claims that the egg became a Christian symbol because it is “associated with the rock tomb from which Jesus Christ emerged to begin his new life” (217). One popular Easter tradition is dyeing hard-boiled eggs with bright colours. The custom of dyeing Easter Eggs originated in Poland and the Ukraine and spread into Europe and the United States (Henderson 218). Traditionally the eggs are coloured in red, green, yellow, and blue. In some families, parents hide the eggs for children to find on Easter morning.

2.2.3. Paschal Candle

The Paschal Candle is a large, white candle used at liturgy. It is blessed and lit at the beginning of Easter vigil on the eve on Easter Sunday. It usually stands at the side of the altar during the Easter service. The flame of the Paschal Candle symbolises risen Christ and spiritual illumination (Bower 138). Interesting is the origin of the word paschal. Ryan writes: “The word paschal comes from Greek term pascha, which goes back to the Hebrew pesach, which refers to the annual commemoration by the Israelites of their liberating Passover from slavery in Egypt” (64). Using candles during Easter has a deeper implication than at Christmas time, because of the risen Christ.

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2.2.4. Paschal Lamb

The symbol of lamb is also of pagan origin. Hundreds of years before Christ, lambs were used by pagans as sacrifices to God (Moehn 29). The lamb came to symbolize for Christians the sacrifice that Jesus made for his followers when he died on the cross. Henderson claims: “The lamb signifies purity, innocence, and meekness as well as unwarranted sacrifice – quality closely identified with Christ” (220). Lamb is still one popular main course for Easter dinners either for Christians, or non-Christians.

2.3. EASTER IN BRITAIN

In the United Kingdom, Easter is one of the major Christian festivals of the year. The celebration of Easter in England began long before the spread of Christianity. In pre-Christian era was festival held in honour to Anglo-Saxon goddess of fertility and springtime called Eostre. In Britain, Easter is observed on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the first day of spring and it is a moveable feast. Easter marks the end of winter and the beginning of spring. It is also the end of Lent, a time of fasting. Good Friday before Easter and Easter Monday are a bank holiday in the United Kingdom. The history of Easter in Britain is more or less connected with Christmas. Both these holidays shared the same destiny. During the reign of a Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell, so called Puritan ban on Christmas and Easter was brought into effect. In 1643, the Roundhead Parliament abolished the observance of Saint Days and the festivals of Christmas, and Easter (Heller 14). The ban was introduced namely because Cromwell wanted to eliminate all traces of Roman Catholicism in England. Easter in Britain and Ireland is similar throughout all four countries, and involves traditional customs, cooking, and baking. Easter celebrations in Britain are much more peaceful, moreover people prefer religious observations as compared to joyous merriment that accompanies Christmas. Although Easter Eggs, feasting, games, and all kind of fun is a part of Easter merrymaking, the main celebrations are held in churches. Many people attend special Easter services in churches across the country. Concerning Easter, it is difficult to divide Great Britain according to specific habits into its historical countries. Although there are some differences within regions, in common, Easter is observed in a very similar way. It can be said that differences are

40 mainly between the rest of the European continent and also the United States. Basically, the main Easter symbols are the same throughout the world, but habits may vary from country to country. The same situation occurs in Great Britain. The days connected with the period of Lent are universally the same and their significance is identical among all Christians throughout the world, but habits associated with the particular day may differ. Therefore in the United Kingdom, it is difficult to depict such a difference among regions. The only possible way, how to create a complete idea about Easter in Britain, is to depict days of Lent and Easter and find differences from the rest of the Christian world.

2.3.1. Shrove Tuesday

The religious aspect of this day remains the same among all Christians. The main difference from the rest of the Christian world is the English name of this day – Pancake Tuesday, and also customs connected with pancakes. Henderson writes about the beginnings, why this day got its name:

Back in the days when Lent required wearing dark clothing, eating meals without meat, and banning all forms of pleasure and entertainment for forty days, it was customary for people to have a good time on the day before these restrictions went into effect. Because they had to use up all the fat, eggs, and butter in the house, housewives used these ingredients to make doughnuts, pancakes, and other rich foods. In England, Shrove Monday was sometimes referred to as Collop Monday for the same reason – a collop being a slice of meat. In addition to eating more than usual, people would play games and hold costume parades. (831)

Concerning games, it was a tradition to organize seasonal games and contests on Shrove Tuesday in England. These activities may have been developed to promote fertility and defeat the evil at the beginning of spring. The oldest recorded game on Shrove Tuesday was held at Chester in 1533 (Picard and Robinson 103). Henderson writes that at game, parishes divided “into two opposing groups and engaged in rough and tumbles or a game of football” (831). Later these games had become more brutal and often included cockfighting. Although the games were a widespread 41 form of merrymaking, they gradually became to die out because of its roughness and dangerousness. During the games many people died and serious injuries were caused. Because so many pancakes were made on this day, they occurred also in the games connected with this day. Henderson claims that “the most famous is the Pancake Race held since 1445 in Olney, England. The participants must wear a skirt, an apron, and a head-scarf and flip their pancakes in the air three times as they run the 415-yard course” (832). Nowadays is Shrove Tuesday not to say Pancake Tuesday still connected with frying pancakes on this day. According to tradition, housewives have to use up all the fat, eggs, and butter before the period of Lent. However, before the Reformation, eating products made from butter or fat was forbidden during Lent. Therefore making pancakes or sweet buns was kind of thrift and self-indulgence (ibid.). Customs connected with Pancake Tuesday are almost the same in Great Britain, but there is one difference in the name of pancakes. According to L. Forbes, in Scotland, pancakes made on Pancake Tuesday are called bannocks (126). A difference is caused by the Scottish language.

2.3.2. Ash Wednesday

Ash Wednesday marks the beginning of Lent. In England, there was a tradition from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century of carrying a straw figure called Jack-o- Lent. The English used to dress a straw figure in old clothes and drag about the parish on Ash Wednesday. The effigy called Jack-o-Lent represented Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus Christ (Frood and Graves 10). However, it is possible that Jack-o-Lent could have also represented a symbol of leaving winter and beginning of spring.

2.3.3. Palm Sunday

After the Reformation in England in the sixteenth century there was a custom of cutting and burning the willow branches. Henderson writes:

Henry VII declared that carrying palms on Palm Sunday was a custom that should be maintained. By the nineteenth century in many parts of England, it

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was customary for young people to go a-palming on the Saturday before Palm Sunday – in other words, to go into the woods and gather willow twigs (in the absence of palms) and return with armloads of cuttings as well as sprigs of willow in their hats or buttonholes. Like the palm branches, the willow cuttings were collected and burned, and the ashes were set aside for the following Ash Wednesday. (687)

Unfortunately, this custom does not exist anymore but a palm as a symbol of victory and reverence still lives on. Nowadays people are using willow branches for different kinds of Easter decorations.

2.3.4. Maundy Thursday (Sheer Thursday)

On this day people attend prayer services in local churches to offer prayers. In Britain this day is also called Sheer Thursday because it is the day of cleaning. An ancient custom of foot washing is connected with this day. It was Jesus who washed the feet of his twelve disciples at the Last Supper. He wanted to teach them by humble to show love for one another (Dennis 1368). This custom has been a Maundy Thursday tradition, since the early days of the Church. In the middle ages, it was customary that kings, emperors, and lords washed the feet of poor people on Holy Thursday. Afterwards they gave them money and meal. The last British monarch who practised foot-washing was James II in the seventeenth century (Henderson 558). Today, in the United Kingdom it is customary for reigning monarch to attend a special Maundy service and distribute Maundy money to the poor. United Kingdom is considered to be one of very few countries where this ancient custom is still being observed.

2.3.5. Good Friday

In the United Kingdom people attend a service in local churches at three o’clock in the afternoon. It is believed that Jesus was crucified at this time. In many parts of the United Kingdom is common reading of passages from the Holy Bible. Good Friday is a

43 day of mourning therefore all decorations are eliminated from churches. Portraits in the churches are covered with a cloth (Dennis 1390). There is an interesting tradition in Britain to eat hot cross bun on Good Friday. It is bread that is baked and eaten on Good Friday. It has a cross on the top. There have always been many superstitions connected with hot cross buns. Henderson writes:

In England particularly, people believed that bread baked on this day could be hardened in the oven and kept all year to protect the house from fire. Sailors took loafs of it on their voyages to prevent ship wreck, and a Good Friday loaf was often buried in a heap of corn to protect it from rats, mice, and weevils. Finely grated and mixed with water, it was sometimes used as a medicine. (305)

There are also another superstitions associated with Good Friday. Dennis claims: “Fishermen do not catch fish on this day, and farmers do not plant crops, since it is believed that iron should not enter the ground on this day” (1369). In nowadays England are hot cross buns eaten at breakfast on Good Friday. They are usually small spiced buns with a cross on the top.

2.3.6. Easter (Easter Sunday)

In the United Kingdom, special Easter services are hold to celebrate Jesus’ resurrection. There are many customs associated with Easter Day in Britain. One of them is Easter eggs. For this reason Easter Day used to be known as Egg Sunday. Eggs are considered a symbol of new life. In Britain, usually chocolate Easter eggs, gifts made from chocolate and toys are exchanged. Easter bunnies are a favourite toy and are very popular especially among children. Children also like another favourite Easter entertainment which is bonneting and basket-making competitions. The winner of the competition, receive beautifully decorated Easter eggs. On Easter Sunday, children are interested on egg hunts and find the Easter eggs that are believed to be hidden by Easter bunny in the gardens and hedges (Dennis 1369). Easter Day, like Christmas Day, is also associated with special food. A traditional Easter meal consists of boiled eggs, roast lamb, and biscuits. Boiled eggs are traditionally served at breakfast. As a main Easter meal is served roast lamb. Traditional

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Easter biscuits are also eaten on Easter Sunday. They are sometimes called cakes (Moehn 29). The most important thing about Easter is similar to Christmas. It is the time spent with family members, merry-making, and simply the day of piece, and quiet.

2.3.7. Easter Monday

It is the first day of Easter week and is regarded as a continuation of Easter Sunday. The customs associated with Easter Monday place less emphasis on religious themes and more emphasis on having a good time. In the history, the day was part of a weeklong celebration. During the week people feasted, played games, and relaxed. This week broke the sober mood of Lent period. Later the post-Easter festivities gradually shortened and just one day remained, Easter Monday (Henderson 223). It is a day full of fun and merry-making. In England, egg rolling competitions are extremely popular. Dennis claims that it is a traditional European folk game connected with Easter. It involves rolling hard-boiled eggs down a hill or grassy banks. The winner is the person, whose egg goes the farthest without cracking and survives the roll down the hill (1369). In Britain, there is a custom called pace-egging. It can be another name for egg- rolling itself or it is a group of men wandering on Easter Monday. Hobson claims:

Sometimes pace-egging would take the form of groups of men wandering around the locality, one of whom would have blackened his face with soot and be carrying a basket; the idea being that he and his happy band of followers would persuade villagers to throw boiled eggs into it. When the pace-eggers had received sufficient quantities, they would stop and perform either a short play or dance. More often than not these stops happened to be outside the local inn or the home of a person known to be generous in their hospitality. Meeting a rival band could lead to a fair amount of banter and attempts to steal each other’s basket of eggs. (54)

This very interesting custom is still being observed in some places throughout the United Kingdom, especially in Yorkshire and Lancashire (Holman 39). However, egg-rolling became more popular and it is more widely observed in the United Kingdom.

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2.4. EASTER IN UNITED STATES

Easter in the United States is a very popular festival among Christians and also non-Christians. Easter is time when people bury their differences and come together to enjoy this interesting day. Many Americans celebrate Easter as a Christian festival, but not all people are concerned with the spiritual aspect of the holiday. Easter has become a major commercial event. It takes place in the Christian calendar as well as in the contemporary consumer culture. The beginnings of commercialization of Easter can be found in the second part of the nineteenth century. In large urban areas, retailers began to develop advertising and promotional campaigns featuring seasonal items. Later these commodities were mass-produced. Among the first items were decorated eggs, candy, cards, toy rabbits, and Easter bonnets (Laderman and León 605). Wearing a hat was to church on Easter Sunday was a common practice when hats were in vogue. However, today people are less inclined to wear hats and the Easter bonnet is not a popular symbol any more. Some of the traditions are spiritual in nature and some are secular. In America, approximately one hundred million people attend Church services on Easter Sunday. During Easter people also attend parades, , make Easter egg decorations, perform music, and much more. In some communities people put on their finest clothes and march in an Easter parade. It depends on each community or region, but generally there are two major originally non-Christian symbols such as eggs and rabbit. They are an inseparable part of American Easter merry-making. The Easter bunny came to America with German settlers in the eighteenth century. Henderson claims: “Pennsylvania Dutch children prepared nests for this shy creature in a secluded corner or sheltered place in the garden or barn. On the Easter Eve, the rabbit would lay his coloured eggs in these nests, or in the caps and bonnets that children left out for him” (217). Today, the rabbit is one of the major symbols of the Easter season in America. Bunnies of all sizes and materials are found in stores, malls, and parties. Either chocolate, or plastic, a rabbit as an Easter symbol is extremely popular in the United States. The custom of dyeing eggs is practiced throughout the United States as well as in Northern and Eastern Europe. It came to America from Europe though the settlers (Henderson 218). Nowadays, families dye hard-boiled eggs, usually with vegetable

46 colours. Later the adults hide these eggs somewhere in the garden or in the bushes and children have to find them in an Easter Egg Hunt. A related ritual is connected with placing eggs in baskets. These baskets are usually plastic, lined with synthetic fibres meant to resemble grass. Baskets are hidden and children can hunt for them as well as for eggs, or can be given as a gift on Easter Sunday (Laderman and León 605). Either prepared at home or bought in a shop, baskets are colourful and contain various types of candy, chocolate eggs, and chocolate rabbits. It always makes a child happy. Easter is not a federal holiday in the United States because of the First Amendment prohibition on establishment of religion, and because it is always on Sunday. Many companies close on Sunday but it is not the rule to close on Easter Sunday. In general, people like spending their holiday time with their families and friends. Similarly to American Christmas, also Easter has its own traditional food. A special dish for Easter time is different from Christmas dinner. A traditional American Easter dinner consists of baked ham, potatoes and vegetables. Eating a hot cross bun on Easter or Good Friday is not that common as in Great Britain, however there are also prepared in the United States. Analogous to Britain, they are made according to British recipe. Concerning Easter, it is very difficult to divide the United States into regions with similar customs or traditions. Generally, the symbols and customs are similar throughout the United States, but there are some exceptions, particularly in the acceptation of Easter as a national holiday. Good Friday is a state holiday in twelve states throughout the United States, including Hawaii and Florida. Many public schools, colleges, and universities are closed on Good Friday. Analogous to Great Britain, also the United States Easter customs can be associated with a particular day of the Lent season and Easter. The religious aspect of each day remains the same for all Christians, but customs may vary from country to country. It depends on historical conditions and people who live in that particular place. Especially in America, the custom of holding parades and carnivals has developed because after church services on Easter Sunday, people would go for a walk around the town. It was probably the beginning of holding parades in the United States.

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2.4.1. Shrove Tuesday (Mardi Gras)

Shrove Tuesday, or Mardi Gras – these are the names of this day. The name Mardi Gras, associated with this day, comes from French and means Fat Tuesday (Moehn 57). It is a survival of early French settlers. Mardi Gras is a day of fun before the serious season of Lent. Celebration of this day is different from the celebration which occurs in Britain. In Britain they make pancakes, in contrast to America, where they hold parades. With Carnival are connected pompous celebrations which are organized in many American cities. The biggest Mardi Gras celebration in the United States takes place in , Louisiana (Dennis 1385). The parades are organized by local groups called krewes. Moehn writes:

Each krewe also runs parade with its own theme. The floats are very elaborate, with flowers, streamers, crepe paper, and bright lights. It takes almost an entire year to design and build them. Maskers usually throw the crowd little trinkets such as plastic beads, plastic cups, and coins stamped with the krewe’s symbol. One krewe called Zulu, throws decorated coconuts to the crowd. (59)

Mardi Gras celebrations include the preparation of some form of fried dough. A square doughnut called beignet is associated with the celebrations in New Orleans. It is a doughnut without a hole, which was brought to the United States by the Germans who settled in Pennsylvania (Henderson 109). With marching jazz bands and elaborated floats, the Mardi Gras parades attract more than million visitors every year. They are enjoying hilarious celebrations.

2.4.2. Ash Wednesday

It follows Shrove Tuesday, which features Mardi Gras celebrations. Some Christians in the United States attend special Ash Wednesday church services and priests usually place blessed ashes on foreheads of believers to remind them of mortality and forgiveness (Henderson 51). Ash Wednesday marks the beginning of Lent and preparation for Easter.

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2.4.3. Palm Sunday

It marks the last week of Lent called Holy Week. For many Americans, Palm Sunday is associated with programs of sacred music, plays or pageants. A special custom is held in Florida on Palm Sunday. The Blessing of the Fleet takes place in St. Augustine. Shrimp boats, fishing boats, and vessels visit the town to receive a blessing (Wade 28). People also put blessed palm branches behind religious images, restaurants and stores.

2.4.4. Maundy Thursday

Maundy Thursday is also known as Holy Thursday in the United States. In the evening there are Holy Thursday services in the Catholic churches. Some priests also wash the feet of parishioners in commemoration of the story of Jesus Christ washing his disciples’ feet (Henderson 557). The custom of washing the feet is similar to British one, however with one exception. In America there is no Maundy Money and no monarch to perform a custom like this. Neither the American President does so. This European habit was not brought into the United States. It is a privilege for kings only. Instead of Maundy money Americans donate money to the poor.

2.4.5. Good Friday

In the United States, Good Friday is not a government holiday at the federal level. However some states and counties observe the holiday. According to Fontana, Good Friday is a state holiday in twelve states including Florida, Tennessee, and Hawaii. State and local offices are closed in states where it is a state holiday, however financial market and stock market are closed but majority of businesses are open (344). Many public schools close on Good Friday because many families observe the holiday. There are no special customs connected with Good Friday in the United States, except spiritual sense. Christians attend a special service mourning Jesus and church bells are silenced.

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2.4.6. Easter (Easter Sunday)

Easter marks the end of Holy Week. In the United States, Easter is not a federal holiday, but it is widely observed by all Americans. After church services on Easter Sunday, people would go for a walk around the town. This was probably the beginning of nowadays American custom of Easter parades throughout the United States. Probably the most famous parade is along Fifth Avenue in New York City (Silver 224). Easter Sunday is a day full of fun and merry-making. Families and friends gather to have a great time, connected with a traditional meal, often featuring baked ham and potatoes. However sometimes they have a lamb. Apart from the religious aspect, the observance of Easter in America is more or less connected with commercialism. The mass production of all kinds of chocolate eggs, rabbits and toys – symbols of modern Easter, gradually erased the spiritual sense of the holiday. However, Easter merry-making connected with all the candy and chocolate is namely for children – the most important beings for their parents. Especially Easter Egg Hunt is a traditional entertainment connected with this day, performed for children.

2.4.7. Easter Monday

Easter Monday is not a federal holiday in the United States. Schools, offices, and stores remain open. It is considered to be an ordinary day. However, some Easter traditions continue on Easter Monday. Easter egg rolling is also very popular custom in the United States, similarly to Great Britain. According to Henderson, probably the most famous annual Easter Egg Roll takes place in Washington D.C., on the White House lawn (218). Laderman and León write:

The roots of the tradition date back to the administration of James Madison, and for many years it was held on the grounds of the Capitol building. In 1878, during the presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes, the location was changed to the White House, when Hayes allowed children to roll their eggs on the White House lawn after they had been banned from the Capitol grounds due to the toll the celebration was taking on the landscaping. It has remained an annual White

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House tradition ever since and is today more popular than at any time in its history. (605)

Today, about thirty thousand people attend the annual Egg Roll on the White House lawn. Participants receive a wooden egg souvenir, which they could take home with them (Henderson 225). The president of the United States also participates in the annual Egg Roll.

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CONCLUSION

As I determined at the beginning, the main aim of my thesis was to focus on regional differences in celebration and customs of Christmas and Easter in Great Britain and the United States and try to find out how these regional differences originated and why are certain traditions or customs important and significant in some region and in another not. I began in my thesis with analyzing Christmas from historical point of view in common, because it is essential in order to understand why Christmas is celebrated. I came to the conclusion that Christmas is a combination of various secular customs combined with the commemoration of Jesus’ birth. In my thesis I have tried to present main Christmas symbols commonly occurring in both mentioned countries and found out that today’s religious customs such as gift giving and greeting cards have been influenced by earlier pagan customs and festivals. On Christmas in Britain and Christmas in United States I have tried to present what was going on during history and how it influences present celebrations. Christmas in Britain has already been celebrated in pagan times as a winter solstice festival and has come to America not until with the first settlers. The individual differences in celebration of Christmas are demonstrated on the main countries of Great Britain and in the United States on the regions and ethnic group. Religious aspects of Christmas are equal but customs are different. It is caused by historical development, because in earlier times people did not travel a lot and small communities or groups of inhabitants developed their own customs. Concerning United Kingdom, the diversity is caused by nations that want to keep their traditions. Concerning America, differences developed according to multicultural society with predominant influence of European culture. However, many traditions that originated in Britain were adopted by Americans and vice versa. Today United States in many aspects influences Europe concerning pushing Santa Claus. The second holiday that is described in my thesis is Easter. As with Christmas, I began with analyzing Easter from historical point of view. I have tried to present major dominant Easter symbols that are common in both Great Britain and the United States and found out that symbols and days of Lent and Easter are similar in both countries. However, customs differ not necessarily between regions but generally between Great Britain and the United States. The fact that some traditions connected with a particular

52 day of Lent and Easter are different in the United States, is caused by the distance from Europe and cultural diversity. In my thesis I tried to deal with both religious and secular aspects of Christmas and Easter, because in the course of time they have been interconnected. For nowadays people is difficult to keep apart religious and secular aspects. In both cases Christmas and Easter have the same origin. Even though the meaning of the word Christmas denotes Christ, for some people is Christmas secular holiday, the day with no religious meaning. On the other hand more Christian Easter got its name according to pagan goddess. After examination of these two holidays, I have come up with a conclusion that they are a mixture of pagan and religious customs and traditions, and moreover that each region and ethnic group has its unique traditions and customs because people have to belong to some group or society with distinct features. It is natural for them.

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