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Ukraine- Analysen NR. 206 10.10.2018 ukraine- analysen www.laender-analysen.de/ukraine INFORMELLE PRAKTIKEN UND SCHWARZARBEIT ■■ANALYSE Informalität in der heutigen Ukraine: ein Name, vier Facetten 2 Abel Polese (Dublin City University) ■■TABELLE ZUM TEXT Unterschiedliche Facetten von Informalität und ihre Vor- und Nachteile 6 ■■DOKUMENTATION Korruptionswahrnehmung in der Ukraine und in anderen postsowjetischen Staaten 7 ■■ANALYSE Wahrnehmung und Akzeptanz von Schwarzarbeit in der Ukraine und in der Europäischen Union 8 Oksana Nezhyvenko (Nationale Universität Kiew-Mohyla-Akademie) ■■GRAFIKEN ZUM TEXT Schwarzarbeit und ihre gesellschaftliche Wahrnehmung 11 ■■STATISTIK Informelle Beschäftigung in der Ukraine 14 ■■CHRONIK 24. September – 8. Oktober 2018 16 Leibniz-Institut für Leibniz-Institut für Zentrum für Osteuropa- und Deutsche Gesellschaft für Deutsches Forschungsstelle Osteuropa Agrarentwicklung in Ost- und Südosteuropa- internationale Studien Osteuropakunde Polen-Institut an der Universität Bremen Transformationsökonomien forschung (ZOiS) gGmbH Forschungsstelle Osteuropa an der Universität Bremen UKRAINE-ANALYSEN NR. 206, 10.10.2018 2 ANALYSE Informalität in der heutigen Ukraine: ein Name, vier Facetten Abel Polese (Dublin City University) Zusammenfassung In den vergangenen Jahren fanden Ausprägungsformen von Informalität in der Ukraine und andernorts zunehmend starke Beachtung. Dadurch wurden zwar bislang unbeachtete Mechanismen und Dynamiken erkannt, aber die Art und Weise, in der informelle Strukturen und Praktiken untersucht werden, ist äußerst problematisch. Denn der weitverbreitete Gebrauch des Begriffs Informalität, synonym verwendet für eine große Bandbreite unterschiedlicher Kontexte und Situationen, führte dazu, dass die unterschiedlichen Aus- prägungen von Informalität als homogenes Einzelphänomen angesehen werden. Im Gegensatz zu einer sol- chen Sichtweise zeigt der vorliegende Beitrag, dass es kein einheitliches Verständnis von Informalität geben kann. Denn diese tritt auf verschiedenen Ebenen und in verschiedenen Bereichen in Erscheinung. Vier der in der Ukraine aktuell am weitesten verbreiteten Formen von Informalität werden hier aufgeführt und dis- kutiert – unter der Vorgabe, dass eine normative Betrachtung, in der informelle Praktiken oft als schädlich und unterentwickelt wahrgenommen werden, die Sichtweise einschränkt und in die Irre führt. Einleitung: Abschaffung oder Jahre bekommen hat, unmöglich, sich für eine Posi- Formalisierung? tion hinsichtlich der Formalisierung oder Abschaffung Es ist schwierig, den Zeitpunkt auszumachen, an dem informeller Praktiken klar zu entscheiden. Denn das die Forschung zur Informalität den Schwung erhielt, Konzept der Informalität wird heutzutage zur Erklä- den sie heute hat. Der Begriff der Informalität ist der- rung von Entwicklungen in so unterschiedlichen Berei- zeit oft eine Worthülse, die in Artikeln, Büchern, Son- chen wie Architektur, Governance oder Korruption ver- derausgaben und einer langen Reihe wissenschaftlicher wendet. Dies gilt vor allem für postsowjetische Räume, Arbeiten aus vielen verschiedenen Regionen Verwen- in denen die Forschung Informalität eine besondere dung findet. Darüber hinaus haben die Internationale Bedeutung unterstellt. Arbeitsorganisation (IAO) und die Weltbank informelle Die Vielschichtigkeit von Informalität sollte einen Arbeit und Informalität im Allgemeinen als weltweit jedoch nicht davon abhalten, nach einem möglichen bedeutsame Themen ausgemacht. Sie fördern Debat- Interpretationsrahmen zu suchen. In etlichen Jahren ten über die Frage, ob informelle Praktiken zur Gänze der Forschung zur Ukraine sind mir einige zentrale beseitigt werden sollten, um von Grund auf gleichere Bedeutungen von Informalität begegnet: Entweder sie und gerechtere Gesellschaften aufzubauen, oder ob statt- schadet dem Staat, aber nicht der Gesellschaft, oder sie dessen die existierenden informellen Strukturen erhal- schadet beiden oder sie nutzt sogar beiden, Staat wie ten, jedoch formalisiert werden sollten. Gesellschaft. Das Problem ist, dass nicht alle der von Das Problem der Dichotomie von »Abschaffung/ internationalen Organisationen als schädlich angesehe- Formalisierung« hat zwei Seiten. Zunächst gibt es kei- nen Praktiken notwendigerweise auch schädlich sind nen obersten Richter, der – objektiv und/oder in gutem oder von der Gesellschaft als schädlich wahrgenom- Glauben – eindeutig bestimmen könnte, welche Prakti- men werden. ken abgeschafft und welche erhalten werden sollten. Jede Genauso erzielen nicht alle gemäß internationaler informelle Praxis kann kontextabhängig verschiedene und/oder normativer Standards für gut befundenen Bedeutungen haben, so dass es nicht die eine Informa- Praktiken notwendigerweise die gewünschten Ergeb- lität gibt, sondern viele. Es können zwar generell »zwei nisse, wie die Beschäftigung mit den vier in der Ukraine Informalitäten« unterschieden werden, von denen sich am häufigsten anzutreffenden Ausprägungen von Infor- die erste gegen den Staat richtet, während die andere malität zeigen soll. ihm hilft, trotz vorherrschenden staatlichen Dysfunk- tionalitäten und Idiosynkrasien zu funktionieren. Selbst Vier Facetten von Informalität: das Beispiel formal gegen den Staat gerichtete Praktiken können Ukraine jedoch domestiziert oder sogar institutionalisiert wer- den, so dass sie letztlich dem Staat oder seiner Gesell- Elitär: Informelle Governance und »Sistema« schaft zugutekommen. Betrachtet man in einem nationalen Kontext politische Es ist auch angesichts der vielen verschiedenen Institutionen, die (laut Theorie) kaum richtig funktio- Bedeutungen, die Informalität im Laufe der letzten nieren können, stellt man mitunter erstaunt fest, dass sie UKRAINE-ANALYSEN NR. 206, 10.10.2018 3 deutlich bessere Ergebnisse erzielen als erwartet. Damit einzig durch das Handeln einer einzelnen einflussreichen lassen sich mindestens zwei Phänomene in der heutigen Person (in ihrem Fall der russische Präsident Wladimir Ukraine erklären: Zum einen, dass sich die politischen Putin) funktionieren. Diese Person weiß, welche Fäden Institutionen – um nicht zu sagen das ganze Land – stän- zu ziehen sind, wer anzurufen ist und wie Schlüsselfigu- dig am Rande des Zusammenbruchs zu befinden schei- ren motiviert werden können, um Pläne in die Tat umzu- nen, aber dennoch nicht zusammenbrechen. Zum ande- setzen. Diese Illusion von Effektivität scheint zwar kurz- ren, dass externe Akteure, die in der Hoffnung, nicht fristig perfekt zu funktionieren, ist jedoch vom Handeln in die bestehenden Dynamiken hineingezogen zu wer- einer einzelnen Person – und eventuell ihrer Entourage – den, ins System eingesetzt wurden, nicht in der Lage abhängig, so dass Strukturen und Abläufe nicht wieder- sind, diese Dynamiken zu durchschauen und so zu agie- holt werden können, wenn diese Person nicht mehr da ist. ren, dass sie ihre Aufgaben erfolgreich bewältigen kön- Für die Ukraine hat Keith Darden eine weniger nen. Das scheint zumindest aus der Ernennung diver- umfangreiche, aber ähnliche Untersuchung vorgelegt, ser Ausländer zu Entscheidungsträgern in der Ukraine die die paradoxe Effektivität eines Parlaments (unter gefolgert werden zu können, etwa der von Alexander Präsident Leonid Kutschma) zeigt, das im Vergleich zu Kwitaschwili, der als Gesundheitsminister eingesetzt anderen, ähnlich instabilen Ländern eine unerwartet wurde, oder von Aivaras Abromavičius, dem ehemali- hohe Anzahl von Gesetzen und Entscheidungen erar- gen Wirtschafts- und Handelsminister. Die ursprüng- beitet hat – und das in einer hochgradig korrupten und liche Hoffnung war, dass sie Neutralität und Effizienz instabilen Umgebung. Mit anderen Worten: Das Sys- garantieren können, da sie kein reales Interesse an der tem hat funktioniert. Nicht in einer Weise, die erwar- Begünstigung einzelner Personen haben würden. Beide tet wurde oder externen Beobachtern verständlich ist. gaben ihr Amt jedoch nach etwas über einem Jahr mit Die verabschiedeten Gesetze können natürlich kritisiert der Begründung auf, sie würden es einfach nicht schaf- werden, in der Ukraine wie auch anderswo. Im Hin- fen, irgendetwas zu verändern. blick auf die gesetzgeberische Funktion des Parlaments Ein System, das funktioniert, wenn es das nicht hat die Ukraine jedoch wesentlich größere Fortschritte sollte, allerdings nicht so, wie es die Theorie vorsieht, gemacht als eine Reihe anderer Länder unter ähnlichen ruft unter Wissenschaftlern und Praktikern große Bedingungen, die es nicht geschafft haben, ein arbeitsfä- Verwunderung hervor. Wie kann es sein, dass in einer higes Parlament einzusetzen. Sollte eines Tages ein radi- scheinbar ineffektiven und zu weiten Teilen korrupten kaler Reformversuch unternommen werden, könnte es Umgebung Ergebnisse erzielt werden können – und also sinnvoll sein, zu versuchen, etwas von dem Wissen sogar ganz ansehnliche? Wir sprechen hier etwa vom und den Synergien zu erhalten, die die Arbeit des Parla- Gesundheitssektor, der ein gewisses Maß an Unterstüt- ments ermöglicht haben – statt zu versuchen, alles abzu- zung bietet, obschon er hochgradig in der Kritik steht, schaffen und von Null wiederaufzubauen. oder vom Bildungsbereich, der trotz aller Missstände in der Lage ist, Studierende auszubilden. Diese Idiosyn- Klassisch: Schattenökonomie und krasie liegt der Definition von informeller Governance Schwarzarbeit zugrunde und macht das Prinzip aus, das es interna- Wie in den meisten Ländern der Welt werden auch in tionalen Organisationen (darunter der EU-Kommis- der Ukraine Einnahmen versteckt, Unternehmen »ver- sion
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