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Archaeobotanical Research at Neolithic and Chalcolithic Sites in Jordan

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Archaeobotanical Research at Neolithic and Chalcolithic Sites in Jordan Early Farmers and their Environment: Archaeobotanical Research at Neolithic and Chalcolithic Sites in Jordan Submitted by John Meadows BEc BA (Hons) MSc A thesis submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Archaeology Program School of Historical and European Studies Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences La Trobe University, Victoria 3086 Australia July 2005 Table of contents List of tables v List of figures vi Abstract xi Acknowledgements xii Statement of authorship xiii Introduction 1 I.1 Thesis structure 2 I.2 Thesis outline 3 Section 1 Background Chapter 1 Chronology 23 Chapter 2 Environment 31 2.1 The modern precipitation regime and its implications for agriculture 31 2.2 Holocene climate change 32 2.2.1 Palynology 32 2.2.2 Stable isotope data 38 2.2.3 Palaeohydrology 40 2.2.4 Sedimentology 42 2.3 Summary 43 Chapter 3 Archaeology 44 3.1 Period I: 9200–8300 cal BC 44 3.1.1 Summary of evidence at ca 9000 cal BC 51 3.2 Period II: 8200–7600 cal BC 52 3.2.1 Summary of evidence at ca 8000 cal BC 58 3.3 Period III: 7500–6500 cal BC 58 3.3.1 Summary of evidence at ca 7000 cal BC 69 3.4 Period IV: 6400–5500 cal BC 70 3.4.1 Summary of evidence at ca 6000 cal BC 77 3.5 Period V: 5500–4500 cal BC 78 3.5.1 Summary of evidence at ca 5000 cal BC 82 3.6 Period VI: 4500–3700 cal BC 82 3.6.1 Summary of evidence at ca 4000 cal BC 84 i Section 2 Data Chapter 4 Fieldwork 86 4.1 Zahrat adh-Dhra’ 2 86 4.2 Wadi Fidan 1 (JHF001) 87 4.3 Tell Rakan I (WZ120) 88 4.4 ash-Shalaf 89 4.5 Pella Area XXXII 90 4.6 Teleilat Ghassul 91 4.7 Summary 93 Chapter 5 Sorting 94 5.1 Sample selection 94 5.2 Definition of archaeobotanical remains 95 5.3 Identification criteria 96 5.4 Quantification 98 Chapter 6 Patterns 99 6.1 Analysis of archaeobotanical data 99 6.2 Teleilat Ghassul data analysis 102 6.2.1 Research questions 102 6.2.2 Processing method and sample composition 104 6.2.3 Minimum mesh size and sample composition 105 6.2.4 Sampling strategy (1997 vs 1999 data) 106 6.2.5 Spatial patterns 107 6.2.6 Diachronic patterns 115 6.2.7 Criteria for data manipulation 131 6.2.8 Summary of statistical patterns at Teleilat Ghassul 133 6.3 Zahrat adh-Dhra’ 2 134 6.3.1 Ubiquity analysis 134 6.3.2 Correspondence Analysis 135 6.4 Wadi Fidan 1 (JHF001) 138 6.5 Tell Rakan I (WZ120) 140 6.6 ash-Shalaf 142 6.7 Pella Area XXXII 143 6.8 Summary 144 ii Section 3 Interpretation Chapter 7 Reconstructions 145 7.1 Zahrat adh-Dhra’ 2 145 7.1.1 Subsistence data 145 7.1.2 Wild food plants 146 7.1.3 Potential cultivars 146 7.1.4 Environment 149 7.1.5 Economy 150 7.1.6 Summary 151 7.2 Wadi Fidan 1 (JHF001) 151 7.3 Tell Rakan I (WZ120) 152 7.4 ash-Shalaf 154 7.5 Pella Area XXXII 155 7.6 Teleilat Ghassul 156 7.6.1 Site formation processes 157 7.6.2 Spatial and functional patterns 158 7.6.3 Changes in agricultural practices 160 7.6.4 Environmental change 162 7.6.5 Economic development 163 7.7 Summary 163 Chapter 8 Snapshots 166 8.1 Subsistence strategies at 9000 cal BC 166 8.2 Subsistence strategies at 8000 cal BC 168 8.3 Subsistence strategies at 7000 cal BC 169 8.4 Subsistence strategies at 6000 cal BC 171 8.5 Subsistence strategies at 5000 cal BC 172 8.6 Subsistence strategies at 4000 cal BC 174 8.7 Summary 176 Chapter 9 Implications 179 9.1 Domestication and diffusion 179 9.2 Environmental determinism: climate change versus human impact 183 9.3 Adaptation versus repeated failure 188 Conclusions 192 iii Appendices Appendix A Chronologies of Huleh pollen diagrams 195 A1 The new Huleh diagram (Baruch and Bottema 1991; 1999) 196 A1.1 Radiocarbon results from the Baruch and Bottema core 196 A1.2 Previous revisions of the Baruch and Bottema radiocarbon chronology 196 A2 The Huleh and marine core pollen sequences 200 A3 Reservoir age and reservoir effects 202 A3.1 Reservoir age in the Huleh Basin 202 A3.2 Estimating reservoir ages at Huleh in the past 203 A3.3 Basin geometry 206 A4 Detrital mineral carbonate 207 A5 A suggested timescale for the Holocene section of the Huleh core 208 A6 The Huleh diagrams and other palaeoenvironmental records 209 A7 Summary 211 Appendix B Experiment to compare the results of manual and machine flotation 213 B1 Background 213 B2 The experiment 213 B3 Discussion 214 Appendix C Catalogue of wild/weed taxa 218 Appendix D Scanning Electron Microscopy 231 D1 Background 231 D2 The experiment 232 D3 Discussion 232 Appendix E A homemade sample splitter 234 Appendix F Olive stone measurements 236 F1 Background 236 F2 Prehistoric olive exploitation in the southern Levant 237 F3 Olive remains at Teleilat Ghassul 238 F4 Discussion 240 F5 Summary 241 References 243 iv List of tables Table 1.1 Plateaus in the radiocarbon calibration curve, early Holocene 268 Table 1.2 Periodisation used in this thesis 268 Table 2.1 Summary of palaeoenvironmental data, 10,000–4000 cal BC 269 Table 3.1 Summary of subsistence data from sites dated 9000–4000 cal BC 270 Table 4.1 Archaeobotanical samples processed, ZAD2 (1999-2001) 272 Table 4.2 Archaeobotanical samples processed, Wadi Fidan 1 (1999) 273 Table 4.3 Archaeobotanical samples processed, Tell Rakan I (1999) 273 Table 4.4 Archaeobotanical samples processed, ash-Shalaf (1998-99) 274 Table 4.5 Archaeobotanical samples processed, Pella Area XXXII (1996-97) 274 Table 4.6 Archaeobotanical samples processed, Teleilat Ghassul (1999) 275 Table 5.1 Identified plant remains, Zahrat adh-Dhra’ 2, by context (1999-2001) 278 Table 5.2 Identified plant remains, Wadi Fidan 1 (1999) 282 Table 5.3 Identified plant remains, Tell Rakan I (1999) 283 Table 5.4 Identified plant remains, ash-Shalaf (1998-99) 287 Table 5.5 Identified plant remains, Pella Area XXXII (1996-97) 289 Table 5.6 Identified plant remains, Teleilat Ghassul (1999) 291 Identified plant remains in coarse flot and fine flot fractions, Table 6.1 359 48 machine-processed samples, Teleilat Ghassul (1999) Table 6.2 Context types, analysed archaeobotanical samples, Teleilat Ghassul (1999) 360 Table 6.3 Ubiquity of plant taxa, ZAD2 (1999-2001) 361 Table 6.4 Archaeobotanical remains by context, ash-Shalaf (1998-99) 362 Table 6.5 Archaeobotanical results, Wadi Fidan Site A (Colledge 1994) 363 Table 7.1 Measurements of barley grain fragments, ZAD2 (1999-2001) 364 Table 7.2 Identification of food plant taxa, by site 365 Table A1 Radiocarbon results from the new Huleh pollen diagram 366 Table A2 Dates of zone boundaries (uncal BP) under alternative correction methods 367 Table A3 Revised chronology of the Holocene section of the Huleh pollen diagram 367 Table B1 Comparison of recovery rates, manual and machine flotation 368 Table B2 Taxa identified in manual subsamples but not in machine subsamples 370 Table B3 Taxa identified in machine subsamples but not in manual subsamples 370 Table C1 Identification of wild/weed taxa, by site 371 Table D1 Observed damage to seeds before SEM use, under SEM, and after SEM use 374 Table E1 Results of sample splitter experiment 375 Table F1 Olive stone measurements, Teleilat Ghassul (1994-99) 376 Table F2 Summary statistics, olive stones, Teleilat Ghassul (1994-99) 378 Table F3 Summary statistics, olive stones, various sites in the southern Levant 378 v List of figures Figure I.1 Map of Jordan, showing locations of sites sampled 379 Figure I.2 Location of trenches, Zahrat adh-Dhra’ 2 380 Figure I.3 Location of trenches, Tell Rakan I 381 Figure I.4 Location of trenches, ash-Shalaf 382 Figure I.5 Location of trenches, Pella 383 Figure I.6 Location of trenches, Teleilat Ghassul 384 Figure 1.1 Radiocarbon calibration curve, 10,000–6500 cal BC 385 Figure 1.2 Radiocarbon calibration curve, 6500–3000 cal BC 385 Figure 1.3 Global climate and residual radiocarbon trends, 10,000–4000 cal BC 386 Radiocarbon determinations (with error terms of ±100 or less) Figure 1.4 387 from early Holocene archaeological sites in the Levant Calibrated probability distributions of 45 actual radiocarbon dates Figure 1.5 388 from early Neolithic sites in the Levant Calibration of 45 simulated radiocarbon results, corresponding to samples Figure 1.6 389 with calendar ages spaced at 40-year intervals, 8520–6760 cal BC Figure 3.1 Calibrated radiocarbon results from possible Period I sites in Jordan 390 Figure 3.2 Calibrated radiocarbon results, Jericho PPNA strata and Netiv Hagdud 391 Figure 3.3 Calibrated radiocarbon results from Period II sites in Jordan 392 Figure 3.4 More calibrated radiocarbon results from Period II sites 393 Figure 3.5 Calibrated radiocarbon results, Jordanian Period III sites 394 Figure 3.6 Calibration of Period IV radiocarbon results 395 Figure 3.7 Calibrated radiocarbon results, Period V sites in Jordan 396 Figure 3.8 Calibrated radiocarbon results, Period VI sites in Jordan 397 Correspondence Analysis scatter plot of samples, Teleilat Ghassul (1999), Figure 6.1 398 all subsamples used in processing-method experiment, by method Correspondence Analysis scatter plot of taxa, Teleilat Ghassul (1999), Figure 6.2 399 all subsamples used in processing-method experiment Correspondence Analysis scatter plot of samples, Teleilat Ghassul (1999), Figure 6.3 all subsamples used in processing-method experiment, by method, 400 machine-processed subsamples by phase Correspondence Analysis scatter plot of samples, Teleilat Ghassul (1999), Figure 6.4 subsamples used in processing-method experiment: manual subsample 401 counts corrected for over-representation, by method Correspondence Analysis scatter plot of samples, Teleilat Ghassul (1999), Figure 6.5 48 machine-processed samples: coarse flot data only vs coarse and fine 402 flot data,
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