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Philosophy of the Tracer Methods

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Philosophy of the Tracer Methods Technical Information Philosophy of the Tracer Methods A. A. BENSON Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093 ラ ジ オ ア イ ソ トー プ が サ イ ク ロ ト ロ ン で 製 造 さ れ は じめ た1930年 代 か ら40年 代 に か け てErnest Lawrence教 授 を 中 心 にSam Ruben博 士,Martin Kamen博 士 ら は ラ ジ オ ア イ ソ トー プ の ト レ ー サ ー 実 験 を 開 始 し た,本 稿 は サ イ ク ロ ト ロ ン で 製 造 さ れ た 半 減 期20分 の11Cを 使 っ て 寸 秒 を 惜 ん で 行 わ れ た 活 気 に 満 ち た 初 期 の こ ろ の 様 子 。Kamenお よ びRuben両 氏 に よ る14Cの 発 見 と, そ れ に 続 く輝 か し い 多 くの 成 果 が 得 られ た 熱 気 に 満 ち た カ リ ホ ル ニ ア 大 学,ロ ー レ ン ス 研 究 所 の 人 々 の 活 躍 ぶ り,放 射 性 人 間 と い わ れ たKamen博 士 の 奮 斗 ぶ り,壮 絶 なRuben博 士 の 殉 職 の 事 件 な ど,当 時 い っ し ょ に 協 同 研 究 を して お ら れ たAndrewA. Benson教 授 が 直 接 語 ら れ た き わ め て 貴 重 な 資 料 で あ る 。 こ の 講 演 は1976年9月10日 他 団 体 と 日本 ア イ ソ トー プ 協 会 農 業 生 物 部 会 の 共 催 で 行 わ れ た 。 It is a privilege to discuss tracer methodo- radioisotope discovery and a birhtplace for logy with you today. Especially because much of radioisotope methodology. its development involved exciting experi- In many ways, Berkeley was an ideal ences with many Japanese colleagues who site for these developments. Ernest Law- rence**(Fig. 1) had invented the cyclotron played such important roles in designing and executing dramatic experimental studies in 1931. He also had a strong interest in of nhotometabolism. Those adventures be- supporting biological applications of the gan a delightful and productive series of scientific and cultural ex- changes which have enriched both our lives and our Science. I have been told that tracer ap- plications of radioisotopes began in Manchester where George Hevesy used an artificially produced lead isotope to confirm his suspicions that the landlady of the boarding house was actually re-using the left- over meat from the plates. Pro- gress in depth, however, awaited invention of the cyclotron and its application for production of a va- riety of radioactive isotopes useful for biological research. Berkeley, the birthplace of the cyclotron, the- refore became the major center for † ト レ ー サ ー 法 の 哲 学,A.A.ペ ン ソ ン 教 授(右 図)カ リホ ル ニ ア 大 学,ス ク リ プ ス 海 洋 研 究 所,ラ ホ ヤ,カ リホ ル ニ ア92093 The author acknowledges support of U.S. National Science Foundation grants 5-S-285 and FJ-5053 in mak- ing this exchange possible. (66) May 1977 A.A. Benson: Philosophy of the tracer method 349 by •gthe complexity of Nature•h. In this environment Sam Ruben emerged as the capable chemist and Martin Kamen as the physicist-chemist through whom Ernest Lawrence would make his contribution to Biology. By making it possible for Martin Kamen to devote part of his efforts to col- laborate with Sam Ruben and many other chemists and biologists, Lawrence had con- structed a most important organization for biological research. Together, Ruben and Kamen made more progress than any scien- Fig. 1 Professor Ernest O. Lawrence at the tists I have known. It was not easy. They controls of the first cyclotron in the often worked around the clock, and usually early 1930's. It was located in the Old Radiation Laboratory (ORL) from 8 to 2, seven days a week. Ruben's where it was later displaced by the family saw all too little of him. The labo- photosynthesis laboratory of Professor ratory problems were technical as well as Melvin Calvin. biological. Instability of electronic cir- newly available isotopes. Both chemists cuitry and unreliability of the home-made and physicists in Berkeley had strong back- Geiger-Muller counter tubes, put together grounds in thermodynamics and physical with sealing wax and temporary electrical chemistry as a result of the influence of connectors, could ruin their carefully Gilbert N. Lewis who had built the College planned experiments of a few hours duration. of Chemistry and outlined the training of With a 20-minute half-life, five hours was its students with the textbook by Lewis and the maximum duration of 11C experiment. Randall. All students understood the ther- Ruben's laboratory was in a three-story modynamics of equilibrium, partition, ad- stuccoed wood frame building, fondly known sorption, and diffusion, each very important as •gThe Rat House•h, the main entrance being in development of radioisotope methodology. at the second floor. Willard Libby in- All chemists were familiar with high vacuum habited the ground floor until he left for techniques, mercury diffusion pumps, Mac- the University of Chicago and nuclear Leod gauges, and liquid nitrogen applica- energy research. Ruben •glived•h in the rear tions so necessary for C* and H* syntheses of the ground floor, his laboratories being and analyses. There was little real knowl- located here and there in all three. The edge of biology or biochemistry but plenty building had no ventilation system, no fume of self-assurance stemming from the spirit hoods, bare wiring, bad lights, a noisy stair- of G.N. Lewis and his feeling that Nature way, and little or no sunshine. Yes it was is always simple when we understand it. a great place to work and build. One could This philosophy differs from that of many drill holes in the walls or connect wires modern scientists who appear overly awed anywhere. The lights were on most of the ** In 1953-55 Ernest Lawrence devoted much of night and there were no inhibitions about his talents to development of the three-color doing experiments. electron gun for his color TV system. With Many 11C experiments were done nights the experience and talents of Harry Powell, or Sundays, when the cyclotron was avail- Chief Glassblower, whose shop was adjacent to the •g37 inch•h room, Lawrence went far able to Martin Kamen. At seven or eight towards success of the color TV picture tube P.M., the whole building would be ablaze which was finally achieved by Sony. It is with light and ready for the experiment. interesting that such an invention was actually Every scaler was on, every hotplate and taking place in the glass shop adjacent to the laboratory for photosynthesis studies. combustion furnace was on FULL, every (67) 350 RADIOISOTOPES Vol.26, No. 5 GM tube was re-checked for plateau and the costs in every activity of our lives. refilled if necessary, every vacuum system The precautions prescribed today by univer- was running. Every preparation was com- sities and governmental agencies often do plete for the experiment. All too often, not allow scientists to decide between risks the eager group of students and helpers was (potential for progress) and costs. They dismayed by the phone message from seem far too stringent to allow scientists to Kamen, •gCyc's Sick,•h which meant that dedicate themselves to research in the way the cyclotron had broken down and no that Sam Ruben and Martin Kamen did. radioisotope would be available-a great Nowadays we are allowed to take many disappointment. Usually, however, Martin risks in every day life and it seems only Kamen succeeded in exhausting the 11C0 and proper that we expect to take similar risks 11CO2 gas mixture from the B203 target of associated with our dedication to science. I the cyclotron with his evacuated brass •gas- feel that there is a need at this time for pirator•h chamber (Fig. 2). Working with scientists to take a firmer stand in determin- •g hot" cyclotron targets was hazardous, to ing the relative costs of the risks they take say the least, and the •gCO2 in the aspirator in their lives and work. They should be in was equally so. At those times, Ruben a far better position to estimate these costs would never allow Kamen to remain in the and risks than those impersonal government Rat House laboratory after delivering the regulations which have spread their in- "CO2 . Ruben would tell him to •ggo away, fluence throughout our lives. Of course, you are too hot". Usually, Kamen and the regulations have produced a safer world, Ruben worked together feverishly preparing no one will deny that. The costs, however, samples, after which Kamen would retire should be considered as conscientiously as to a safe distance to reduce the `background' we have considered the precautions. and wait for Ruben to finish counting. I At the beginning Kamen would bring the suspect that Martin Kamen should be in- hot aspirator chamber containing the (11CO vestigated, biochemically, for his remarka- +11CO2) to the Rat House for combustion, bly effective DNA repair mechanisms, as but later the combustion was done by well as for the basis of his remarkable dis- Kamen at the Rad Lab-in fact most of the coveries of C-14, photometabolic mecha- runs were started this way with Kamen car- nisms, and comparative biochemistry of rying the •hCO2 to the Rat House in a glass cytochromes.
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