[Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal Conservation and Society 11(4): 375-390, 2013

Article

Tiger, , and Human Life in the Heart of Wilderness: Impacts of Institutional Tourism on Development and Conservation in East and

Nilanjan Ghosha,# and Emil Uddhammarb

aMulti Commodity Exchange of India Limited, , India bDepartment of Government, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

#Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract This article tests the hypothesis on whether tourism is an important institutional factor in reconciling the conflicting goals of conservation and development. The study entails data from field surveys across protected areas including the National Park and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area in northern , and the Corbett National Park in northern India. With human development defined in terms of ‘stages of progress’ (SOP) delineated by the respondents themselves, the study finds indicative evidences of the validity of the posed hypothesis in the two nations, in varying proportions. Factors not related to tourism, like incomes from , have affected development in Tanzania, though not in India.

Keywords: human development, stages of progress, conservation, tourism, community, , Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Corbett Reserve

INTRODUCTION (Uddhammar 2006; Schmidt-Soltau 2010), thereby aggravating the conflict between conservation and traditional economic The apparent conflict between conservation and development in activities (Uddhammar and Ghosh 2009). This necessitates and around the protected areas of the developing world arises as innovative thinking on new institutional arrangements that the poor in those areas are reliant on resources (Dewi et al. could reconcile conservation and development, and, in the best 2005; Chan et al. 2007; Torri and Herrmann 2010). This leads of worlds, make them benefit from each other. to a decline in , much to the detriment of both flora and However, the possible existence of a symbiotic relationship . Man- conflict is also a special feature in these parts between humans and forests has been a matter of debate among of the world. Wild cause losses to property, , and scholars. One school strongly believes that forest resources even human life. Hence, in most cases, the human in and can be put to use to help improve the livelihoods of the poor around wilderness does not hold a very kind opinion about the (Scherr et al. 2002; Dewi et al. 2005). There are others who wild predators. In most cases in the developing nations, protecting believe that forests can provide only limited opportunity has resulted in a shrinkage of traditional economic to contribute to poverty reduction (Wunder 2001). Part of opportunities for the local population due to ensuing restrictions the discrepancy between the conflicting views originates on cattle ranching, farming or fuel wood collection. People from the difference in assumptions about the institutional have often been evicted altogether from the protected areas mechanisms for creating new opportunities for rural people to take advantage of forest resources (e.g., Sunderlin et al. Access this article online 2005). Publications by several researchers like Agrawal and Quick Response Code: Clark (2001), Anuradha et al. (2001), Borrini-Feyerabend et Website: al. (2003), and Greiber (2009) advocate specific institutional www.conservationandsociety.org mechanisms to reverse the trade-off between conservation and development. An important entry-point of this article lies with DOI: an attempt to understand the of the impact of such a 10.4103/0972-4923.125750 specific institutional mechanism as the exogenous stimulus on the endogenous conservation-development dynamics.

Copyright: © Ghosh and Uddhammar 2013. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use and distribution of the article, provided the original work is cited. [Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal 376 / Ghosh and Uddhammar

In this article, tourism is hypothesised as an important Africa (lion, , , etc.) is no less renowned. At the institutional variable affecting the trade-off between conservation same time, the poverty of the rural human population adjacent and development. Duffy (2002) and Vanasselt (2003) feel that to the protected areas in these regions is often striking. Selecting unregulated tourism can bring about major environmental losses, protected areas in these countries provides the opportunity with marginal financial gains. Fennell (1999), Wearing and Neil to examine whether protected areas with a strong capacity (1999), and Ulfstrand (2003) are, however, optimistic. Kiss for tourism really can make a difference to the well-being of (2004), Zapata et al. (2011), and Uddhammar (2006) emphasise the people surrounding them, and also study the consequent the need for necessary institutional structures for success of impact of on human economy. Tourism in community-based tourism1 in promoting the dual objectives. fluctuates between being the most important and the second- We draw our hypothesis from this ongoing debate in most important export product, and the destinations in the international literature, and pose it as: tourism as an institutional region are world-renowned. Around 90 % of travellers to East intervention can reverse the trade-off between conservation and Africa are foreign tourists. The Serengeti-Ngorongoro zone in development, thereby generating employment and income in Tanzania is a typical case representing this phenomenon of high the sector. In order to test this hypothesis, we have conducted international tourism, as also the case of critical livelihoods of surveys in Serengeti National Park (NP) and the Ngorongoro locals being linked to the tourism economy. Conservation Area (CA) in northern Tanzania, and the Corbett interesting not because international tourism to Tiger Reserve in northern India. Eventual analysis has been protected areas is conspicuous—international tourists comprise carried out on the basis of primary data (mostly based on only 20 % of the total number of visitors; 80 % is domestic perception), as also some related secondary information. So tourism, mostly from urban elites (Uddhammar 2006)—but far, despite the raging international debate, there are hardly any because it has a conspicuous biodiversity that is both well studies that test such a hypothesis for the developing world in known, to a large extent red-listed, and under severe pressure. In two completely contrasting settings, which would lend further India, Corbett Tiger Reserve in the northern part of the country applicability to the posed hypothesis. An important aspect is was chosen for the study. Interestingly, although most tourists the methodological issue, where we define development from come from within the country, more than half the total revenue a local well-being perspective, following Krishna (2004a, b), derives from foreign tourists. Thus, the global connection and conservation on the basis of a composite sighting index. with the Corbett park is quite strong (Uddhammar 2006). Such a methodology has not been adopted so far in order to Again, with a majority of employees in the camps and the park test this hypothesis—this is an important contribution of this being recruited locally from the region, the local connection article to the literature base. is also highly prevalent. Tourism, as such, is still emerging Apart from the methodological perspective, the contribution in the region, and has advanced only in the new millennium of this article to the literature is also the perspective it provides (Uddhammar and Ghosh 2009). Therefore, the two cases from its departure from neoclassical valuation frameworks based from developing economies offer some interesting features to on which often such analyses are carried out (e.g., Beharry compare and contrast in the context of the hypothesis posed. and Scarpa 2009; Guha and Ghosh 2009; Lange and Jiddawi The article is divided into seven sections. In the second 2009, among others). Here, the assessments of two comparable section, the hypothesis is explained in the context of social- institutional frameworks have been conducted taking into ecological systems (SES) (Ostrom 2005, 2007). In the third consideration how institutional arrangements and tourism as a section, the study sites are described in light of the variables critical variable affect two target variables like conservation and described in SES. The fourth section briefly talks about the development, in a social-ecological system (SES). methodology used. In the following section, we present some descriptive statistics on the ‘stages of progress’ (SOP) which Selection of the study areas delineate development in this context. Since development and poverty have been defined by the respondent community, The idea here was to find well-known and frequently visited this also speaks a lot about the existing culture, tradition, and tourist destinations in developing countries with prevalent social norms of the community under consideration. It is in nature-related tourism. If tourism benefits generated by this context that we would like to declare that no gender-based global nature-related tourism trickle down to the local human distinction has been made in this article, and the information population, it should be visible in these areas. Secondly, in has been reported as obtained from the field. The sixth and many of these areas the pressure from a growing human the seventh sections report the results of the Indian case and population constantly threatens the biotopes and of the Tanzanian cases, respectively. Finally, we end with the remaining wildlife. By covering protected areas in settings concluding remarks. with different cultural and institutional backgrounds, the aim here was to reveal patterns that are of general applicability. A SOCIAL-ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM: HUMAN East Africa and India have some of the most widely known WELL-BEING AND WILDLIFE CONSERVATION and precious inheritance of biodiversity on Earth. The unique includes elephant, tiger, , and other large The hypothesis can be posed in the framework of the social- , while the unique variety of large mammals in East ecological system (SES), to better understand the interactions [Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal Tiger, lion, and human life in wilderness / 377

between the properties of the ecosystems and the actions of important part of these is the exchange between users, resulting human societies. In a given social-ecological system, one can in effective selling of resource units. This market exchange is identify a number of variables (Ostrom 2009), as presented essentially tourism, where tourism service providers have to in Figure 1. ‘sell’ the services along with the sightings of wild animals, In Figure 1, we can see that in the formalised flow of which are a major attraction of these protected areas. influence and use, the users’ use of resource units is the core The interactive processes are affected by governance activity affecting the outcomes, which provides feedback to systems. In the core zone of the Corbett Tiger Reserve, the resource system (the ecosystem) via the outcomes. The mandatory tourist guides are recruited locally from among dynamic part, i.e., the ‘interactive process,’ is represented villagers, and this arrangement has many advantages. While by the arrow going from the users through the resource units on the one hand, local people get employment and training, on resulting in the outcomes. By internalising the SES presented the other, the community also gets a clear signal that wildlife is in Figure 1 in the context of this study, it may be noted that an asset to be conserved. Uddhammar (2006: 672) also notes a special feature of the resource systems studied here is that that further efforts by the Ramnagar municipality and mayor they are inhabited by dangerous wildlife, that every year kill to create the image of ‘tiger city’ have played a big role in a number of people, cause damage to livestock, and destroy increasing local awareness and appreciation of the park. crops, and hence are not popular among the local human In Tanzania, access to the protected areas is curtailed, population. This makes these social-ecological systems unique and penal clauses exist on infringement (Robinson 2011). and critical in the sense that institutions need to be developed However, there are game reserves where licensed to protect human lives and livelihoods. takes place. Tourist hunting in Tanzania is regulated by the From the SES perspective, the resource units in the central government with little local input into quota-setting, Serengeti regions are characteristically almost identical to block allocation, or management (Leader-Williams et al. 1996). those of the Corbett Tiger Reserve. Typically, they involve Revenues go to the central government with a proportion humans, wildlife, tourists, and NGO groups. The Serengeti (approximately 20%) returned to the district councils in areas and Ngorongoro conservation zone is one of the earliest where hunting occurs. established national parks in sub-Saharan Africa. The late Governance systems, on the other hand, have affected the 1950s witnessed the excising of Ngorongoro from Serengeti interactive processes between resource units. Though human- National Park, proposed as a measure to accommodate the wildlife conflicts in the Serengeti have been a traditional interests of the Maasai pastoralists. From an ecosystemic phenomenon, communities feel that most of these conflicts perspective, however, they can be considered to be integral emerged as a result of wild animals being accorded a higher components of the same ecosystem. priority than human beings (Kideghesho 2010). However, The dynamic interactive processes of the users (which, as reported by Robinson (2011), that perception has been in this case, are the communities and the tourists), with the changing over the last few decades. While local communities governance systems and the fauna species, result in outcomes have been actively involved in providing tourism services, related to the dynamic interrelationship between the dependent there has also been a recent plan to establish Wildlife variables, fauna conservation, and human development. An Management Areas (WMAs) in the buffer zones surrounding Serengeti National Park, out of which numerous benefits for

*RYHUQDQFH (FRQRPLF the local communities can be envisaged in the form of tourism V\VWHP VRFLDORUGHU incomes and conservation (Kideghesho 2010: 240). This adds a distinctive dimension to the interactive process at the ‘resource system,’ where a ‘conflictual’ interaction between two critical resource units has been attempted to be transformed ,QWHUDFWLYH to a ‘symbiotic’ interaction, through conscious government 8VHUV 5HVRXUFHXQLWV 2XWFRPHV SURFHVVHV policy measures. Our interest here is primarily to explore if the interactions between resource units are mainly ‘symbiotic’ or ‘competitive’ 5HODWHG 5HVRXUFH (Ostrom 2007, 2009). For this purpose, ‘output’ (in terms of HFRV\VWHPV V\VWHP the SES) has been measured in four different ways. They are: 1) ‘stages of progress’ (SOP) out of (or into) poverty for Figure 1 communities around conservation areas based on primary A formalised social ecological system (SES) data (Tables 2 and 3; regressions looking at specific factors The main dependent variables are found in the ‘Outcome’ square, while the ‘Governance system’ and the ‘Resource system’ squares contain the main behind this movement presented in the section ‘Measurement independent variables. The ‘Resource units’ are the units to be measured, of conservation’ below; and in equations 4–10); 2) employment and the ‘Users’ are the stakeholders involved. The resource system (a in the tourism sector based on primary data (Tables 4 and 7); local ecosystem) influences the resource units (the kind of units, such as 3) biodiversity (Tables 5 and 6); and 4) the coexistence of farm products, wildlife, etc.) that can be used. Dotted arrows represent indirect influence (or feedback), while the solid arrows represent causal tourism and wildlife (Tables 5 and 6) based on secondary and mechanisms. primary data collected by us. [Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal 378 / Ghosh and Uddhammar

Table 1 Overview of definitions of poverty and definitions of stages out of poverty as defined in group discussions in villages and towns in Tanzania and India Poverty First stage out of poverty Second stage out of poverty Tanzania Low income, i.e., less than Land; ability to feed family; ability 2 tractors; more than 4 ha of land, Serengeti National 1,000 Tanzanian Shillings (TSH) to send children to school; house brick house; 50 livestock; 5-7 wives; Park and Ngorongoro per day (0.84 USD); bad with corrugated iron sheets for roof; more than 40 children; (particularly Conservation Area housing (grass roof); none or less 4 oxen; 5-10 diary cows; one wife; daughters, who have value, and can be than 0.4 ha of land; no children; few children (5-10); radio (in the ‘sold’ to purchase cows); ability to buy no wife; no livestock case of towns) clothes (in the case of towns); enough to start a small business (in the case of towns) India No livestock or only one; no land; Can afford to hire tractor; owns a Electricity in house; sends children for Corbett National Park no house; no electricity; no job or few milch animals; owns bullocks; higher education; owns a television income of INR 60 per day (USD earns between INR 70 and 135 per set; owns a dish antenna; has water 1.33); no medical service day as income (USD 1.5-3); 2-3 tank in house; has solar panels; has members of family are government a pucca (brick) house; has 2-4 ha employed; possesses a house; of land; can repay debts; owns a possesses land<2 ha; can afford food motorcycle for three meals per day; can provide for school Source: Primary survey

Table 2 Table 4 ‘Stages of progress’ for households around Serengeti NP and Socio‑economic profile of lodges in and around Corbett National Ngorongoro CA in 2007 as compared to 1997 Park, India in 2007 Stages of Stages of progress for households in Total (%) Socio‑economic features of lodges progress for 2007 (%) Stratified sample 15 (population size=25) households in Low Middle High Number of people employed in tourism 570 1997 (%) sector in area Low (63.1) 43 (24.2) 132 (74.1) 3 (1.7) 178 (100) Number of people earning livelihood 2,964 Middle (36.2) 37 (36.3) 51 (50.0) 14 (13.7) 102 (100) from tourism sector in the area* High (0.7) 0 (0) 2 (100) 0 (0) 2 (100) Percentage of the employed belonging to 59 Total (100) 80 (28.4) 185 (65/6) 17 (6.0) 282 (100) the region Percentages of each row within brackets. In the far left column, column Percentage of managers belonging to the 52 percentages are presented within brackets region N.B.: Percentage of foreign tourists 7-10 1. Low refers to ‘poverty’; Middle refers to ‘first stage out of poverty’; High Source: Survey results; *World Bank 2006 refers to ‘second stage out of poverty.’ 2. Out of the 300 respondents, 282 respondents provided valid responses (responses like “cannot answer” are not valid responses) of their present Table 5 state, and the state that they were in around 10 years ago. Changes in wildlife and local human and tourism populations in the Source: Primary survey Corbett NP area Factor change Correlation 1987-2007 with tourist Table 3 visitors to Corbett NP ‘Stages of progress’ for households around Corbett NP in 2007, as 1987-2006 compared to 1997 Human population* 1.2 Stages of Stages of progress for household in Total (%) progress for 2007 (%) Tourist visitors 4.5 household in Low Middle High Elephant (Elephas maximus) 3.9 1997 (%) Tiger ( ) 2.1*** 0.738** Low (30.9) 8 (13.6) 15 (25.4) 36 (61.0) 59 (100) Sambar (Cervus 2.0 Middle (51.8) 1 (1.0) 65 (65.7) 33 (33.3) 99 (100) unicolor) High (17.3) 1 (3.0) 8 (24.2) 24 (72.7) 33 (100) Cheetal deer (Axis axis) 1.7 Total (100) 10 (5.2) 88 (46.1) 93 (48.7) 191 (100) *Garhwal district, ; average change 1981-1991 and 1991-2001; Percentages of each row within brackets. In the far left column, column **Significant at 0.01 level; percentages are presented within brackets ***1987-2006; Source: WII 1999; Jhala et al. 2008; NP=National park N.B. A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREAS 1. Low refers to ‘poverty’; Middle refers to ‘first stage out of poverty’; High refers to ‘second stage out of poverty’. The Serengeti ecosystem encompasses the 14,800 sq. km 2. Out of the 196 respondents, 191 respondents provided valid responses of their present state, and the state that they were in around 10 years ago. Serengeti National Park as well as game reserves surrounding Source: Primary survey the NP such as Grumeti, Maswa, Ikorongo, and Kijereshi, and [Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal Tiger, lion, and human life in wilderness / 379

Table 6 Changes in wildlife, livestock, local human, and tourist populations in the Serengeti‑Ngorongoro ecosystem, and their correlations (Pearson’s r) Population Factor Correlation with change tourist visitors to 1997-2006 area 1988-2004 Local human 1.52 population (Ngorongoro) Livestock (Ngorongoro) 1.35 Tourist visitors (Ngorongoro) 1.23* Tourist visitors (Serengeti) 1.01* Elephant (Loxodonta 1.81 0.826** Africana) (Serengeti) Buffalo (Syncerus 1.0 caffer) (Serengeti) Lion (Panthera ) (Serengeti) 1.41 0.658*** N.B: correlations were calculated for 1988 to 2004, during which period wildlife numbers have fluctuated; *Between 1994 and 2004, the factor change is merely 1.07 due to a sharp drop in visitor numbers after terror bombings in the US in 2001. However, a long‑term trend from 1966 to 2004 shows a factor change of almost 5 in Serengeti, and almost 7 in Ngorongoro.; **Significant at 0.05 level; ***Significant at 0.01 level; Source: Ottichilo 1999; Reid et al. 2003

Table 7 Profiles of lodges surveyed Socio‑economic features of lodges Serengeti NP/ Ngorongoro CA Source: Emerton and Mfunda 1999 Stratified sample 13 (population size=23) Number of people employed in sector 1,650 Figure 2 in area Map of the Serengeti–Mara ecosystem, including the Tanzanian game Number of people earning livelihood 8,085 reserves where, except in Ikorongo and Grumeti, licensed hunting from sector in area* takes place Percentage of the employed belonging 64 Situated on the foothills of the , Corbett NP is to the region widely renowned as a tiger reserve with a rather successful Percentage of managers belonging to 20 the region history of conservation and natural resource management. The Percentage foreign tourists 87 national park’s institutional history draws from varied sources: Source: Survey results; *World Bank 2006 the legacy of the colonial forester and conservationist Jim NP=National park; CA=Conservation area Corbett, international initiatives to save the tiger in the 1970s, the Indian government’s national level conservation programme open areas/community lands. The Ngorongoro Conservation through , the history of the Forestry Civil Service, Area covers an area of 8,300 sq. km. The and the interventions of various NGOs. The Corbett National National Reserve in is also a part of this ecosystem Park and the Sonanadi area were included in the Corbett Tiger (Figure 2). Many villages outside the Serengeti National Park Reserve in 1991 (WII 1999). While community-based tourism participate in the community-based conservation programmes. initiatives and lodges were developed in the zone, most of the The National Park allocates up to 7% of its budget to support developments have occurred in the new millennium. projects identified by villagers surrounding national parks. Corbett TR presents a unique case where the community’s This offers good opportunities to study the long-term effects relationship with the government (or forest department) has not on biodiversity as well as on human development in the area. been uniform. During our study, we found that in some of the The Corbett NP (Figure 3) is located 250 kilometres villages where tourism had developed (e.g., Bhakrakot), the northeast of Delhi and close to the city of Ramnagar in the state relationship seemed quite cordial, while tensions were prevalent of Uttarakhand (formerly called Uttaranchal, when the survey in others (e.g., in Laldhang, with respect to relocation). was conducted). The park was created in 1936 and today has a total area—including buffer zones—of about 1,318 sq. km. AN OVERVIEW OF THE METHODS Human habitation is not allowed in the major core zone but some settlements exist in the surrounding buffer zone. The park A strategic method was used in selecting the villages for is owned by the Uttarakhand state government and managed interviews and data collection. For each area, we selected some by the Uttarakhand Forest Department. (two or three) villages close to the protected areas within the [Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal 380 / Ghosh and Uddhammar

Source: http://www.corbett-national-park.co.in/corbett_national_park_map.html

Figure 3 A map of the Corbett Tiger Reserve tourism ‘circuit’ (zone where tourism was more prevalent than and then random (or systematic) samples were drawn (see in others), and some a considerable distance away from the Appendix 2 for details). In total, we interviewed 300 households . We also selected two neighbouring towns, one in Tanzania, and 196 households in India. In both places, the within and one outside the tourism circuit. The differentiation data were collected during January-March 2007. We developed between towns and villages was done based on the definition various indices as and when required, and econometric techniques provided by Census of India 2001. In Tanzania, the definition were used to test for the relationship between variables. of a town, as distinguished from a village, was obtained from the 2002 Population and Housing Census. Generally, towns Development defined in terms of ‘stages of progress’ are distinguished from villages on the basis of administrative, matrix demographic, and infrastructural characteristics, and hardly on the basis of occupational patterns or of the Human development has been defined in the analysis through agricultural sector. The control cases for towns and villages data collected from a ‘quasi-longitudinal’ survey, following the were provided by those that were outside the tourism circuit. method used by Krishna (2004a) in villages in , India, This helped us to compare and contrast between regions with to assess who escaped poverty, who became poor, and why. and without tourism and determine the exact impact of tourism Part of the method was to let the villagers themselves define on conservation and human development2. poverty in preliminary discussions of ‘stages of progress.’ This Selection of households within each zone of villages/towns was delineated by change in living conditions, and was defined was done on the basis of complete enumeration or random in a two-step process. In the first stage, in each of the villages (or systematic) sampling in cases where the total number of and towns selected around the protected areas, we assembled households was not too large. In cases of very large populations around 8–10 people for a presentation of our purposes and to across large areas, stratification in terms of localities was created, provide them with information about the subsequent surveys. [Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal Tiger, lion, and human life in wilderness / 381

We also had a focus group discussion with these respondents Y = α1 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + β4X4 + u (1) to find out their definition of poverty, and the first stage out Z = α + β X + β X + β X +ε (2) of poverty. Then, we enquired about the next step ‘upwards’ 2 5 5 6 6 7 7

in development. Y = α3 + β8D1 + β9D2 + Ω (3) With these results as a base, we formed three Weberian ideal d 3 The following are the interpretations of the symbols use : types (but with mutually excluding categories for each item) Y ≡ Stages of progress movement, as will be defined in that were presented to the informants as part of the survey course of this analysis and further explained in Appendix 1; conducted a few months later in the respective sites. This X1 ≡ Difference in income from sale of livestock between entailed the second stage of the field survey. Even though the 1997 and 2007; definitions differed somewhat, the important thing here is that X2 ≡ Difference in income from sale of agricultural products each community had the opportunity to define poverty and the between 1997 and 2007; steps for moving out of poverty themselves. X3 ≡ Difference in income from park and tourism between During the field survey that followed, we asked each 1997 and 2007; respondent which of the three stages fitted his/her family’s X4 ≡ Difference in income by working in large cities between living conditions: 1) 10 years ago; and 2) at the time of the 1997 and 2007; interview. In doing so, we created what we call a quasi- Z ≡ The fauna sighting change index; longitudinal measure of the respondent’s living conditions. X ≡ Change in importance of income from livestock4; From this data, a matrix of various positions of development 5 X6 ≡ Change in importance of income from sale of could be constructed with movements from the possible agricultural products; positions 10 years ago to the present (see Appendix 1 for X6 ≡ Change in importance of income from working in details). major cities; X ≡ Change in importance of income from tourism; Measurement of conservation 6 D1 ≡ Dummy variable for towns related to tourism;

D2 ≡ Dummy variable for villages related to tourism. To measure conservation, on the other hand, a composite All these variables, which are perception-based observations index was devised. This index measures wildlife sightings of the community, were obtained from the two rounds of primary by respondents. To examine whether the sightings of some surveys, the first one being unstructured and the second one critical fauna had changed, respondents were asked whether consisting of a structured questionnaire. For most of the variables the sightings of certain species (decided in consultation with (except for stages of progress, whose estimation has been the forest department, existing literature, and knowledgeable explained in Appendix 1), the respondents were asked about persons from the field) had increased, remained the same, their perception of whether a particular variable had changed, or had diminished over time. A rating of +1 was given if the as mentioned above. The changes were ‘increase’ (denoted by sighting had ‘increased’, 0 for ‘no change’, and -1 if the sighting +1), ‘decrease’ (denoted by -1), and ‘no change’ (denoted by 0). had ‘decreased’. In that sense, we are not looking for actual (absolute or relative) We constructed a ‘fauna sighting change index’ based on figures of change, but for perceptions of change. weights given to each of the species and the score given by a Equation (1) attempts to find out the community’s perceptions respondent in terms of change in sighting. The weights were of what sources of income have contributed to the change in decided in consultation with the abovementioned stakeholders, their overall poverty status. This is a reflection of the changing taking into consideration the ‘rarity’ aspect of the species, and relative importance of a source of income in determining the their importance in the context of tourism. In that sense, this changes in the community’s developmental status. In equation could be considered as ‘informed arbitrariness’ with which (2), we intend to test whether change in relative importance of the weights in India (as also in Tanzania) were assigned a particular source of income (particularly from tourism) has an (see Appendix 3). Hence, a positive value of the index is an impact on ‘fauna sighting change index,’ which is assumed to indicator of the increase in sighting, while a negative value be a proxy of fauna conservation according to the community’s is an indicator of a decline in the same. This measure was perception5. One needs to keep in mind that even if income complemented by measuring the factor change in species, from a source might have increased, it is not necessary that which was obtained based on secondary data. the relative importance of that source of income has increased vis-à-vis other sources. Fauna sighting might be more affected Regression analysis by the change in relative importance of a particular source of income rather than the change in income6. The hypothesis was simple here. We tried to determine Equation (3) tests whether communities close to tourism sites which factors lead to coexistence between conservation and have witnessed better development defined in terms of ‘stages development goals. These institutional factors emerged from of progress,’ as compared to those far from tourism sites. The tourism and other sources of change. We determined the idea here is to examine the differences in the developments influence of these factors in the two study sites. The regression that have been encountered in zones that are associated with equations used were as follows: tourism against those that are not associated with the same. This [Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal 382 / Ghosh and Uddhammar

is done by considering two tourism dummy variables (one for years later. This has not happened to any considerable extent towns, and the other for villages) as explanatory variables for in India. However, 24.2% of those at the high level had fallen ‘stages of progress.’ In order to vindicate the impact of tourism- one step down to the middle level in the Indian case. related zones on development, by controlling the impacts Also in the Tanzanian case, about 63% were in poverty ten of all other factors, and also removing any possibility of years ago, while only 31% of those in the Indian case around multicollinearity in the model (that may destroy our objective), Corbett NP were in that position at the time. The difference all other explanatory variables are deliberately excluded. If is also striking in 2007, where almost 50% in the Indian the estimates of the coefficients of the dummy variables are sample considered themselves to be placed in the ‘high’ living found to be statistically significant, then one may safely argue conditions category, while only 6% of the respondents in the the existence of indicative evidences on development being Tanzanian case classified themselves thus. More than 28% in associated with tourism. In that case, equation (3), combined the Tanzanian sample considered themselves poor in 2007, with equation (1), will further buttress the contention that while only 5% in the Indian sample did so. tourism can be an enabling factor of development and can As a more general observation, a large number of those in enable moving the community up the ladder of ‘stages of poverty in 1997 escaped from poverty in 2007 in both the cases. progress.’ In Tanzania, this figure is 75.9%, while in India this figure is 86.4%. One needs to in mind that the leap out of poverty DESCRIPTION OF RESULTS FOR is a big achievement in itself, and both regions have achieved ‘STAGES OF PROGRESS’ it. An overview of how ‘stages of progress’ was quantified is given in Appendix 1. The matrix in Appendix 1 shows that As we understand here, the most critical variable in this context the nine possible positions of development can be constructed is the ‘stages of progress.’ The results of the first and second with movements from possible positions 10 years ago to those rounds of discussions in the two cases are given in Tables 1, of the present. 2, and 3. As can be seen in Table 1, the definition of ‘stages of RESULTS IN INDIA progress’ from poverty hinge more on family relations in the context of Tanzania than in India. As an exposition, Factors affecting ‘stages of progress’ in India ‘no wife, no children’ is one of the indicators of poverty in Tanzania. In the Tanzanian case, 5–7 wives and 40 children The regression results assessing the factors for ‘stages of was defined as part of the second step out of poverty. This progress’ movements in India are as given in the following indicates that family relations in Maasai communities are equation. not only confined to social relations, but that they also have a clear material content for the men. This is, of course, not YX= 0.0244 12+0.085XX+0.095 . 34+0.02.X +0.05618 the case in India. ()0.422 ()0.001 ()0.002 ()00.442 ()0.00 (4) In the Indian case, government employment was mentioned n = 187, R22= 0.12, adj. R = 0.09 as one of the components of the first stage out of poverty. It is interesting to note that in both the cases, being able to send The figures within parentheses are the p-values of regression. children to school is an item in the first stage out of poverty, The result in equation (4) shows that the ‘difference in incomes as is also the ownership of cattle. In the Serengeti/Ngorongoro from the sale of agricultural products’ and the ‘difference in case in Tanzania as well as in the Corbett case in India, the incomes from tourism’ are statistically significant factors possibility of hiring a tractor is also a component of the first affecting ‘stages of progress’ (SOP) (at 5% levels). The stage out of poverty. The second stage out of poverty, in both difference in incomes from sale of agricultural products7 the cases, includes owning a brick house. Again, possession has essentially resulted from developments in agricultural of about 4 ha of land also stands as a condition in both cases. marketing facilities and better infrastructure in and around the A description of the ‘quasi-longitudinal’ data produced by the area, as also the processes of urbanisation affecting adjoining surveys in the two countries is presented in the cross tabulation urban agglomerations like the town of Ramnagar. The growth in Tables 2 and 3. of tourism has also been a prime factor in this context, as hotels, As can be seen from Tables 2 and 3, the upward movement lodges, and eco-tourism initiatives have provided for a ‘ready’ has been more modest in the areas around the Ngorongoro market for agricultural products. CA and Serengeti NP in Tanzania, as compared to the Indian On the other hand, another important driver of the SOP case. In Table 2, we see in the first row, that 74.2% of those in has been income from tourism. We surveyed around 15 of poverty in 1997 had moved up to the middle level ten years the existing 25 lodges and found that more than 80% of the later, while only 1.7% had moved to the high level. In the Indian lodges surveyed came up after 2003. The lodges were mostly case, 25.4% moved from poverty to middle level, but 61% owned by urban residents of large cities like Delhi, or at times moved two steps up. Also the reverse movement—falling into residents of the nearby town of Ramnagar. The lodges provided poverty—occurred to an extent in the Tanzanian cases; 36.3 % employment to the local population directly and indirectly. As of those at the middle level in 1997 had fallen to poverty ten a result, there was a decline in the population migrating away [Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal Tiger, lion, and human life in wilderness / 383

from home to large cities in search of employment. Hence, the in the following manner. Households, which have been ‘difference in incomes earned by working in large cities’ has increasingly exposed to the tourism industry over time with not made any significant contribution to SOP. A better profile the development of the sector in the Corbett NP, are exposed of the lodges is provided in Table 4. to higher sightings of species, as compared to those less With nearly 59% of the overall employment in lodges coming exposed to the tourism industry. During the interactive sessions from within the zone, and 52% of the managers being local with the local people during both phases of interviews, the inhabitants, it clearly goes to show that the lodges have primarily communities associated with tourism revealed having adopted been run by the local population, as compared to Tanzania, a more positive outlook towards wildlife as animal sightings where only 20% of the managers were local (as will be described was what was driving the tourism industry. The increase in later)—this is an interesting phenomenon to be noted. The other ‘fauna sighting change index’ is an indicator that animals interesting feature to be noted here is that only 7–10% of the total were not treated with a negative mind set, as they used to be. number of tourists were of foreign origin, which is miniscule Rather, their presence was a welcome feature that helped the as compared to 90% of the same in Tanzania (Uddhammar and cause of tourism, thereby helping the community to generate Ghosh 2009). This further justifies the contention that trained more income out of tourism. This is where one might state that personnel who are employable as managers might not be in the perception of conservation (if a positive ‘fauna sighting high demand in the Corbett zone since it as yet does not cater change index’ is an indication) has only got better in the zones to international tourists to the same degree that Tanzania does. associated with tourism. Local educated people can serve the purpose of managing the On the other hand, the variable ‘change in importance pattern of tourism that is domestic economy-centric. of income from working in major cities’ is a significant 8 As is evident from this discussion, a positive ‘difference in explanatory variable. The negative sign associated with this income from tourism’ has definitely resulted in an increase in indicates that fauna sighting had generally diminished for SOP. As stated earlier, most of the lodges came up after 2003, those households who had an increased reliance on income and has resulted in a significant change in the standards of from employment in major cities. A possible explanation of living of those employed by them. This has also substituted this can be that the ‘city-centric’ nature of these households for incomes from other sources (like incomes from large make them less suitable for the natural species of the zone. cities, as was evident from our interviews), and has helped in Hence, to summarise, while increased income from tourism implies higher fauna sightings, an increase in alternative supplementing other local sources of income (e.g., agriculture). income (from working in cities), implies a decrease in fauna Therefore, one of the major drivers that led to ‘escape from sightings. poverty’ in 2007, as is noted from the results in Table 3, is development of tourism in the Corbett zone. Are sightings higher in tourism-related villages? Changes in fauna sightings in Corbett Reserve: is We ran another regression with sighting index as the dependent tourism a determinant? variable, and with the two dummy variables related to tourism The critical species considered here include: tiger, elephant, sites; one of these was for towns that supported tourism, and the barking deer, sambar, , , , and , other was for villages that supported tourism. The regression among others (Appendix 3; Table A.3.1). results are as follows: Of all the 191 respondents, an overall negative value of the composite index was estimated for only two respondents, while Z = 0.0109 D1 + 0.106. D2 + 0.69 ()00..2 ()00 ()00. 0 all others reported a positive value. Interestingly, for the tiger, (6) which is considered an ‘umbrella species’ in the zone, 188 nR==191,. 2 0 11, aadj.. R2 = 009 respondents reported that the sightings had increased, while three respondents felt that the sightings had remained the same. Our results show that indeed the sightings are higher in and The respondents were also asked to state whether the around tourism-related villages, but not significantly so in importance of income sources had changed (increased, tourism-related towns. This buttresses the results obtained in remained the same, or diminished). The results obtained were regression equation (5). as follows: Perception-based results: verification with secondary observations

Z = −−0.033.XX56= 0.0194. 0.0397.X 7 +0.0299. X 8 + 0.62 ()0.12 ()0.314 ()0.064 ()0.016 ()0.00 Most of what we have observed until now in the Indian case (5) R22= 0.055, adj.=Rn0.0344, = 191 is based on perception, and this deserves to be verified with secondary level information as obtained from various other The regression equation (5) finds ‘change in importance of sources. The secondary information was obtained from WII income from tourism’ as a significant variable, contributing (1999) and Jhala et al. (2008), analysed through ‘factor change’ positively to fauna sighting. The implication can be drawn in the various variables under consideration, and presented [Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal 384 / Ghosh and Uddhammar

in Table 5. This is prevalent for both villages and towns. However, in our Table 5 shows that in Corbett NP in India, wildlife populations previous reporting based on regression result (7), we did not find have expanded significantly, including that of the tiger. The that tourism income is an important determinant of the ‘stages of annual number of tourist visitors has also increased considerably, progress.’ This may be because ‘livestock’ generally has evolved albeit from relatively low levels. It is noteworthy that the annual as an important component for income generation in the region, number of visitors in the park has increased from 29,000 in particularly after 1997, while tourism income (though prominent) 1986–1987 to 52,000 in 1997–1998, and finally to 120,000 might be concentrated in only a few villages and towns. in 2006–2007. The correlation between tiger—an important umbrella species of this ecosystem—and tourist numbers was Drivers of fauna sightings 0.738, during the 1987–2006 period (Pearson’s r). Increased tourism and increased local human population did not hinder The critical species here are: lion, elephant, buffalo, wild , the increase in wildlife numbers. In fact, we find indicative rhino, zebra, warthog, , and , and the ‘fauna sighting evidence of better quality of park management leading to an change index’ has been constructed based on respective weights. increase in wildlife numbers. This, in turn, has led to the area Here, the lion has emerged as the ‘umbrella species’ and has becoming more attractive for tourists to visit, which, again in a been given a weight of 0.25, while considering the ‘rarity’ aspect circular turn of events, has led to better monitoring of wildlife of zebra and rhino across space and time, both of them have by putting pressure on the park management to perform well been assigned a weight of 0.15 each (Appendix 3; Table A.3.2). 9 and keep wildlife well protected. Interestingly, in Tanzania, out of 293 valid responses for Thus, combining the perception-based survey and also changes in sightings, around 65 reported a negative ‘fauna these secondary observations that buttress the survey analysis sighting index’ value, reflecting a perception of decline in results, we can draw the conclusion that for this protected fauna sightings during the 10-year period, while 24 respondents area, efficient wildlife protection has worked side by side with revealed a score of ‘zero’ implying a state of no change in tourism, resulting in the well-being of the surrounding local sightings. Two hundred and four respondents, i.e. 70% of the human population. sample, reported an increase in sightings. In fact, to find whether the importance of income from RESULTS IN TANZANIA tourism has resulted in such a change, we attempted to run an identical regression as was attempted in equation (4). In Drivers of ‘stages of progress’ the results, as given in equation (9), none of the variables are In Tanzania, an identical regression was run with SOP as the significant at 5% levels, though the tourism-related variable dependent variable, with the same explanatory variables as can be stated to be significant at 10% level of significance. shown in equation 1 for the Indian case. The results are as follows: Z = 0.079 .XX56−0.0018 . + 0.068 .X 7 + 0.041 .. X 8 + 0.43 ()0.12 ()0.533 ()0.1 ()0.078 ()0.00 (9) YX= 0.047 12+0.0314XX+0.057 . 34+0.035 .X +0.029 22 ()0.013 ()0.1 ()0.1 ()0.113 ()0.00 R = 0.043, adj. Rn= 0.03, = 293 (7) n = 282, R22= 0.065, adj.R = 0.051 The regression results, here, weakly exhibit some evidence of ‘change in importance of income from tourism,’ contributing In this case, ‘change in income from sale of livestock’ is the positively to fauna sighting. only statistically significant variable. It was also revealed from conversations during the initial pilot surveys that ‘livestock’ Fauna sightings in tourism-related areas is an extremely valuable possession for inhabitants of the Ngorongoro area. The importance of livestock could be gauged It has also been observed that fauna sighting is more in areas from statements like “girls are important—they [can] be sold that are associated with tourism. This is shown in the following and I could get a cow.”10 regression results. However, we ran another regression to check whether the SOP movement is significantly better in villages where tourism is prevalent. The regression analysis gave a positive response Z = 0.363.D1 + 0.422.D2 + 0.29 to this concern. ()00..00()00 ()00. 0 nR==293,.2 0 13, adjjR.. 2 = 012 (10)

YD= 0.01. 1 + 0.087.D2 + 0.046 ()0.05 ()0.00 ()0.00 Now, if we combine the results obtained in equations (8) (8) nR = 282, 2 = 0.03, aadj. R2 = 0.02 and (10), we find that there is clear indication that tourism- related areas reveal better animal sightings than other areas. There is a clear indication that the ‘stages of progress’ The results have also revealed a better movement in SOP than movement has been positive in zones where tourism exists. in areas not related to tourism. [Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal Tiger, lion, and human life in wilderness / 385

What does the secondary data reveal? has also benefited from it. Profiles of the lodges surveyed reveals this to a certain extent (Table 7). In East Africa, significant population fluctuations have occurred The total number of people working for and earning in most species between the first and last measured figures. a livelihood from the tourism sector in Serengeti NP/ However, we ignore that fluctuation and report on the overall Ngorongoro CA is almost three times that of those in Corbett trend during the period 1997–2006. As shown in Table 6, there NP in India. While a large proportion of employed personnel has been a considerable increase in predators like over in the lodges come from the local area only, quite unlike in the period, while the numbers of and buffalos have Corbett NP, only 20% of the managers are locals. The demand stayed more or less constant. All these species are important for more trained personnel from outside the region in Tanzania for tourism. Visitor numbers in the Serengeti-Ngorongoro is prevalent primarily to cater to the international nature of area have not increased much during the 1997–2007 period tourism in the zone. (Table 6). However, a longer term trend reflects a large factor change in the number of tourists (see Table 6). On the other CONCLUDING REMARKS hand, the number of livestock owned in the Ngorongoro CA has increased sharply, as also the human population in the The results of the analyses of the data in the two cases presented region. The increasing importance of livestock in the Tanzanian here have some differences and some similarities, though there economy is recognised and was enhanced by the Agricultural seem to be indications of broad similarities in terms of the and Livestock Policy 1997, where a host of incentives for conclusions that we may draw. From the secondary data, we livestock was provided. This policy shift might have been find that in both the cases, an increase in the number of key a driver of the livestock economy. With increasing human species such as lion, tiger, buffalo, and elephant has occurred settlements around forest areas, the demand for manure, hides, parallel to a similar increase in tourist visitors. Factors such as and skins has been increasing. Apart from that, livestock is the expansion of tourism and an increased human population in also a potential source of draught power for transport and general (as shown in Tables 5 and 6 in terms of factor change) cultivation activities. Interestingly, some respondents also felt around protected areas have not affected wildlife negatively. that livestock are a potential guard against price rise. Rather, wildlife and tourism have expanded simultaneously. In Table 6, we further find that during this period there was In both the cases, respondents showed more awareness of the also a sharp increase in wildlife. The number of tourists visiting opportunities that tourism had created for them in terms of this site also increased. Therefore, we find a positive, high, and income and employment. As is evident from our regression statistically significant correlation of tourist visitors with the results, we find that sightings generally have increased in elephant and lion population (Table 6). Although considerable regions where importance of tourism and tourism-related fluctuations have occurred within the period, the figures give income are more or have increased over time. an indication of the long-term trends (Packer et al. 2005). The change in the standards of living (as reflected in the SOP Hence, with tourism already at a very high level, with more movement) because of changes in incomes from tourism is more than half a million tourists visiting the protected areas of East prominent in the Indian case, and the causality is not so prominent Africa every year, the importance of tourism has increased in the case of Tanzania, where lately, income from livestock has over the last two decades. This is almost five times that of the emerged as an important determinant for change in economic number of tourists visiting Corbett NP annually. It has remained status. However, SOP movement in the Serengeti-Ngorongoro at a very high level during the period 1997–2007. We may thus region has revealed an interesting characteristic of being more argue that with reference to the base period, the importance of positively related to tourism-affected areas than other areas. On tourism income has not changed; neither has it been responsible the other hand, one may even note that livestock herding has not for changing the ‘stages of progress’ for the entire area as a affected conservation efforts in Tanzania, as is often expected. whole during this phase. But, again, the regions associated In Tanzania, the other important aspect to be noted is that with tourism have benefited more in terms of SOP, than other in our reference period, tourism was already at a high level regions. There is no doubt that there has been a simultaneous of development, and not much factor change was noted even expansion of wildlife, local human, and livestock populations. in the secondary data. But, the long-term changes definitely Table 6 clearly reveals the positive correlation between wildlife show that tourism has developed over time in a big way. In any populations and the number of tourists visiting the NP/ CA. case, these are general causal links that can be noted here. One Again, we detect a strong possibility of a causal factor from good plausible mechanism at work is that a rise in species count, or wildlife management leading to increased tourism visits, leading more specifically, sightings, might have attracted more visitors to better monitoring of wildlife, and also to increased pressure to the sites. Word of mouth information also quickly spreads on wildlife authorities to maintain high standards of wildlife via electronic media from those who visit the sites. protection. This observation is supported by other research Another causal link at work is that of alternative land-use findings that concur that tourism in this area has positively and biodiversity—a relationship not in the ambit of this article. affected wildlife (NINA 2007). Only in parts of the Serengeti-Ngorongoro where low-yield It further needs to be noted that tourism has had a sustained cattle herding is practiced, wildlife and the local rural economy impact on the standards of living, while the domestic economy coexist. With farming, the human-wildlife conflict increases [Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal 386 / Ghosh and Uddhammar

significantly (Uddhammar and Ghosh 2009). In such cases, with Zapata et al. (2011) who reflect on how bottom-up tourism could be an alternative economic activity and can community-based tourism, borne as a result of a local initiative, also be ecologically robust. Yet, there are ecological limits demonstrates longer life expectancy, faster growth, and more to tourism, and institutional and governance systems are positive impacts on the local economy. Yet, we are not really particularly important for positive outcomes. in a position to claim the sustainability of such arrangements— In this context, it is important to highlight a few limitations and in India, the initiatives are of recent origin. Again, though of this study. We confess that the results are largely indicative it is generally hypothesised that tourism can reconcile the of the critical role of tourism in promoting conservation and differences between conservation and development, it has been development. There are many other factors in force that are argued that such formulation resides on certain assumptions not really ‘tourism-related’ (like livestock policy). Some of that are questionable (Butcher 2011). However, our results these factors have been considered here, but definitely not all, (both perception-based primary data and secondary data) from and this has resulted in the low explanatory power of some of the field suggest that even in two diverse settings, there are our regression models. Secondly, the data based on which the indications of positive outcomes from tourism. Further, when analyses have been conducted and conclusions drawn are mostly we talk of a rights-based approach to conservation as a means based on perceptions of the community. Such an approach has its to ensure conservation with justice, tourism should be seriously strengths and weaknesses. This approach marks a departure from considered (Greiber 2009). The need to plug-in social concerns the traditional approach of dealing with secondary data pertaining in conservation goals as stressed by Chan et al. (2007) may be to various neoclassical or often agency-defined delineations made possible with tourism. of conservation and development, thereby serving the critical The next step in this area of research would be a more purpose of providing interesting insights about how communities detailed study on the costs and benefits of different institutional are likely to perceive the relationship between conservation conservation and tourism practices for the people living adjacent and development. On the other hand, one may not be able to to these protected areas and their impacts on biodiversity. Such completely rule out the possibility of the randomness of the ways costs and benefits are important for evaluating the sustainability in which the human mind works. Therefore, we have attempted of important interventions in an SES, as emphasised by Ostrom to buttress our conclusions with some secondary observations. (2009). Ostrom (2009: 420) states “...when expected benefits While we do not completely rule out these weaknesses, yet, of managing a resource exceed the perceived costs of investing with the evidences presented here, we can definitely conclude in better rules and norms for most users and their leaders, the that human development can co-exist with institutionalised probability of users’ self-organizing is high.” Again, a detailed conservation in the presence of community-based tourism, and analysis of land-use patterns will help in the emergence of a in no way is tourism a deterrent to this coexistence, rather it more sharpened response to our hypothesis. Human rights can potentially the role of a facilitator. In the context of issues, including institutional measures to address and resolve the SES, therefore, institutionalised conservation mechanisms human-wildlife conflict, is also an important field for future in the form of protected area management on part of forest research. This will help us in emerging with more meaningful departments create interactive processes with resource systems inferences on our posed hypothesis. (protected areas) as well as resource units (wildlife, local human population, and tourists). Of utmost importance for the emergence Notes of a symbiosis between development and conservation is that there is a governance system in place that regulates land-use 1. Tourism may also help in monitoring ecosystems. After several in appropriate ways. Detailed descriptions of land-use changes private visits to Sariska National Park in Rajasthan, Indian have been kept out of the scope of this analysis. Yet, one may conservationist Valmik Thapar found out in 2005 that Sariska note that in both countries, there are clear restrictions on grazing had no —despite optimistic reporting to the contrary by the and agriculture inside the park areas, and collection of firewood state forest department. He blew the whistle and exposed a major is allowed only in the buffer zones. While there is a fee for scandal, which eventually resulted in the adoption of a new, more land used for tourism close to the park in Tanzania, there is no scientific tiger census method (with international peer review) such fee in Corbett NP. However, in both the cases, there are introduced by the Wildlife Institute of India (The Telegraph 2005). common restrictions like limiting visiting hours for tourists, as 2. In India the villages chosen were Chhoti Haldwani (which stated earlier. Given this governance system, what we find is is around 25 km to the east of the core zone of Dhikala and that there might be a ‘symbiotic’ interaction between the two obtains tourism benefits because of the Corbett Museum, etc.), important resource units, namely human and wildlife, when Laldhang (located at the southern edge of Corbett National Park, with enraging disputes about relocation), Bhakrakot (a there is an important intervening factor like community-based tourism-related village located in the northeastern periphery tourism. Thus, the ‘competitive interaction’ between resource of the tiger reserve, well-known for its Camp Fortail Creek, units can be transformed to ‘symbiotic existence’ with forces of a nature-based tourism initiative, and also for its homestays), tourism in vogue. and Ramnagar, (a town marking the entry point to most of the In the context of the growing debate in international tourism activities in Corbett). The control cases were Kunkhet literature on the roles of tourism, therefore, our findings have (a village far from the tiger reserve without tourism), Baluli, and some interesting implications. Our results are in conformity Jamariya (which is close to the reserve, but without tourism). [Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal Tiger, lion, and human life in wilderness / 387

In the Serengeti-Ngorongoro region, the chosen villages were 7. The main crops produced are wheat, rice, mustard, sugarcane, Oloirobi (a tourism-related village and within the Ngorongo maize, soybean, gram, arhar, moong, masoor, etc. A variety reserve), Karatu (a town 15 km from the eastern park border of fruits like mango, litchi, papaya, guava, banana, etc., and and an entry point for the tourism circuit by road), Musati (a vegetables like potato, cauliflower, tomato, cabbage, peas, beans, village 15 km to the west of the park), and Natta Mbiso (also to brinjal, gourds, etc., and spices and herbs such as coriander, the west of the park), both engaged in community-based tourism turmeric, ginger, mustard, etc. are also grown in the region. In projects. The control cases were Mugumu (a town located to Kaladhungi, where the hamlet of Chhoti Haldwani is located, the west of the park border but outside the tourism circuit) and had experimented with various agricultural Upper Kitete (a village just outside the Ngorongoro reserve on initiatives for food self-sufficiency in the region. However, the the eastern side, but not connected to the tourism circuit). process of urbanisation led to further demand of food items, and 3. Weberian ideal types are typical representations of the empirical over time, markets developed from two sources—the growth of reality, where each ideal is distinct in a number of relevant the local town of Ramnagar, and the growth of tourism. factors. In this case, three stages of poverty (or out of poverty) 8. Its level of significance from the statistical perspective is were presented to the respondents: 1) a typical condition of marginally higher than the usually accepted 5% levels, but the poverty; 2) a typical condition for a household in the first step variable is definitely significant at 10% levels. out of poverty; and 3) a typical condition for a household at the 9. The reverse process is exemplified by the episode mentioned second step out of poverty. These conditions and ideal types were in endnote 1 regarding the tiger population in Sariska NP and modelled from the results of the group interviews conducted in the alarm sounded by the well-known conservationist Valmik the first phase of the field research. Table 1 presents a concrete Thapar. ideal type. 10. Such a statement was recorded in the first phase of the primary 4. It was observed in the first round of the pilot survey in both survey through a focus group discussion. 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Received: April 2011; Accepted: May 2012 [Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal Tiger, lion, and human life in wilderness / 389

Appendix 1: Measuring ‘stages of progress’

While we have defined three ‘stages of progress,’ namely 1, 2 and 3, there are nine possible movements from one stage to another over time, even considering the stagnancy at one stage over time. The possible movements are: 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 1 to 3, 2 to 1, 3 to 2, 3 to 1, 1 to 1, 2 to 2, and 3 to 3. Stage 1 signifies poverty and deprivation, and hence movement from 1 to 2 entails a big jump—more significant than the movement from 2 to 3. This cannot be captured if we simply take linear differences like ‘(3-2)=1’, which is again equal to ‘(2-1)’. Hence, this is not conducive enough to be placed in a formal quantitative framework. In order to capture these differences, we first take the anti-log of each of 1, 2, and 3. Then, the reciprocal of the differences is considered as the ‘stages of progress’ (SOP) coefficient. In other words, if the movement is from stage x to stage y, the SOP coefficient will be: 1 SOP = (A.1.1) exp ()x − exp ()y Where exp(i) refers to exponential or anti-logarithmic value of i (i=x,y). The above formula is, however, not valid in case there has not been any movement. The details are provided below and in Table A.1. The movement from x to y is simply the mirror image of the movement from y to x. The criticality, however, arises when we arrive to define stagnancy, i.e., a state of no movement (say 1 to 1, 2 to 2, etc.). A situation of 3 to 3 is definitely better than 1 to 1. We assume that the stagnancy of 3 to 3 is simply neutral movement, and hence it is ‘0’. On the other hand, being at stage 2 in both periods is a situation worse than moving up from 2 to 3, but definitely better than moving down from 2 (middle) to 1 (poor). Hence, this value should be an average of the values obtained from the movement of 2 to 3, and the movement of 2 to 1. Being at 1 for both stages implies being better off than falling from 2 to 1 (you are used to poverty), but worse than falling from 3 to 2 (you fall modestly), and hence in this case as well, the value should be an average of [2 to 1] and [3 to 2]. The jump from 1 to 3 eventually emerges as an aggregate of the movements from 1 to 2 and from 2 to 3.

Table A.1 Summarises the methodology of measuring SOP index Stage movement SOP index Rationale

1 to 2 0.2141 Reciprocal of the difference of antilogarithmic values 2 to 3 0.0788 Reciprocal of the difference of antilogarithmic values 1 to 3 0.2929 Reciprocal of the difference of antilogarithmic values

2 to 1 −0.2141 Mirror image of 1 to 2 3 to 2 −0.0788 Mirror image of 2 to 3 3 to 1 −0.2929 Mirror image of 1 to 3 1 to 1 −0.1464 Average of [2 to 1] and [3 to 2] 2 to 2 −0.0677 Average of [2 to 3] and [2 to 1] 3 to 3 0.0000 Average of [3 to 2] and [2 to 3] SOP=Stages of progress [Downloaded free from http://www.conservationandsociety.org on Tuesday, February 18, 2014, IP: 129.79.203.216] || Click here to download free Android application for this journal 390 / Ghosh and Uddhammar

Appendix 2: Sampling method

Table A.2 Samples drawn from the villages Corbett NP, India Village/town Total number of Sample Sample drawing method Comments households size Bhakrakot 30 24 Complete enumeration 6 households were not available for response Chhoti Haldwani 100 42 Every second household was selected 8 households were not available for response Jameria 30 24 Complete enumeration 6 households were not available for response Laldhang 150 25 Every fifth household was selected 5 households were not available for response Kunkhet 90 30 Every third household was selected Baluli 12 8 Complete enumeration 4 households were not available for response Ramnagar Population of 43 Being large in size, the town was stratified by 7 households were not available ~46,000 localities and then random sampling was done by for response selecting a total of 50 households Ngorongoro‑Serengeti CA, Tanzania Upper Kitete 664 53 Every tenth household was selected 13 households were not available for response Oloirobi 487 47 Every tenth household was selected 2 households were not available for response Natta‑Mbisso 498 50 Every tenth household was selected Musati 543 50 Every tenth household was selected 4 households were not available for response Karatu Population>17,000 50 Being large in size, the town was stratified by 5 households were not available localities and then random sampling was done. for response 55 households were selected, 50 available Mugumu Population>16,000 50 Being large in size, the town was stratified by 8 households were not available localities and then random sampling was done by for response selecting 58 households NP=National park; CA=Conservation area

Appendix 3: Fauna sighting index

Fauna sighting index (FSI) for the ith household is

m FSIi =∑ λ j .Z ji (A.3.1) j1= where m refers to the total number of animals sighted, j refers to the animal sighted variable, λ refers to the associated weight of sub-component of the number of sightings, z.

Table A.3.1 Table A.3.2 Weights for Corbett NP, India Weights for Serengeti‑Ngorongoro region, Tanzania Animal Weights Animal Weights Tiger 0.2 Lion 0.25 Elephant 0.1 Elephant 0.1 Barking deer 0.1 Buffalo 0.1 Sambar 0.075 Wild dog 0.075 Spotted deer 0.075 Rhino 0.075 Leopard 0.15 Zebra 0.15 Nilgai 0.075 Warthog 0.075 Wild boar 0.075 Monkey 0.075 fish 0.125 Fish 0.1 Others 0.025