CAUSES OF PROSTITUTION IN ZIMBABWE A CASE STUDY OF THE HAUNA GROWTH POINT, MUTASA DISTRICT

BY

RUMBIDZAI NHEWEYEMBWA

(B1024862)

SUPERVISOR

MR D. J CHISVO

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS OF THE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE HONOURS DEGREE IN

SOCIAL WORK, DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK, FACULTY OF SCIENCE

EDUCATION BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

i

ii

RELEASE FORM

TITLE OF PROJECT: Investigation into the causes of prostitution in

Zimbabwe.

PROGRAMME: Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Social

Work.

YEAR GRANTED: 2013 Permission is hereby granted to the Bindura

University Library to produce single copies of this project and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purposes only.

The author reserves other publication rights and neither the project nor extensive extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author‟s written permission.

SIGNED: …………………………………......

PERMANENT ADDRESS: 1/131 Montgomery Drive Prospect Waterfalls Harare.

DATE: 14 June 2013

iii

APPROVAL FORM

The undersigned certify that they have read and recommended to the Bindura University for acceptance; a project entitled “Causes of prostitution in Zimbabwe. A Case Study of Hauna

Growth Point Mutasa District”, submitted by Nheweyembwa Rumbidzai in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Social Work.

………………………………………… ……………………………

SUPERVISOR DATE

……………………………………….. ………………………………

CHAIRMAN DATE

………………………………………. ……………………………...

STUDENT DATE

iv

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my loving husband and my pastor Rev. Olsen Mhako, thank you for being my best friend and my pillar of strength, I love you always.

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly I would like to thank the Lord God Almighty, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, Jehovah El-shaddai for taking me thus far and enabling me to complete this research. I would also want to express my most profound gratitude to my parents Mr and Mrs Shumba for their financial support throughout my academic life, may the good Lord open doors that no man can ever shut before you. My thanks go to Mr Chisvo my supervisor for his tireless support and guidance. My friends and colleagues, thank you so much for being there when it was tough and for being patient throughout the whole time. Lastly, I would like also to thank Bindura University for the exposure to such knowledge and all my lecturers for their effort in moulding me into the academic woman I have become. To everyone who participated in this study, I say thank you.

vi

ABSTRACT

The study was undertaken to determine the causes of prostitution in Zimbabwe with Hauna

Growth Point in Mutasa district as the study area. This was achieved through the use of qualitative and quantitative research design for data collection and analysis. Questionnaires and interview guides were the data collection tools used. Findings were presented using graphs, tables and pie charts. The findings revealed that prostitution in the area was mainly caused by high rates of unemployment and child abuse resulting in runaways.

Recommendations made were that the government should introduce income generating projects especially aimed at promoting women in prostitution.

vii

LIST OF ACRONYMS

HIV/AIDS - Human Immune Virus/ Acquired Immune Deficiency

Syndrome

UN - United Nations

UNICEF - United Nations International Education Fund

UNOCHA - United Nations Office of the Humanitarian Affairs

WHO - World Health Organisation

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1……………………………………………………………………………………...1

1.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..1

1.1 Background to the study………………………………………………………………..1

1.2 Conceptualising prostitution ……………………………………………...... ….…..3

2.1.1 Types of prostitution...... 3

1.3 Statement of the problem……………………………………...... ….4

1.4 Aims ……………………………………………………………...... …...... 4

1.5 Objectives………………………………...... 4

1.6 Research questions……………………………………………………...... 5

1.7 Assumptions………………………………………………………...... 5

1.8 Significance of study……………………………………………………….....…...... 5

1.9 Definition of terms……………………………………………………………...... 6

1.10 Summary of chapter...... 6

Chapter 2……………………………………………………………………………………....7

Literature Review……………………………………………………………………………...7

2.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...... 7

2.1 Factors causing prostitution………………………………………………...... 7

2.1.1Unemployment …………………………………………………………...... 7

2.1.2 Losing a spouse……………………………………………………...... …..9

2.1.3 Physical and emotional abuse...... ………………………………….10

ix

2.2 Theoretical Framework……….……………………………………………………...15

2.2.1 The Functionalist Perspective...... …………………………………...15

2.2.2 The Conflict Perspective………………………………………………………17

2.2.3 The Feminist Perspective………………………………………………………18

2.3 Global Overview of Prostitution...... ………………...21

2.4 Prostitution in Africa………………………………………………………………...22

2.4.1 Prostitution in Southern Africa………………………………………………...22

2.5 Summary of chapter………………………………………………………………...... 23

Chapter 3…………………………………………………………...... ………………..24

3.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………...... 24

3.1 Research design………………………………………………………...... ………….24

3.2 Target Population……………………....……...……………………………………...24

3.3 Sample size...... ………………………………………………….…..25

3.4 Sampling technique...... ………………………………………………25

3.5 Research Instruments...... ………………………………………25

3.5.1 Interviewer Administered questionnaire………………………...……………..25

3.5.2 Interview Guide ...... 26

3.6 Data Analysis and Presentation……………………………………………………….26

3.7 Ethical considerations………………………………………………………………...26

3.7.1 Informed Consent……………...……………………………………………….26

3.7.2 Confidentiality...... ………………………………………………………………27

3.7.3 Protection of Participants…………………………………………………….....27

3.8 Limitations…………….....…………………………………………………………...27

x

3.9 Delimitations…………………………...... …………………..27

3.10 Summary of Chapter……………………………………………………………….27

Chapter 4……………………………………………………...... …………..28

4.0 Introduction...... ………………..28

4.1 Demographic profile of respondents…………………………………….....………..28

4.2 Factors that cause prostitution……………………………………………....……….29

4.2.1 Unemployment………………………………………………………………...29

4.2.2 Losing a spouse...... …………………………………………………..32

4.2.3 Physical and Emotional Abuse………….……………………………………..33

4.4 Summary of Chapter……………………………………………………………….....36

Chapter 5...... 37

Conclusions and Recommendations………………………………………………………….37

5.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...37

5.1 Summary of findings………………………………………………………………….37

5.2 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………...37

5.2.1 Unemployment...... ……………………………………………………………..38

5.2.2 Loss of spouse…………………………………………………………………38

5.2.3 Physical and emotional abuse………………....……………………………….38

5.3 Recommendations……………………………………………………………………39

5.4 Areas of further study………………………………………………………………..39

5.5 Summary……………………………………………………………………………..40

List of References……………………………………………………………………………...

xi

List of Tables and Figures

Table 4.1: Age category of the respondents...... …………………………………………28

Table 4.2: Age at starting prostitution...... …………………………...29

Table 4.3 Table showing loss of spouse...... 32

Figures

Figure 1: Employment rate among prostitutes…………………………………...... ….28

Figure 2: Education as a factor hindering employment...... ………………………....……..30

Figure 3: Losing a spouse...... …………………………………………..32

Figure 4: Physical and emotional abuse...... ………………………………33

Figure 5: Sexual abuse....…………………………………………………...... ,,,,,,,,,,,,…...34

Figure 8: Summary of causes...... 36

List of Appendices

Appendix 1: Interviewer Administered Questionnaire……………………………………..

Appendix 2: Interview Guide……………………………………………………………..

Appendix 3: Request for carrying out the research……………………………………….

xii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

The following is an outline of what this chapter contains. This section will provide the background of the study being carried out, the statement of the problem under investigation. It will also provide the aims and objectives of the study. Research questions to guide the researcher are also included in this section as well as assumptions of the study. To make the study authentic, the researcher will provide a significance of the study which will justify the reasons why the study is being carried out.

1.1 Background of study.

HIV/AIDS is one of the greatest epidemics that the world is fighting. Prostitution is one of the factors fuelling the spread of HIV , ("http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prostitution_in_Botswana&oldid=490173124"). One area HIV/AIDS lobbyists, campaigners, non-governmental organisations and governments need to address is the issue of prostitution. Prostitution is the act or practise of engaging in promiscuous relations especially for money usually with individuals rather than a spouse or friend, (Merriam Webster (2013). The problem can be tackled if reasons for prostitution are known and understood. Despite the stigmatisation and labelling associated with prostitution, it seems to continue growing and has even been termed an industry in other countries. Prostitution is illegal in most countries in the world including Zimbabwe. But a few countries such as Australia and Germany have legalised it.

Prostitution is illegal in Botswana, but is nevertheless common. Legalization is currently being discussed as a means of lowering HIV rates which are amongst the highest in the world (The Botswana Gazette 2012).In Cameroon it is illegal but attracts sex tourism from the West especially for child prostitution. Countries like Liberia and Sierra Leone have a high rate of prostitution. Many young girls have resorted to sex work after the civil wars in these countries. Thishas resulted in high rates of child HIV/AIDS infection, (Human Rights Practices: Liberia (2011).

1

Prostitution is often associated with crime and substance abuse. Prostitution is intrinsically linked to drug use, especially street prostitutes. Estimates reveal that between 40 and 85% of all prostitutes are drug users. Many prostitutes, male or female are selling sex to support their drug habits. Prostitutes are often victims of violent crimes, rapes and assaults, (Dara Drug and Alcohol Rehab, Asia (2012). Most cases of human trafficking all over the world are as a result of prostitution. In Zimbabwe, prostitution is prevalent in most large cities, towns and growth points. It is also high in commercial estates compounds and farm compounds. Prostitution does not only fuel the spreadof HIV/AIDS, but also increases the rate of human trafficking and causes destruction of families. Farley (2004) in her document „Bad for the Body, Bad for the Heart‟ argues that prostitution causes physical, social and psychological harm to any person practising it. She goes on to say that legalizing prostitution or decriminalizing it does not decrease the above mentioned dangers of prostitution.

In May 2003, prostitution was decriminalised in New Zealand as a way of making prostitution safer for women practising it, Farley (2004). Most countries that have legalised prostitution or decriminalised it, believe that prostitution is destructive towards the society. They go on to suggest that publishing cases of prostitution in the press destroy the institute of marriage and so decriminalising it makes it acceptable. According to the New Zealand Justice and Electoral Committee (2001), prostitution is inevitable. Such beliefs have spread to Africa through globalization, with countries like South Africa contemplating decriminalisation of prostitution. Since 1994, decriminalization of prostitution has been under active discussion in South Africa. In 2012, the ANC women‟s league voted for decriminalization and stated that they would campaign for it to become an ANC policy.

In Zimbabwe, prostitution, including solicitation, procuring, keeping a brothel is illegal. In the1890s, the South African War dispersed sex trade into Zimbabwe and consequently created problems in what was then Southern Rhodesia. Pressure from the public then, led to passage of immorality legislation in 1900,(Zimbabwe country reports on Human Rights Practices (2002). Prior to independence, colonial vagrancy laws were used against sex workers. In 1983 major efforts were made to eliminate sex work in Zimbabwe. As with many African countries, the spread of HIV/AIDS dramatically increased as a result of sex work.

Despite all these efforts by the Zimbabwean government to eradicate prostitution, it still remains evident in most parts of the country especially in small towns, growth points and

2 farms. However, this study seeks to suggest the solutions to prostitution through understanding its causes.

1.2 Conceptualising prostitution

Prostitution refers to the act of having sexual intercourse with a person who is not a spouse or friend in return for money, (Kennedy (2007). It has been regarded as „the world‟s oldest profession‟ by many sociologists. Prostitution is practised by both men and women including teenagers. There is no one causal pathway to prostitution but the reasons vary from place to place. This review will look at some of the reasons that have been outlined by various sociologists that may be the factors leading into prostitution.

1.2.1 Types of prostitution

There are many different types of prostitution that exist within our society, almost all which are illegal (Flowers, 2001). The first type is that of forced prostitution. This is a widespread phenomenon that can be found in every country around the world. With an increase in economic growth and modernization, the demand for prostitutes has also grown immensely. Some parents in developing countries feel that the only way to they can survive economic pressures is to sell one of their children to slaveholders (Bales, 1999). Compensation received for these children is small, but because of dire situations, these families believe it is the only way.

Another gateway to forced prostitution as suggested by Child (2009), is when men and women find themselves deceived by what a young female Brazilian called „their beautiful words‟ (Bales, 1999). By this she means that slaveholders come into poor villages especially in less developed countries and some parts of the United States and promise the people wonderful paying jobs there. With no opportunities, these impoverished individuals believe this and end up trapped with those slaveholders. When they reach their destination, they are stripped of any identification and belongings they possess. Men are usually sent off to do some hard labour and the women and young girls are forced to live a life of prostitution in brothels (Bowe, 2003).

The second type of prostitution is that of the homeless woman. These women are usually teenagers that would have run away from home and are what Barri Flowers calls „survival prostitutes‟ (Flowers, 2001). Most of them do not have anywhere to turn to; hence they find prostitution as only way to get necessities such as food and shelter to survive. These

3 individuals are mostly from broken or abusive households, from which they run away in order to escape from the abuse (Young et al., 1983).

Drug-addicted prostitutes are the last type of prostitutes that exist according to Child (2009). Many of the individuals that enter this kind of prostitution do so in order to support an alcohol or drug addiction (Flowers, 2001). Another common issue here is the fact that women and girls who enter prostitution later end up having a substance abuse problem further compounding their prostitution (Potterat et al., 1998). It is important to be aware of the different types of prostitutes that exist in order to accurately understand why they ended up in their unique situations.

1.3 Statement of the problem.

Prostitution results in various social problems such as orphans,abortion, unwanted pregnancies, and child headed families, broken marriages and high divorce rates. Prostitution fuels the spread of HIV/AIDS. The devastating spread of HIV/AIDS throughout Africa is clearly associated with prostitution. Dealing effectively with the causes of prostitution may contribute to reducing the spread of HIV.

1.4Aims.

1. To find out the causes of prostitution in Zimbabwe 2. To establish strategies for solving the problem of prostitution.

1.5 Objectives

 To determine if unemployment is a cause of prostitution.  To examine if losing a spouse has any impact on the growth of prostitution.  To investigate if physical and emotional abuse is a cause of prostitution.

4

1.6 Research questions.

1. Does unemployment cause prostitution? 2. Does losing a spouse force women into prostitution? 3. Does physical and emotional abuse force young women into prostitution?

1.7 Assumptions

 That people in the sex trade will be willing to participate in the study.  Prostitution is related to poverty.

1.8 Significance of the study

Many civil society organisation and national governments have made several efforts towards the emancipation of women. The gospel of gender equality and women empowerment being preached in Zimbabwe by many women activists and feminists is no gospel at all if prostitution is not addressed.Prostitution is a sensitive subject which most people who practice it are not comfortable to discuss openly. It is regarded as a social problem and a form of deviance in most societies where it is illegal. Findings from this study will provide information on the study area for other future researchers. The study will also assist policy makers in coming up with policies that can help reduce prostitution.

1.9 Definition of terms

Prostitution

Prostitution has been defined by Giddens(1989),as sexual relations on a promiscuous and mercenary basis with no emotional attachment. It has also been defined by the Legal Dictionary (2013) as the business or practice of providing sexual services to another person in return for payment.

5

Sex worker

This refers to any person paid to sexually gratify or arouse a customer, as a model or performer in pornographic magazines, films or nightclub acts (www.yourdictionary.com). It has also been defined as a person who works in the sex industry by Wikipedia (2013).

Poverty

Poverty is the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the deprivation of basic human needs, which commonly includes food, water, sanitation, clothing, shelter, health care and education. Relative poverty is defined contextually as economic inequality in the location or society, in which people live, (World Bank, "World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People",).

HIV/AIDS

HIV is a virus that weakens the body's immune system, which is the body's defense system. HIV causes AIDS, a disease that hurts the body's ability to fight infection and certain cancers, (women‟s health.gov).

Unemployment

Unemployment refers to a state of being jobless (Brooks-Gordon, 2006).

Education

In this study being educated is measured based on one‟s attainment of the basic Ordinary Level in Zimbabwe.

6

1.10 Summary

This chapter focused on the background of the study being undertaken, provided aims and objectives of the study and a significance of the research being undertaken. It noted that prostitution is an act of providing sexual services to a person other than a spouse or friend in return for money. It also pointed out that those who practice prostitution are called sex workers. The chapter went on to provide limitations and delimitations of the study and provided the definition of a few terms that are key to the research.

7

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter will focus on reviewing literature on studies conducted by various authors, locally, regionally and internationally on prostitution. It will also provide the various sociological perspectives‟ views on the causes of prostitution.

2.1Factors causing prostitution.

2.1.1 Unemployment

According to the UN (2012), prostitution in Africa is illegal in most countries but nevertheless, it is frequently common in practice, driven by the widespread poverty in many sub-Saharan African countries. It is viewed by the World Health Organisation (2012), as one of the drivers for the prevalence of AIDS in Africa. Social breakdown caused by civil wars or economic collapse in several African countries has caused further increases in the rate of prostitution in those countries. Zimbabwe is among those countries and has seen prostitution growing in small towns, growth points and mines as well as compounds. This is due to the economic situation of Zimbabwe at the moment in which jobs are not available (Rhaka, 2007).

Prostitutesvary tremendously in their reasons for entry. The need to access resources for survival is one of the reasons why women engage in prostitution, (Agustin, 2007). Agustin goes on to explain that many street prostitutes are runaways who end up in a new locale with no resources and little recourse but to engage in some kind of criminal activity, whether theft, drug dealing, or selling sex. Economic motives predominate throughout the trade, ranging from survival to a desire for financial independence or upward mobility. In developing countries, sex workers usually join prostitution for economic benefits because of poverty (Rhaka, 2007).

Because of the obstacles to normal work, Snow and Anderson (1993) hypothesize that many individuals turn to shadow work as their duration of homelessness increases. Shadow work comprises resource-generating efforts outside the formal economy, including scavenging,

8 panhandling, recycling, bartering, street vending, plasma donation, and illegal acts such as theft, prostitution, and drug sales, (Child, 2009).

One of the Spanish national television channel thinkNEWS reported on 21 July 2012 that more and more Spanish /women were turning to prostitution as a way of earning their daily bread. Women, who have been made redundant as a result of the recession and have been unable to find any other kind of job since, have turned to prostitution. The article goes on to say that and those women who had managed to get themselves off the street and back into proper jobs are found to be returning to „the game‟ after losing their jobs and finding it impossible to obtain another of any description.

According to Parrish (2013), poverty plays a big role in why women sought prostitution. He suggests that 74% of all female prostitutes in America say that poverty was the main reason they thought about joining prostitution. Most women, according to Parrish, pay to be smuggled into the United States just to be paid more for prostitution. Sex workers who come from Mexico usually just start in prostitution for their families and they can take the money home. Women can be paid as much as $800- $3000 a night just for the act of selling themselves on the streets (parish, 2013).

StudyMode.com (2008), posits that poverty and unemployment has triggered the rapid spread of prostitution in the Philippines. He explains that prostitution provides those in the profession a considerable amount of income to support their families as well as supply a steady flow of remittances from urban to rural areas or from prostitutes working overseas. Because of poverty, most women who indulge in prostitution have been tricked in with guarantees of decent job opportunities in the city or abroad or have been kidnapped and then forced to work as prostitutes. Weitzer (2005) explains that women are forced into prostitution because of family expectations as they are pressured to pay for their sibling‟s education or support a sick family member. Hence they indulge in prostitution to meet their family‟s needs.

According to the ZIMDIASPORA (2012), prostitution among Zimbabweans living in South Africa has reached dramatic levels. Their investigations have revealed that a sizeable number of Zimbabwean women were flocking to South Africa to find themselves in the hands of their fellow countrymen who pimp them out. The women are now earning a living through marketing their bodies against the scourge of HIV/AIDS which has claimed millions of lives around the world. A concerned Zimbabwean woman in South Africa, interviewed by the

9 paper admitted that most of the women are doing it not because they want to, but because they have no option. She added that these women are breadwinners in their families and yet cannot get decent jobs in their home country and end up resorting to prostitution.

The Zimbabwe Poverty Assessment study (1995) revealed that the youth have the highest unemployment rate among all the age groups in the labour force in Zimbabwe. More recent figures indicate that out of the country‟s 12 million people, only 480,000 were formally employed in 2008 down from 3,6 million in 2003 (The United Nations Office of the Coordination Humanitarian Affairs [UNOCHA], 2008). Prostitution is one of the effects of this high youth unemployment, and they end up contracting HIV and AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases which are detrimental to their health as explained by UNOCHA (2008).

2.1.2 Losing a spouse as a factor causing prostitution

According to the Women‟s Support Project (2006), loss of a spouse can also factor one into prostitution. They argue that some women join prostitution as a means for survival and as a lack of alternatives after the death of a spouse. The women are usually from very poor backgrounds, uneducated and usually left with children to look after. Most women who resort to prostitution as the last option would have been neglected by their husbands‟ family and blamed for being the cause of his death. In desperation, they resort to sex work to feed their families. The project goes on to explain that the women would have tried dating again but fail to get settled and are often used by the men and heartbroken such that they end up developing negative attitudes towards men. Because of this heartbreak, the women develop a low self esteem and use sex to obtain money for their children‟s sake (Women‟s Support Project, 2006).

Hughes (2004) has also pointed out that losing a spouse results in loneliness, boredom, lack of love and affection. She goes on to say that women who would have lost their spouses resort to prostitution as a way of attracting attention. They believe prostitution will lead to positive attention and some social excitement. Abbott (2000) gives an example of a woman whom he knows who went from a good job to doing pills, to stripping and then to prostitution. He explains that the woman had been cheated on and left by her husband. Another woman went on to say that she resorted to prostitution because her husband had spent over $10 000 in a year to prostitutes which shattered her after he had made one of the prostitutes pregnant and had to go and leave with her (Abbott, 2000).

10

2.1.3 Physical and emotional abuse as a factor leading young girls into prostitution

In their book Mitchell and Smith (2008), claim that ninety-five percent of young prostitutes are victims of violent physical abuse. They go on to say that ninety percent are victims of sexual abuse by someone outside the immediate family and only two percent have families with two natural parents. These statistics may not be surprising when we consider the type of youth that are susceptible to a life of prostitution. Children who are susceptible in becoming teenage prostitutes were born when their parents lived together. Before long, and most often before they reach the age of five, well over seventy percent of all children who become prostitutes watched their families destroyed by separation, divorce, or death of one of their parents.

Once the family‟s stability is shattered, life for young children becomes even more unstable. The person left to care for them is often unwilling or incapable of doing so. The remaining parent may consistently leave them to care for themselves because of work and other responsibilities, or neglect them through indifference; or he or she may also have problems with alcohol or drugs, (Mitchell and Smith, 2008). These children grow up lacking consistent care, guidance and attention. According to Herschi (1969), the social theory of delinquency predicts that delinquency results when a child‟s bonds with conventional society are weak to non-existent. Bracey (2006), suggests that those bonds include sensitivity to the opinions of others, a commitment of one‟s time and energy to conventional activities and believe the moral validity of a society‟s norms. This theory explains juvenile prostitution viewing the negative self-image and abusive early sexual experiences contributing to the child‟s bonds with society, (Bracey, 2006).

The saddest aspect of the child prostitutes‟ childhood is not the fact that most of them come from broken homes or even that their parents are inadequate or irresponsible, but when parents are abusive as well. In such a situation, child‟s chances for success in life become more and more limited. According to the United Nations International Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (2009), sometimes the child abuse is physical and research has found out that sixty-six to seventy-five percent of child prostitutes endured beatings from their father, step-fathers or members of their household. The case is also the same as to male prostitutes. Research also reveals that thirty-four to forty-seven percent of male prostitute were physically abused, (UNICEF, 2009).

11

PLAN (2010); add on to the notion of child abuse as leading to prostitution. They argue that many times the abuse that parents and other family members within the household inflict on children may be emotional. They explain that cruel words are a much more subtle form of abuse and when they are constant, children are likely to lack the chance to develop self esteem. Words that are discouraging, they explain, such as saying that one is stupid, is a failure or unwanted, lead those children to believe that they are just as said. Mobaraki and Solderfeldt (2010) wrote that children are more responsive to what they hear than what they see. They added on to say that once children are labelled, they begin to act towards fulfilling the label.

Sexual abuse can also contribute to a child resorting to prostitution as a way of life, (Adler 2001). Childhood sexual abuse is so prevalent among teenage prostitutes and experts have drawn the conclusion that it is what drives most young people into prostitution. Due to the environments they would have grown up in, many young people who indulge in prostitution come from abusive backgrounds and so they grow up developing a sense of low self-esteem. According to a sociologist Lois Lee quoted in Adler (2001), most of the girls and boys who have joined prostitution have run away from home as a result of sexual abuse. Due to this abuse, Lee suggests that leaving the home can be the most significant turning point for these children.

Charles Banda, a Malawian journalist interviewed a teenage girl in 2005, who confessed to be making a living out of prostitution not because she wanted, but because she had no option. The girl explained during the interview that their parents had died due to an accident resulting in her being left together with her older brother. She was staying with her brother who had sought refuge with a friend. The brother‟s friend began to rape the young girl ever since they started staying together. He would take advantage whenever the brother was away. The girl told her brother what was happening to her but due to fears of being thrown out by his friend; the brother always told the girl that she was lying. The young girl eventually got tired of being sexually molested against her will and decided to run away to the boarder where she became a professional prostitute. To date, it has been two years since the young girl began operating as a prostitute and she has reported that she encounters at least five clients per day including top government officials and ministers. She wishes to stop but cannot as she does not have any other means of survival. In this story, Charles Banda clearly shows the link between child sexual abuse and prostitution (Malawi News, 2012).

12

Sometimes the run from home is unplanned, but made at the spur of the moment usually after an argument with someone in the family (Adler, 2001). Because they will not be prepared for this run, many teens return back home when they fail to cope with the life on the streets. Other young people plan their run. He goes on to say that most of these young girls who plan their escape from home due to abuse of any kind, usually leave home permanently. They may have saved money s part of their planning or may steal money from a parent or relative, gather clothes and a few of their belongings that they can carry, and run off into the streets to find solace there, where they end up resorting to prostitution out of desperation as their money runs out, (Barry (1995).

Beinstein (2007) posits that of the one million children that hit the streets every year, between one third and one half are children who would have been pushed out by their parents. He explains further saying that often at times these children are forced out of the house because the parent can no longer cope with their own marital, financial, or psychological problems. Unlike adults, homeless teens have little help available to them because they are minors and are not eligible for welfare and are barred from most adult shelters for protection. Although youth shelters do exist, they are very few, usually overcrowded, and the length of time they can stay in those shelters is limited. Beinstein (2007) goes on to say that in a matter of time, the cruel harsh ways of street life get a toll on these youths leaving them with no option but to yield to more desperate means of survival such as prostitution, joining gangs and notorious squads as well as substance abuse and crime.

Mitchell and Smith (2008) explain that homelessness is different between males and females. After running away from home due to various forms of abuse, the youths obviously become homeless. Homeless boys can be able to defend themselves on the streets than girls. Girls are weaker and are usually the prime targets for pimps. A pimp is someone who solicits clients for prostitutes, (Brooks-Gordon, 2006). However, regardless of all these harsh conditions in the streets, the young people cannot stand the pressure from home any more due to physical and verbal abuse and believe it is better to run off into the streets than to stay at home and continue to suffer. Most teens after leaving home, realise the realities of street life, but the situation at home does not allow them to go back home, thus they continue to endure the hard life on the streets until they become adults and turn into expert sex workers, (Mitchell and Smith, 2008).

13

2.1.4 Prostitution for the fun of it

Dworkin (1997) sees prostitution as also being caused not only because of poverty and unemployment or abusive backgrounds, but also as existing due to the sexual desires that are dominant in man that he would rather enjoy at an added advantage of money in return. He suggests that some women engage in prostitution not because they do not have anything better to do, but because they enjoy sex and would not mind getting money for it. Dworkin‟s writings reveal that these women usually have a very high sexual drive and exaggerated energy that they need to make use of and prostitution provides them with the adequate release.

One sociologist who also wrote on prostitution, Farley (2004), seems to be in agreement with Dworkin‟s ideas. He suggests that there are some women who do not wish to be in a committed relationship with any man but possess very high sex drives which constantly need to be satisfied. In order to satisfy their needs, they resort to prostitution as it leaves them with no personal; attachments. Another female sociologist quoted in Farley (2004) suggests that those women who join prostitution just for fun enjoy the act and do not mind doing it on a regular basis in return for money.

Among other reasons, many writers seem to agree that prostitution may be in existence due to the some women‟s desire to exert their energy through obtaining sexual gratification in exchange for money. Some of the women actually have good jobs and come from descent backgrounds, but choose to be pat time prostitutes just for the fun of it. Feminist theorists critique this view point however, suggesting that women who engage in such acts are prone to exploitation and disgrace themselves, (Child, 2009).

2.1.5 Peer pressure as one of the factors leading to prostitution.

Early sexual activity is a growing issue in adolescent development. According to the National Survey of Family growth and the Youth Risk Behaviour Survey (2005), teenagers are engaging in sexual activities at early ages. They report that two-thirds of high school students reports having sex before graduating from high school. Peer pressure to engage in adult-like activities can encourage young people to engage in various levels of sexual experimentation leading to prostitution, (Brooks-Gordon, 2006). He goes on to explain that for most female adolescents, adolescence represents, in part, a time for pressure to engage in sexual intimacy. As girls enter adolescence, he explains, they begin to grow into womanhood and become

14 sexualized objects. Within the media, images of sexuality and body sizes can socialize girls into seeing themselves as sexual objects which may in turn develop a certain pressure to act towards the socialization and end up in prostitution (Brooks-Gordon, 2006).

Peer pressure has been known to cause a lot of social problems among teens such as substance abuse, crime and prostitution as outlined by Brooks-Gordon (2006). This happens because many young boys and girls especially those in college and other high tertiary education institutes pressure each other into deviant behaviour to access quick money, (Brennan, 2004). As a result of wanting to maintain a sense of belonging and affiliation to the group, Brennan (2004) suggests that many young people indulge in activities that are detrimental to both their bodies and their future.

In Canadian Universities, as shown by Kennedy (2007), young girls indulge in sexual activities in which they get money in return in order to have „the good life‟ at school. Most of these young women come from very poor families and would have acquired scholarships to get into university. He highlights that as a result of associating with other students from well up families, they become aware of the flashy things that their counterparts have which they do not. It is through this realisation that they strive to get ways and develop means to match up to the standards of others. Through socialization at the institutes, the students discover that their seniors earn a better living through prostitution. These senior girls often organise men for the younger ones who want to join in the‟ game‟, (Kennedy, 2007).

Castle and Lee (2008) postulate that in Africa, the situation is no different. Prostitution among young women is due to peer pressure at times. They go on to explain that these young women may have been left to fend for the family after the death of a parent and because there is no money in the house, they are often influenced by older friends especially from within the community they come from, to try sex for money. Some may be reluctant at first but once they see how others do it and the lives they live, compared to their situations, they end up resorting to sex work for survival but due to being pressured by peers. Castle and Lee (2008) go on to say that this is mostly common in small towns, growth points and mines where the population is smaller and jobs are hard to come by. DeMarco (2009) tends to agree with these men that some of the women who join prostitution are usually coerced by peers or people whom they have known for a long time and seen them do it as well. Although he agrees with Castle and Lee (2008), DeMarco (2009) concludes by saying that all these other factors rise

15 as a result of poverty which eventually puts a lot of pressure on these women, who in the end are left without any option but to follow the advice of their friends.

However, cases in which prostitution is as a result of peer pressure, it is usually linked to crime and substance abuse as suggested by Castle and Lee (2008). They explain that in most cases, the young people who engage in prostitution are usually in a bid to access funds to satisfy their addictions to drugs and alcohol. Their study shows that most young girls who join prostitution, especially in the Western world, are those that would have been pressured by friends to try it as a way of obtaining quick buck for drugs and alcohol, but especially drugs. Castle and Lee (2008) explain that the urge to maintain addiction to a certain drug makes them an easy target for pimps who solicit clients for them and in turn get a share of the money. For young adults, it may be hard for them to obtain extra cash from parents or guardians to fulfil their addiction; hence prostitution comes as an easy way out of the problem.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Sociologists have examined sex work as a form of deviant behaviour, a type of gender relations, and as a distinct occupational sector.There are a number of sociological views that help explain the causes of prostitution. They look at it from various points of view. These include the functionalist perspective, the conflict perspective, the feminist perspective and the deviance theory.

2.2.1 The Functionalist Perspective

The functionalists look at the relationship between the parts of society; how each part works and interacts with other parts. Each aspect is interdependent, (Brooks-Gordon, 2006). Stewart (2005) articulates that functionalism is the best theory for looking at prostitution. He explains that the functionalist perspective allows us to see how prostitution changes along with other aspects of society. Some ask why prostitution spreads out rapidly and still exists despite various connotations surrounding the act. Child (2009) explains that the functionalists suggest that prostitution flourishes because it satisfies sexual needs that are not able to be met elsewhere. She goes on to say prostitution almost seem to serve as an outlet for sexually frustrated men. When a man is unable to find a partner or unsatisfied with the partner he has, he always holds the option of paying for sexual pleasure.

16

A functionalist called Kingsley Davis, holds that prostitutes provide a sexual outlet for men who: have difficulty in establishing sexual relationships, cannot find long term partners, want sexual gratification that is defined as immoral, desire quick sexual gratification without attachment, are curious and are sexually dissatisfied in marriage, (Child, 2009). From this, it is shown that by meeting such needs, prostitution functions as a form of social control over sexual behaviour. Flowers (1998), explains that the functionalists view this as beneficial because it brings men with sexual desires away from unwilling partners to partners that are willing but for a certain price. He goes on to say that this undoubtedly helps bring down the number of rapes and sexual assault for any given society

Functionalists see prostitution as a means of channelling sexual behaviours (Flowers, 1998). Prostitutes meet the needs of men who otherwise do not always have women available to them. According to the functionalist theory, there are two reasons as to why prostitution exists (McGrath, 2009). The first reason is the system of sexual morality. This system condemns prostitution but at the same time unintentionally, coincidentally and ironically causes the existence of prostitution as a socialized institution. The system causes prostitution in the sense that it creates advantages for it in a few different ways. One way that the moral system creates advantages, according to the functionalists is by dividing sex into two separate types. Sex with a spouse is meaningful and involves a relationship while sex with a prostitute is simply meaningless and does not involve any type of commitment.

McGrath (2009) argues that this encourages men to find a prostitute if they want to have meaningless sex. The moral system also defines specific acts, for example anal sex and oral sex, as immoral and such acts should not be exhibited with a moral spouse. This therefore encourages men to find and immoral prostitute if they want to engage in such sexual acts. The moral system then creates a demand for such prostitution (McGrath, 2009). The functionalists suggest that prostitution has still existed widely because it does somehow serve the society. “We all have to accept that prostitute does have manifest function, and that it is a job”, says one prostitute because prostitutes make a living through the exchange. Besides, its latent function is to provide the sexual outlet for those who are not competitive in the marriage market, such as: physically handicapped, mentally handicapped, the poor … Moreover, in an exchange, the buyer‟s needs are met without any responsibility to the “seller”, (Child, 2009).

17

According to the functionalist perspective, the second reason why prostitution exists is that ironically, its function strengthens sexual morality. This means that prostitution keeps the wives and daughters of respectable men pure. Therefore, the sex industry encourages men to have sex with prostitutes for premarital, extramarital and immoral sex acts so that they do not have to perform such sexual acts with respectable women. McGrath adds on to say that because of this, the morality of society is higher. Overall, this theory of functionalism suggests that prostitution encouraged throughout society by an existing moral system and indeed serves an essential function of protecting women‟s purity.

However, Flowers (2001) critiques this theory saying that the problem with it is that it defines sexuality, morality and purity in a sexist manner. It implies that only women or prostitutes are immoral. The functionalist theory does not regard sexually immoral men in any way.

2.2.2 The Conflict Perspective

The conflict theory is a Marxist-based theory that views individuals and groups in society as having unequal amounts of resources, both material and non-material, (Gidens (2001). Because of this inequality, those who are at the bottom of the societal structures will ultimately cause a rebellion. Conflict theorist would examine how prostitution supports the status quo and propitiates inequity between powerful groups and subordinate groups. People‟s social class, race, ethnicity, gender, and age are all linked to the unequal distribution of money. That is why the majority of prostitutes are poor, female, and young. In Vietnam, Thailand and Philippine, there is a mass amount of low class citizens and they are ultimately forced to be prostitutes. Since they don‟t have any education, they do not know what to do. The only trade that they can do without education is prostitution, (Flowers (2001).Even that, when these women make their money, they are still oppressed by their pimps who take a large portion of their earnings. So the economic inequality gap is widened. The social inequality of these countries mandates that they perform sex for money continuously in order to live.Conflict theorists examine how prostitution supports the status quo and propitiates inequity between powerful groups and subordinate groups.

Conflict theory asserts that the main reason why prostitution still exists is due to the fact that women have not had access to economic opportunity and have had to rely on economic support from men. Women have had to exchange sexual availability, a resource they control forthissupport,issourcecontrolledbymen.

18

Sociologist William Thomas in "The Unadjusted Girl",(1923),saw the female prisoner as a product of innate instincts in conjunction with influences within the social environment. Thomas developed a dyadic goals-means conflict theory in which he proposed that every human (particularly prostitutes), had four basic desires:security,recognition,new experience, and response. It was the desire for new experience and response which Thomas believed most influenced female criminality. Thomas states "A woman enters prostitution to satisfy and desire for excitement and response:as a woman, prostitution in one form or another, was the most likelyy avenue to satisfy these needs”, (Farley (2004). However, critics of Thomas indicated that this sociologist was sexist because he identified females as offenders through their sexual behaviour. Some conflict theorists frame prostitution as a purely economic issue and claim that it should be decriminalized and treated solely as a labor issue, while other conflict theorists propose that prostitution uniquely affects poor women and, therefore, women of color, who are more likely to be poor than white women, (Farley (2004).

2.2.3 The Feminist Perspective

There are many feminist perspectives on the issue of prostitution. Some view it as bad for female equality but should be decriminalised, some think it should be legal and others think it should be illegal, (Weitzer (2005). According to Weitzer (2005), feminists like Pateman, Satz and Shrage think prostitution is not morally wrong, but given the current social and economic situation women are in, it continues to give women subordinate status. Other feminist outlooks against prostitution come from taking issue with heavy costs sex workers pay, like risk of violence and sexually transmitted diseases. An argument for legalising sex work is that it lets women build careers for themselves, which can help build self-esteem and empowerment.

Some feminists have the outlook that with the current way society in the United States and other countries are run, there is not a way for prostitution to be overall advantageous for women. Satz, a feminist author, quoted by Weitzer (2005), does not support prostitution, but does not think it is morally wrong. She, like many other feminists think that prostitution is negative for women because in most societies, prostitution represents women as sexual servants of men. Some feminists think that there is a direct correlation between prostitution and violence towards women (Perkins and Lovejoy (2007). Feminists fear that when women are seen as servants, men treat them even more unequally and this can lead to violence. In

19 addition to society having a worse view of women‟s worth from position, feminists also argue all the suffering individual workers go through. From a basic feminism, feminists are working towards equality with men. Feminists against prostitution argue that it leads to detrimental long term effects like depression, anxiety, trauma and self-medication through drugs, (Perkins and Lovejoy (2007).

Feminist theory looks intricately at what females experience in their lives and is helpful in explaining why women or girls may exhibit certain types of delinquent behaviours,including the act of prostitution. Marxist feminist theory is a segment of feminist theorythat concentrates on the idea that patriarchy is ever present in society. Patriarchy is a termthat is therefore best used to describe the control that men have over women, especiallywithin the household. Marxist feminists believe that many of the social problemsinvolving women originate because of patriarchal controls, (Child (2009). She goes on to say, women have to fight hard to overcome the power that men have over them in various aspects of their lives. In the past, men have often been the breadwinners within the family, while the women have traditionally been the ones who raised the children and took care of the household duties. It therefore goes without saying that women typically have had to depend on their husbands for money and subsistence. Along with the circumstances that exist within the home, survival in the work place is just as difficult for women; for instance, women are susceptible to lower paying and unsatisfyingemployment opportunities.

According to this perspective many women are involved in prostitution for a means of living. Marxist feminist theories argue that male dominance is the centre of concern because male dominance is a combination the patriarchal that exists within the home and the means of production. Patriarchy is a predominate issue here. Marxist feminists view prostitution much like the commoditisation of labour as according to the ideas of Karl Marx, (Child (2009). These individuals would also say that prostitution is not far from the labour process itself and that what these women experience on a daily basis is much like what the everyday labourer goes through.Both groups of individuals sell their bodies and whateverelse they offer to the highest bidder. Because of the increased amount of inequality that exists between men and women, women are found to be more oppressed and susceptible to jobs and positions in society that are less than desirable.

Child (2009) explains that Marxist feminism also looks at two systems that work hand in hand with eachother. The first is economy or capitalism, while the second is home life or

20 family. Both systems contain instances of patriarchy. Both of these systems are also what structure men‟s and women‟s lives. Men, however, have a sort of escape from one of these systems. Men generally go to work and earn a living wage that supports their family. Although the capitalists exploit them, men get to come home and have their wife feed them, tend their children, clean their house and please them sexually.

Feminists believe that because of the nature of oppression that women face in society, it is possible for a woman to fall prey to prostitution. She canmake three weeks pay in just a couple of nights and be home during the day to take care of her other obligations. This is a real phenomenon that transpires every day in our society because of the oppression that women experience in the labour force. Many of them cannot find employment that pays well enough to support their families and, therefore, they must find higher paying jobs even if they are not “morally” desirable, such as acts of stripping and prostitution, (Child (2009).

Anti-prostitution feminists hold that prostitution is a form of exploitation of women and male dominance over women. These feminists hold that sex work is a quintessential expression of patriarchal gender relations. The most prominent exponents of this position go further, however, claiming that exploitation, subjugation, and violence against women are intrinsic to and ineradicable from sex work, transcending historical time period, national context, and type of sexual commerce (Barry (1995).

These indictments apply equally to pornography, prostitution, stripping, and other commercial sex. In addition to these essentialist claims regarding male domination, some writers make generalizations about specific aspects of sex work: that most or all sex workers were physically or sexually abused as children; entered the trade as adolescents, around 13– 14 years of age; were tricked or forced into the trade by pimps or traffickers; use or are addicted to drugs; experience routine violence from customers; labour under abysmal working conditions; and desperately want to exit the sex trade (Farley 2004, Raymond 1998).

They believe that prostitution is a practice which is there as a result of the existing patriarchal societal order, (Castle and Lee (2000). These feminists argue that prostitution has a very negative effect both on the prostitutes themselves and on society as a whole. They believe it reinforces stereotypical views about women who are seen as sex objects which can be used and abused by men. Other feminists hold that prostitution and other forms of sex work can be valid choices for women and men who choose to engage in it. In this view, prostitution must be differentiated from forced prostitution and feminists should support sex worker activism

21 against abuses by both men and the legal system, (Taylor (2001). Most feminist thinkers do not agree on their views on the issue of prostitution.

According to the feminists, the functionalist theory simply promotes a sexist society in the sense that men‟s sexual behaviour does not threaten moral order; only female sexual promiscuous behaviour affects society, (Castle and Lee (2000). Feminists believe that this theory reflects the gender stratified society in which men exploit and dominate women. According to the feminist theory, functionalists encourage such acts of prostitution by creating both a supply and a demand. Perkins and Lovejoy (2007), suggest that feminist theorists believe that prostitution reinforces patriarchy because prostitutes convey the message that they can be both bought and used as an object. They go on to say that it is gender inequality that ultimately encourages prostitution. Both of these theories have logical and probable points or aspects included within their perspectives.

2.3Global Overview of Prostitution

In his studyRhaka (2007) shows that the laws on prostitution vary considerably around the world. They can vary from total prohibition of the sale and purchase of sexual services, bans on either, regulation to varying extent of some or all aspects, to minimal regulation or restriction of any activity. Even when the sale or purchase is legal, prohibiting some or all of the activities necessary to work such as communicating between worker and client (soliciting), working from premises (brothel or bawdy-house), and involvement of third parties (managers, drivers, security) produces a prohibition.

The most common legal system in the European Union is that which allows prostitution itself (the exchange of sex for money) but prohibits associated activities (brothels, pimping).In Sweden, Norway and Iceland it is illegal to pay for sex (the client commits a crime, but not the prostitute).In the United Kingdom, it is illegal to pay for sex with a prostitute who has been "subjected to force" and this is a strict liability offense (clients can be prosecuted even if they did not know the prostitute was forced), but prostitution itself is legal. The enforcement of the anti-prostitution laws varies by country. One example is Belgium, in which brothels are illegal, but in practice, they are tolerated, operate quite openly, and in some parts of the country, the situation is similar of that in neighbouringNetherlands. Prostitution is illegal in most of the ex-communist countries of Eastern Europe. Here, prostitution was outlawed by

22 the former communist regimes, and those countries chose to keep it illegal even after the fall of the Communists. In Hungary, however, prostitution is legal and regulated, (UN (2012)

2.4Prostitution in Africa

Prostitution in Africa is illegal in most countries. Nevertheless, it is frequently common in practice, driven by the widespread poverty in many sub-Saharan African countries, and is one of the drivers for the prevalence of HIV/ AIDS in Africa (36.9% in sub-Saharan Africa). Social breakdown caused by civil war or economic collapse in several African countries has caused further increases in the rate of prostitution in those countries, (UN Report (2012).

Transactional sexual relationshipsare particularly common in sub-Saharan Africa, where they often involve relationships between older men and younger women or girls. In many cases, the woman in a transactional sexual relationship may remain faithful to her boyfriend, while he may have multiple sexual partners. In other cases, the woman may have multiple partners. In both of these cases, transactional sex presents an increased risk of HIV infection. As a result, transactional sex is a factor involved in the spread of AIDS in Africa, (UN (2012).

2.4.1Prostitution in Southern Africa

In most Southern African countries, prostitution is illegal. In South Africa, there have been calls for decriminalisation by many feminist groups and discussions have been underway to consider this since 1994, (Rhaka (2012). It Botswana, it is also illegal but nevertheless there. In Zimbabwe, it is also illegal and is high in most border towns, growth points, farms and mines. It is one of the major factors that contributed to the rapid spread of HIV/AIDS in the late 1990s, (Rhaka (2012).

23

2.5Summary

This chapter focused on a number of issues pertaining to prostitution. It provided literature on some of the causes of prostitution raised by various authors. The chapter also looked at the main sociological perspectives and their views on the factors leading women into prostitution. It also showed prostitution rates and situations from a global, continental and regional point of view.

24

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses the research methodology employed in this research, the research design used in the study, the research instruments and data collection and analysis procedures that are going to be used in this research.

3.1 Research design

Nachmias et al (1994:97) defined a research design as the program that guides the researcher in the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting observations. In this regard, it follows that a research design provides a strategic programme by which the researcher is guided in his / her attempts to analyze and interpret the observed facts. Similarly Frankel and Wallen (2005:23), say that a research design „specifies the most adequate operations to be performed to test specific hypothesis under given conditions‟. One may suggest that this plan is followed by the researcher and may include certain key issues like who will be studied, and the procedures to be employed.

Latif and Maunganidze (2003) note that, the research design is the key to obtaining valid and reliable information for decision making, which is the most important purpose of a research. This research will employ both qualitative and quantitative methods of study. Qualitative research will enable the researcher to conduct interviews and observations. Quantitative design will allow the researcher to present data in form of graphs and tables. However, qualitative methods will be mostly used in conducting the research.

3.2 Target population

Population is defined by Best and Khan (1993) as any group of individuals that have one or more characteristics that are of interest to the researcher. In thisstudy the population targeted werewomen between the ages of 15-40 in Mutasa District of Manicaland province whom the researcher would be able to find. Hauna Growth Point was easily accessible to the researcher and prostitution is rife in that area as compared to the other growth points in the same

25 district.Three key informants would be interviewed, one police officer, a community health worker and a night club operator.

3.3 Sample size

A sample of 20 was to be selected who were involved in the sex trade at HaunaGowth Point. The researcher chose 20 because it is not easy to find prostitutes, hence a large number may not be attainable. Three key informants would be interviewed as well.

From the 20 selected, the researcher managed to find 17 making the response rate 85%. All key informants where found making the response rate 100%. The total response rate was therefore 87%.

3.4 Sampling technique

The sampling technique used in this study was the snowballing technique at Hauna Growth Point. This is so because it is not easy to find a group of prostitutes as it is a sensitive issue in most societies, associated with crime. So the use of snowballing would enable the researcher to locate respondents by referrals. The key informants would be identified using convenience sampling and judgemental sampling. Key informants are those other people within the research area that can provide information needed by the researcher apart from the primary respondents.Castillo (2009), states that convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher. This sampling technique would be used for key informants. In this type, selections were made based on the convenience to the researcher.

3.5 Research Instruments

3.5.1 Interviewer Administered Questionnaire

This researcher would make use of in-depth interviews using the interviewer administered questionnaire to the primary respondents. Twumasi (1993) defines interviews as a method of field investigation in which the researcher meets his or her respondents and through the interaction he or she asks specific questions to find answers to the research problem. This method is most effective in situations where the respondent is willing to talk and have enough

26 knowledge of the research problem. Ghosh (1992) credited the method as the best method of collecting data from semi-illiterate people. The interviewer can assess the mood of the respondents and can appraise validity and credibility of the answers. According to Twumasi (1993), the interviewer will also be in a position to check his data and observe what is actually going on.

Interviewing is useful in that questions are asked, feedback is provided and within a relaxed atmosphere, information is sought and checked. Babbie (1989) also posited that interview surveys typically attain higher response rate compared to mail surveys. Respondents seem more reluctant to ignore an interviewer who is closer to them than they are to throw away a mail questionnaire.

3.5.2 Interview Guides

These will be used to direct the research on questions to ask key informants. The guides would provide guidelines on the key issues that the researcher intended to find out from the study.

3.6 Data Analysis and Presentation

Nichols (1998:104) states that data analysis as a process of systematically searching and arranging the interview transcripts and other materials that the researcher accumulates to increase his/ her understanding of them and enable him/her to present what he/she would have discovered to them. Data analysis involves classifying data, development of themes, interpretation and forming propositions.Data analysis is unlocking information hidden in a raw data and transforming it into something meaningful(Monette et al, 1990).Qualitative and quantitative techniques such as frequency tables, bar graphs and pie charts would be used in presentation of data. This will enable the investigator to note how much a particular characteristic will have appeared in the study. The basic steps in data analysis process consists of identifying issues, determining the availability of suitable data and evaluating, summarising and communicating the results.

27

3.7 Ethical Issues

3.7.1Informed Consent

A written informed consent would be obtained from all study participants and for those not able to read and write, the informed consent form would be read out to them and they would be assisted to use a thumb print for their signature. Participants were to be informed about the specific nature of the project including any potential risks and how their participation would contribute to project goals.

3.7.2 Confidentiality

Confidentiality was to be maintained throughout data throughout data collection, management and writing up. Participant‟s names would not be used for any documentation.

3.7.3 Protection of participants

Participants would be protected from any physical and mental harm during the investigation, participants would not be exposed to risks greater than or additional to those encountered in their normal life styles.

3.8 Limitations

There are limitations to the study. The researcher will be working on a small budget which may not be flexible enough for effective data collection. Another limitation is that the attitude of the respondents may hinder effective data collection which may affect the results.

3.9 Delimitations

The study will look at the causes of prostitution but will not address the effects. Furthermore, since the study is confined to one area, it will not address prostitution in other areas.

28

3.10 Chapter Summary

The chapter presented the research design and identified the sampling methods and research instruments that will be used in the study. The reasons for their use were explained. The targeted population was identified as well as procedures for data collection. It also provides the sample to be chosen, the limitations of the study and the delimitations as well.

29

CHAPTER 4

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction

This chapter provides a presentation, analysis and discussion of the data collected in this research through interviews administered to the primary respondents and key informants in the form of questionnaires and interview guides.

4.1 Demographic profile of respondents

4.1.1 Age category by number of respondents

Table 4.1

Age range Frequency Percentage 15-20 3 18% 20-25 8 47% 25-30 4 23% 30-35 1 6% 35-40 1 6% Total 17 100%

The table above shows the age ranges of the primary respondents who participated in the study. The targeted population was women of ages between 15 and 40. From the table, 3 respondents were between the ages of 15 and 20; 8 were between 20 and 25, 4 were between 25 and 30 years whilst 2 respondents were aged between 30 and 40.

30

4.1.2 Age at starting prostitution.

Table 4.2

Age range Frequency

Below 15 3

15-20 10

20-25 2

25-30 2

Total 17

4.2 Factors that cause prostitution.

4.2.1 Unemployment.

4.2.1.1 Employment and Prostitution

Fig 1

From the total 17 primary respondents interviewed, 12 of them (70%) blamed unemployment as their major reason for indulging in prostitution. This supports the notion suggested by Agustin (2007) that many young women engage in prostitution as a way of accessing

31 resources for survival. From the study, the researcher found out that most of the women involved in prostitution are in for survival. They do not only get money in return for sexual pleasure but they also get other benefits such as groceries, blankets and uniforms for their children.

Hauna growth point is situated in a mountainous terrain in which agriculture is hard to practice. The main agricultural activity that the people do is cultivating bananas for sale. However, due to the availability of water in the area, bananas grow so well such that they do not produce much money because the market will be overcrowded and the jobs are not available on the market.

4.2.1.2 Education as a factor hindering employment.

Fig 2

Education has an effect on the rate of unemployment in any given society. Of all the 17 respondents interviewed, only 6 (35%) had attained ordinary level whom according to the researcher‟s definition of education, can be said to have been educated. The extent to which the people of that society are educated determines their chances of securing good jobs on the job market. Although unemployment is mainly as a result of the economic state of a country, education also plays an important role in that when the economy stabilizes and jobs become

32 available, it is usually the educated who would be marketable.Most respondents confessed to have not attained their ordinary level due to unavailability of resources.

Snow and Anderson (1993) argue that the reason why most women turn to selling sex is because of the existing obstacles to normal work. In this case, the obstacles include lack of education to obtain formal employment and the state of the economy that is not conducive for job creation. The findings from the study reveal that most of the women involved in sex trade are not educated. As a result, they cannot secure formal jobs so they turn to prostitution as means of survival.

The research findings reveal that most of the women have been to school for short periods and were forced to quit school due to various reasons such as financial constraints. Rhaka (2007), postulates that in developing countries sex workers usually join prostitution because of poverty. Some of the women confessed to being in formal employment but not getting enough money for survival, hence supporting Rhaka‟s ideas on poverty being the prime drive into prostitution in developing countries.

And even if they are, the money is not enough to sustain them and the work available requires high manual labour such as harvesting trees in estates and farms, which the women say they are not willing to do.

The United Nations Office of the Coordination Humanitarian Affairs [UNOCHA], (2008) indicated thatout of Zimbabwe‟s 12 million people, only 480,000 were formally employed in 2008 down from 3,6 million in 2003. This clearly shows that the high rate of unemployment in the country is one of the major reasons why young women are indulging in prostitution. The few women that the researcher interviewed that were in formal employment also argued that the money they were getting through formal employment was not enough to sustain them and their families, hence selling sex enables them to make an extra buck to sustain them. At times the sex workers also get payment in form of groceries which puts them at an advantage as compared to those in formal employment who need to balance their money between groceries and rents.

33

4.3 Losing a spouse

Fig 3

From the total number of respondents, that is 17, which the researcher interviewed, 7 (41%) of the respondents seemed to suggest the fact that losing a spouse due to death or divorce/separation pushed them into prostitution.

4.3.1 Table showing loss of spouse due to death, separation or never married.

Table 4.6

Frequency Percentage Lost spouse to death 2 12% Lost to divorce/separation 5 29% Never married 10 59% Total 17 100%

According to the Women‟s Support Project (2006), loss of a spouse can also factor one into prostitution. They argue that some women join prostitution as a means for survival and as a lack of alternatives after the death of a spouse.

This contention rather links to the notion of poverty as the main drive behind resorting to prostitution. The women interviewed confessed to have run out of options after losing their

34 spouses through death and having been rejected by the spouse‟s relatives for reasons of being suspected for killing their son. With five children to feed, one of the women argued that she had no choice as she was uneducated and had never worked anywhere before. Prostitution was the only way out.

The woman went on to say that she did not begin prostitution on a fulltime basis but started by having casual lovers who would buy her groceries and help sustain her children. However, as time went by she began to have more than one lover at a time to be able to secure enough money for supporting her children until she has now fully joined prostitution fulltime. These cases support the Women‟s Support Project report (2006) that suggested that most women who resort to prostitution after losing their spouse would have been rejected by their husbands‟ families.

Hughes (2004) believes that some women who would have lost their spouses resort to prostitution due to loneliness and boredom. However, in this study, none of the respondents seemed to have joined prostitution to attract men. One of the women actually noted that she was not interested in getting married again because of the heartbreak she had gotten from the husband‟s early death and the treatment from his relatives. Thus in Zimbabwe, most women who lose their spouses resort to prostitution as a result of poverty and desperation. Hughes‟s idea may be practical in the western world where economies are more developed than in developing countries like Zimbabwe.

4.4 Physical and emotional abuse as a cause for prostitution

Fig 4

35

29% of the respondents interviewed suggested reasons pointing at abuse from young ages as their reasons for prostitution. The interviews revealed that most of them lost their parents at young ages and were left under the care of relatives who ended up abusing them. They confessed to have run away from home in a bid to find solace somewhere else and escape the abuse.

4.4.1 Sexual abuse as a factor causing prostitution

Fig 5

3 (60%) of the 5 respondents who had confessed to have run away from home due to abuse, revealed that they had run away from home at ages as young as 14 because they had been sexually abused. One of them said she had been raped by her uncle who she had been left to stay with after the death of her parents. She had run away to an aunt‟s place who took her back to the uncle‟s place in a bid to settle the matter. However, the situation became even worse afterwards and she ran away from the village to the growth point where she worked in a bar as a helper and ended up sexually entertaining clients in exchange for money. And that is how she became a professional prostitute.

The other respondents also gave reasons around being sexually abused which led them to developing negative attitudes towards themselves and they confessed to have lost a sense of

36 self esteem and started living anyhow. Mitchell and Smith (2008) argue that most young girls who are into prostitution run away from home because of abuse. They go on to say that most of the children are abused by members outside the immediate family and that only 2% of them have both natural parents alive.The person left to care for them is often unwilling or incapable of doing so hence the children end up being overburdened with domestic work and emotionally abused.

The Honde Valley area where Hauna Growth point is located was badly hit by the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the late 1990s. As a result, most people died living their children as orphans and the area has many orphans. All the respondents who confessed to have been influenced by abuse to join prostitution confessed to have lost both parents to HIV/AIDS and had to drop out of school because there was no money to continue with their education.

4.4.2 Emotional abuse as a factor driving young girls into prostitution

PLAN (2010), add on to the notion of child emotional abuse as leading to prostitution. They argue that many times the abuse that parents and other family members within the household inflict on children may be emotional. They explain that cruel words are a much more subtle form of abuse and when they are constant, children are likely to lack the chance to develop self esteem. Words that are discouraging, they explain, such as saying that one is stupid, is a failure or unwanted, lead those children to believe that they are just as said. Mobaraki and Solderfeldt (2010) wrote that children are more responsive to what they hear than what they see. They added on to say that once children are labelled, they begin to act towards fulfilling the label.

Some of the respondents revealed that they were verbally abused to the extent that they developed low self esteem and where at times told that they were going to die of HIV like their parents. Such words destroy a child‟s esteem and cause the child to develop psychological problems.

In Zimbabwe, the high value of family and the cultural belief against adoption places responsibility of children under the family and community. The Children‟ Act chapter 5.06 has a six tier child protection system that starts from the nucleus family to the extended family and the community. Fostering, adoption and institutional care are the last options because culturally, the Zimbabwean society does not believe much in adoption and

37 institutional care. Hence when parents die, the extended family and the community in which they lived is given the upper hand and expectation to look after the children left.

At times, the relatives given the duty may not be willing and may lack the capacity to care for the children but will be left without a choice. This is the reason why most children are abused.

4.5 Summary of chapter.

This chapter presented the research findings in graphs, charts and tables. It provided an analysis and a discussion of the findings.

38

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

The following chapter provides the summary of the study conducted, the conclusions drawn from the research and the recommendations that the researcher has for future development.

5.2 Summary

This study was carried out to investigate the causes of prostitution in Zimbabwe among women. The research objectives wereto determine if unemployment is a cause of prostitution, to examine if losing a spouse has any impact on the growth of prostitution, to investigate if physical and emotional abuse is a cause of prostitution, to identify the extent to which women engage in prostitution for fun and to determine if other women indulge in prostitution as a result of peer pressure. The main reason why this study was undertaken was to understand the reasons for prostitution and to determine the possible solutions to the problem from an understanding of its causes.

The study reviewed literature on the causes of prostitution brought forward by other various authors to determine what other people think are the causes of prostitution. It also provided theoretical arguments towards the causes of prostitution. A global, continental and regional overview of prostitution was also highlighted in the study to determine the rates of prostitution in other parts of the world.

This research was achieved by selecting a sample of twenty women aged between 15 and 45 from Huana growth point in Mutasa district situated in the Manicaland Province. The research designs used was qualitative as well as quantitative. Snowballing was the research method used to identify potential respondents and questionnaire administered interviews were administered to the respondents. 3 key informants comprising of a night club operator, a village health worker and a police officer. Data collected was presented, analysed and discussed in the study.

39

5.3 Conclusions

5.3.1 Unemployment.

The research findings revealed that unemployment was is the major factor pushing women into prostitution in Zimbabwe. More than half of the respondents are uneducated and have failed to secure good jobs. Those who are educated at least up to the Ordinary level complained of the unavailability of jobs suitable for their qualification on the market.

5.3.2 Loss of spouse.

Losing a spouse proved also to be a contributing factor towards prostitution as revealed by the study. Findings showed that more than half of the women had lost spouses either to separation/divorce or death and had been left with children to support but with no source of income to sustain them, thus resorting to prostitution as a major income generator.

5.3.3 Physical and emotional abuse.

The researcher concluded that child abuse has negative effects on the growth of children and helps to shape who they become in life. Findings revealed that a significant number of respondents had been abused to the extent of running away from home in search of solace which ended them in prostitution out of desperation.

5.4Recommendations

The researcher came up with the following recommendations to help solve the problem of prostitution:

5.4.1 Creation of employment.

There is need for the government to develop income generating projects that are directly aimed at promoting women in prostitution. The government may also focus on providing vocational training to these women and provide jobs for them after completion of the training. Encourage small to medium enterprise development in rural areas to avoid rural to urban migration.

40

5.4.2 Develop counselling programmes.

There is need to stop addressing prostitution from a criminal perspective but as a social problem brought forward by economic hardships and understand the sex workers‟ point of view to help end the problem.Develop programmes in which counselling services may be offered to sex workers to make them realise the effects of their practice on themselves and in society as a whole.

5.4.3 Child welfare

The government through the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare should ensure the welfare of children living in the rural areas to reduce child sexual and emotional abuse which pushes young girls into prostitution.

5.4 Areas for further study.

This research only looked at the causes of prostitution and there is need to also identify the effects of prostitution and even the challenges that sex workers face. To increase the knowledge bank, research on how the sex workers operate can also shed light on this „industry‟ and help determine way forward to end it.

5.5 Summary

This chapter provided the summary of the study, the conclusions, recommendations and area of study.

41

REFERENCES

Abbott SA. (2000): Motivations for pursuing an acting career in pornography, London Polity Press

Adler F. (2001): Sisters in Crime, New York, McGraw-Hill

Agustín LM. (2007):Sex at the Margins: Migration, Labour, and the Rescue Industry, London: Zed

Bales D.(1999):Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy, Los Angeles: University of California Press Berkeley.

Bernstein E. (2007):Temporarily Yours: Intimacy, Authenticity, and the Commerce of Sex, Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press

Barry K. (1995) The Prostitution of Sexuality, New York: N. Y. Univ. Press

Bowe J. (2003): “Nobodies: Does Slavery Exist in America”, The New Yorker.

Brooks-Gordon B. (2006):The Price of Sex: Prostitution, Policy, and Society, Portland,

Brennan D. (2004):What's Love Got to Do with It? Transnational Desires and Sex Tourism in the Dominican Republic, Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press

Bracey L,(2006): Why Prostitution? College Press, Chicago, Illinois, INC

Child S. (2009): Empirically Examining Prostitution from a Feminist Perspective, Utah State University, Utah

Castle T, Lee J. (2008):Ordering sex in cyberspace: a content analysis of escort websites.Int. J. Cult. Stud. 11:107–21

Dara Drug and Alcohol Rehabilitation Centre (2012) :Report on Substance Abuse, India

DeMarco J. (2007): Power and control in gay strip clubs.J. Homosex. 53:111–27

Dworkin A. (1981):Pornography: Men Possessing Women. New York: Putnam

Farley M. (2004):Bad for the body, bad for the heart: prostitution harms women even if legalized or decriminalized.Violence Against Women 10:1087–1125

xii

Flowers, R. B. (2001):“Runaway Kids and Teenage Prostitution: America’s Lost, Abandoned and Sexually Exploited Children.” Westport, CT, Greenwood Press.

Flowers, RB, (1998): Teenage Prostitution, Westport, Greenwood Press

Giddens A. (2001): Sociology Themes and Perspectives, UK, McGrall Hill

Giddens A, (1989): Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, UK McGrall Hill Press

Hirschi T. (1969):The professional prostitute.Berkeley J. Sociol. 7:33–49

Hughes J, (2004): Understanding the Nature of Human Behaviour, Cambridge University Press, UK

Human Rights Practices Report (2011), Liberia

Kenned O, (2007): Afflicted, Unemployed and Desperate Populations, Polity Press

Legal Dictionary (2013), Chicago Press, USA

McGrath U, (2009): Sex Workers, Reasons and Struggles, Houston University Press, Texas

Merriam Webster Dictionary (2013), Polity Press

Mitchell K, Smith L, (2008): Behaviour Changes, Southern California, Polity Press

Mobaraki S, Solderfeldt D, (2010) :Prostitution On The Rise, Indiana, Falcon Press

New Zealand Justice and Electoral Committe (2001) Report on Human Rights

Parish C. (2013) :The Science Of Human Behaviour, USA, New Jersey Publishers

PLAN International (2010): Behaviour modification campaign report

Potterat, J, Phillips, L, William D, and Rothenberg R. (1998): “On Becoming a Prostitute: An Exploratory Case-Comparison Study.” The Journal of Sex Research. 21:329-335.

Perkins R, Lovejoy F. (2007):Call Girls: Private Sex Workers in Australia. Crawley: Univ. W. Aust. Press

Raymond JG. (1998): Prostitution as violence against women. Women's Stud. Int. Forum 21:1–9

Rhaka M. (2007): Prostitution in Africa, An In-depth Overview, Morales Press, Kenya

xiii

Snow DA, Anderson L. (1993):Down on Their Luck: A Study of Homeless Street People. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press

StudyMode.com (2008)

Taylor JS. (2001):Dollars are a girl's best friend: female tourists' sexual behavior in the Caribbean.Sociology 35:749–64

The Botswana Gazette (2012)

UNOCHA (2008) Report on Zimbabwean economic status

UNICEF (2001): Protecting children from sexual abuse

UN (2012)

World Bank Development Report (2004): Making Services Work for Poor People.

World Health Organisation (2012)

Weitzer R, (2005): Sociology Of Sex Work,Department of Sociology, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052; email: [email protected]

ZIMDIASPORA (2012)

Zimbabwe Poverty Assessment Study (1995)

Zimbabwe Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, (2002)

xiv

Appendix 1

Questionnaire for women in sex work

My name is Rumbidzai Nheweyembwa. I am a fourth year Social Work student at Bindura University of Science Education. It is a requirement of every student to undertake a social research as part of the training program. Hence I am carrying out a study on the causes of prostitution in Zimbabwe. My case study is Hauna Growth Point in Mutasa District, Manicaland Province.

Please be informed that this research is for academic purposes only and all the information to be gathered will be kept confidential and no names will be mentioned in any part of the study. Participation is voluntary and you are free to withdraw from the study at any time you wish. The interview will take 25 minutes.

Section A

1. How old are you?

15-25 26-35 36-45

2. Have you ever been to school? Yes No

(a) Up to what level did you attend school? ......

(b) What hindered you from attaining education (if never been to school or dropped

out)......

......

3. Are you in formal employment? Yes No

(a) If no, have you ever worked? Yes No

(b) If yes, why did you leave formal employment? ......

4. Why did you decide to join prostitution? ......

......

5. How old were you when you began prostitution? ......

xv

6. Has your life improved since you started prostitution? Yes No

7. How much money do you make per week? ......

8. Is the money enough to sustain you? Yes No

Section B

9. Are you married? Yes No

10. Have you ever been married? Yes No

11. If yes, how many times have you been married? ......

12. What happened to your spouse? Divorced Died Separated

13. If died, did that contribute to your joining prostitution? Yes No

14. Do you have children? Yes No

(a) How many?

......

(b) Are your children going to school? Yes No

Section C

15. Did you grow up under the care of both parents?

Both One None

16. Did you ever face any form of abuse whilst you were growing up? Yes No

(a) Describe the abuse......

......

(b) Did the abuse contribute to your becoming a prostitute? Yes No

17. Did you run away from home? Yes No

18. How old were you when you ran away from home? ......

Section D

xvi

19. How do you feel about what you do? ......

20. Do you ever wish to quit prostitution? Yes No

21. Have you everbeen tested for HIV/AIDS? Yes No

22. If yes, did you test positive (optional to answer)? Yes No

23. Have you ever been treated for any STI/STDs? Yes No

24. Have you ever been abused by a client? Yes No

Section D

25. Did anyone pressure you to join prostitution? Yes No

26. What caused you to consider prostitution? ......

......

27. If yes, what was your relationship with that person? ......

28. Do you have clients arranged for you? Yes No

29. Have you ever been in trouble with the police? Yes No

30. If yes, how many times? ......

xvii

Appendix 2

Interview guide for key informants

My name is Rumbidzai Nheweyembwa. I am a fourth year Social Work student at Bindura University of Science Education. It is a requirement of every student to undertake a social research as part of the training program. Hence I am carrying out a study on the causes of prostitution in Zimbabwe. A case study of Hauna Growth Point in Mutasa district.

Please be informed that this research is for academic purposes only and all the information to be gathered will be kept confidential and no names will be mentioned in any part of the study. Participation is voluntary and you are free to withdraw from the study at any time you wish. The interview will take 15 minutes

Section A

The following are questions applicable to every one:

1. What do you think are the causes of prostitution in this area? 2. In your on view, what is the average age range of the women who are engaging in prostitution here? 3. What is the major source of income here? 4. Are there any employment creation activities in the district? 5. What is being done to address the issue of prostitution in this area?

Section B

Health Workers

1. Do some of the prostitutes come to seek medical assistance? 2. Between 2009 and 2012 how many of the sex workers that you know gave birth here? 3. What is the rate of the spread of HIV/AIDS here?

xviii

4. Do you think that prostitution has a bearing on the HIV/AIDS rate? 5. What reasons do these women give for prostituting? Police officer 1. Do you often conduct raids of prostitutes in thus area? 2. If yes, how often? 3. What reasons do they give for what they do when you catch them? 4. Does penalizing them reduce the situation? 5. Do you think criminalizing prostitution will end it in the long run? 6. If no, what are your suggestions towards ending the problem?

Night club operator 1. Do some of the prostitutes operate in your bar? 2. How do they start and usually at what ages? 3. What do you think can be done to stop this problem in your area?

xix