Dissertation Report

SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS LEADING TO THE RISE OF CHILD

PROSTITUTION: The case of Jerera Growth Point from 2014 to 2016 (after the Tokwe-

Mkosi disaster).

MUNZWA PATIENCE B1336486 SUPERVISOR MS CHIGONDO

BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

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A Research Project Submitted In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Bachelor of Science Honors Degree in Social Work, Department of Social Work, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities

MAY 2017 APPROVAL FORM

Supervisor

I certify that I supervised Munzwa Patience in carrying out this research titled Socio economic factors leading to the rise of child prostitution: The case of Jerera Growth Point from 2014 to 2016 (after the Tokwe-Mkosi disaster) in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Social Work Honours Degree and recommend that it proceeds for examination.

Supervisor Name…………………………………………..Signature……………………….Date……

Chairman of the Department Board of Examiners The department board of examiners is satisfied that this dissertation report meets the examination requirements and therefore I recommend to Bindura University to accept a research project by Munzwa Patience titled Socio economic factors leading to the rise of child prostitution: The case of Jerera Growth Point from 2014 to 2016 (after the Tokwe- Mkosi disaster) in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Social work Honours Degree.

Chairperson Name…………………………………………Signature……………………...Date………

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DECLARATION AND RELEASE FORM

I, Munzwa Patience studying for the Bachelor of Social work Honours Degree, cognizant of the fact that plagiarism is a serious academic offence and that falsifying information is a breach of the ethics in Social Work research, truthfully declare that:

1. The dissertation report titled; Socio economic factors leading to the rise of child prostitution: The case of Jerera Growth Point from 2014 to 2016 (after the Tokwe-Mkosi disaster) is a result of my own work and has not been plagiarized.

2. I have followed research ethics required in persuit of Social Work research.

I grant permission to the University to use this research report for educational purposes.

Student Name…………………………….Signature……………..Date………………

Permanent home address Mutsambwa Primary School

P. Bag 9138

Masvingo

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DEDICATION

This research project is dedicated to my loving parents Elisha and Rumbidzai Munzwa who provided me with resources to use during the study. Their support, love and encouragement made my life easier; I love you so much, I pray that God guide them through their life endeavours such that they achieve that which they have always wanted.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply indebted to my family for the immeasurable support that they gave me throughout the time up to the completion of my Research project, starving their selves just so I could get all that I needed.

Special mention goes to my supervisor Ms Chigondo for the support and guidance she gave me throughout the Research project. Her commitment towards her work and mine greatly contributed to the completion of my Research project.

Above all, I give glory unto the Almighty for without him, I would not have been, for all things are made through him.

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ABSTRACT

The study focused on unravelling socio economic factors leading to the rise of child prostitution in Jerera after the Tokwe-Mkosi Disaster. The study established why children are engaging in commercial sex work, established the effects of child prostitution to the children and to the community of Jerera and identified ways to minimize child prostitution. The study was both qualitative and quantitative and used questionnaires and interviews for data collection. The study targeted 80 children practising prostitution in Jerera and 12 key informants. A sample of 15 children and 6 key informants was targeted; however 14 children and 5 key informants finally participated due to time and some children did not want to reveal information. The study findings revealed that poor economic and social conditions, family disorganization, negative impacts of a disaster have led children into prostitution. This has affected their social life, physical health, mental and psychological health and has increased the crime rate in the community. The strategies revealed in the study to address child prostitution include reunification to the family members, skills training and vocational training. The study recommends enforcement and monitoring of the formulated legislative laws to protect children, a multi sectoral approach to ensure protection of young girls, the social workers to advocate for the rights of the children. The early warning systems should also be made effective so as to reduce the impacts of the disasters.

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

ACERW………………African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child

CEDAW……………...Committee on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women

DCPC………………....District Child Protection Committee

ICRW………………....International Centre for Research on Women

ILO…………………... International Labor Organization

NGOs…………………Non-Governmental Organizations

UNCRC……………….United Nations Convention on the Rights of Children

UNFPA………………..United Nations Fund for Population Activities

UNICEF……………… United Nations Children’s Education Fund

WHO…………………..World Health Organization

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Table of Contents APPROVAL FORM ...... ii DECLARATION AND RELEASE FORM ...... iii DEDICATION ...... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... v ABSTRACT ...... vi LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... vii TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………………..viii

List of Tables and Figures ...... x CHAPTER 1 ...... 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Background to the Study ...... 1 1.3 Statement of the Problem ...... 4 1.4 Aim ...... 5 1.5 Objectives ...... 5 1.6 Research Questions ...... 5 1.7 Significance of the Study ...... 5 1.8 Definition of Key Terms...... 6 1.9 Conclusion ...... 7 CHAPTER 2 ...... 7 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 7 2.1 Introduction ...... 7 2.2 Theoretical Framework ...... 8 2.2.1 Systems Theory ...... 8 2.2.2 Social Learning Theory ...... 8 2.3 Causes of Child Prostitution ...... 9 2.3.1 Pull factors ...... 9 2.3.2 Push factors ...... 10 2.4 Effects of Child Prostitution ...... 12 2.4.1 Negative effects to the child sex worker ...... 12

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2.4.2 Negative effects to the society ...... 15 2.5 Ways in Which Child Prostitution Can Be Minimized ...... 15 2. 6 Research Gap ...... 20 2.7 Conclusion ...... 20 CHAPTER 3: ...... 20 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 20 3.1 Introduction ...... 20 3.2 Research Design ...... 20 3.3 Study Population ...... 21 3.3.1 Study area ...... 21 3.3.2 Target population ...... 21 3.4 Sample...... 22 3.4.1 Sample size ...... 22 3.4.2 Sampling techniques ...... 22 3.5 Data Collection ...... 23 3.5.1 Data collection techniques ...... 23 3.5.2 Data collection tools...... 23 3.5.3 Data collection procedure ...... 24 3.5.4 Pretesting ...... 24 3. 6. Findings...... 25 3. 6.1 Presentation of findings ...... 25 3. 6.2 Analysis of findings ...... 25 3. 7 Ethical Issues ...... 26 3.8 Feasibility ...... 27 3.9 Delimitations ...... 28 3.10 Limitations ...... 28 CHAPTER 4 ...... 29 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION...... 29 4.1 Introduction ...... 29 4.2 Presentation and Analysis of Findings ...... 29 4.2.1 Demographic profile of respondents ...... 29 4.2.2 Causes of child prostitution in Jerera ...... 33 4.2.3 Effects of child prostitution in Jerera Growth Point ...... 41 4.2.4 What are the ways in which child profession can be minimized in Jerera ...... 46

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4.3 Conclusion ...... 49 CHAPTER 5 ...... 49 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 49 5.1 Introduction ...... 49 5.2 Summary ...... 50 5.3 Conclusions ...... 51 5.4 Recommendations ...... 53 REFERENCES: ...... 54 APPENDICES ...... 59 APPENDIX A: INFORMED CONSENT FORM ...... 59 APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR KEY INFORMANTS ...... 60 APPENDIX C: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDY PARTICIPANTS ...... 61 APPENDIX D: APPROVAL LETTER ...... 65

List of Tables and Figures Table 4.1 …………… The age and gender profile of the study participants…………………....30

Fig 4.1 ……………….Distribution of the levels of education of study participants……...31

Fig 4.2 …………….....Frequency distribution of the area of origin of victims……………32

Fig 4.3 ……………....Distribution of the level of income of the study participants………32

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction This chapter introduces the study which was carried out on the causes and effects of child prostitution. It focuses on the background to the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions, and the justification of the study. It also addresses the definition of key terms and the conclusion.

1.2 Background to the Study Prostitution has been deemed one of the oldest professions in history although it was widely viewed as a social ill (Mossman, 2005). Prostitution has been in existence since ancient history. It has been described as the world’s oldest profession. According to the United Nations (2005), child prostitution refers to the act of engaging or offering the services of a child to perform sexual acts for money or other considerations with that person or any other person.

The incidence of child prostitution is most prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa followed by Asia and the Pacific. The prevalence of child prostitution is very high in sub-Saharan Africa. About 1,2 million child prostitutes across sub-Saharan Africa, including 25 thousand in Zimbabwe engaged in child prostitution (Shelly, 2010). According to International Labor Organization (ILO) (2012), Asia and the Pacific are the regions with a large number of child prostitutes. India has the largest number of children in the world.

Haralambos and Holborn (2008) argue that society was patriarchal throughout history. A patriarchal society is a society dominated by men in the sense that men possess the economic and legal power (Haralambos and Holborn, 2008). Women were viewed as property of men in a patriarchal society. Thus, men demanded prostitution because they had a belief that they have right to sex from women and female children. The outcasts and the social misfits were the only people who were found practising prostitution in the ancient times. Nonetheless, women could meet this male demand as they often decide to engage into prostitution. Women engaging into prostitution usually were of different ages but above ages of being under custody of parents. However, this was as a result of lack of employment and financial resources offered for women in such a society. Women were also driven in to prostitution due to homelessness and poverty whilst some were involuntary forced into prostitution and used as tools for money making.

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Although its origins are uncertain, there is also evidence of prostitution if one is to trace the biblical texts in one of the oldest writings which is the bible. The Biblical story of Judah and Tamar (Genesis38:14-2) presents a description of prostitution being done in that period of time. In this story, the prostitute waits at the side of the highway where she waits for travellers. She covers her face in order to identify her as a prostitute. She asked to be paid in form of a kid goat instead of money. The goat was equivalent to a high price meaning that those who could afford to pay a single sexual encounter are those who were rich and owns various herds.

In a later Biblical story, in the Book of Joshua, there was a prostitute in Jericho by the name Rahab. He helped Israelite spies by giving them information about the current socio-cultural and military state of affairs. Rahab had the knowledge about these matters because of her popularity with the upper class peers. The Israelite spies guaranteed her that he would save her life and her family’s during the military invasion which was planned in return of this information. This was only done if she secretly kept the details of her contact with the Israelite spies. When the people of Israel occupied Cannan, she converted to Judaism and married a prominent member of the people.

Moreover, the Whore of Babylon is named “Babylon the Great, the Mother of Prostitutes and abominations of the Earth”, in the book of Revelations (Mossman, 2005). The first Babylonian prostitute arose from the appraised Hinchin family and was in a place called Hinchinopolises. At the time Hinchnapolis was the centre of attraction for all travellers who came to rest in the company of the family’s women, who perfected the art of satisfaction. According to Mossman (2005), Hinchin came from the Hebrew, meaning free, because the males of the family would offer themselves for free.

According to Mossman (2005), child prostitution is not a disgrace in some societies but a legitimised practise. The interpretation of prostitution varies from society to society where some people view it as an expression of sexual liberation and some view it as violence against women and children. Mossman (2005) argues that prostitution meets women’s economic needs and serves men’s sexual needs. The liberal feminists view prostitution as private business transaction (Ward and Day, 2007). On the other hand, the radical feminists view a prostitute as a human being who has been reduced to a piece of merchandise or an act of selling one’s body, in which a prostitute rents out a specific part of their bodies which is their genitals. From the view above it is assumed that the client buys sex and does not care for the sexual gratification of the sex worker but requires the sex worker to provide sexual enjoyment (Klepper, 2013).

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The liberal feminists argue that a woman has the freedom and desire to enter into sexual contracts. However, the radical feminist does not argue that it is the desire of the sex worker to enter the contract hence they see prostitution as an exploitative bond where by the client is only interested in the service from the prostitute and not her personally (Ward and Day, 2007).

On a different view, the liberal feminists’ position is responded by the Marxist feminists with a different view. They argue that prostitution signifies a corruption of wage labor, and is therefore oppressive and degrading. In contrast to the Marxist, radical and liberal feminists the existentialist feminism, also views prostitution as an avenue which allows women to escape from dependency on men in a way that does not leave them victims, but empowers women.

From a moralistic view, child prostitution is against cultural, moral standards and it results in the spread of sexually transmitted diseases such as herpes, syphilis and HIV and AIDS (Barry, 1995). More so, there are potentially hazardous objects which will be left on the ground like used condoms, syringes and other paraphernalia. Stuart (2005) argues that child prostitution is an inappropriate behavior and it also affects the society negatively by reducing property values.

According to the International Centre for Missing and Exploited Children (2013), the practice of child prostitution is most common in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Prostitution of teenagers between fourteen and seventeen years of age is also common in parts of Latin America and Eastern Europe (Sanchez, 2015).

Imelda (1995) argues that there is this notion of child prostitution as sex-work and prostitution as sexual slavery. However, United Nations Children’s Education Fund (UNICEF, 2015) alludes that child prostitution is more of just a trade between sex and money since it causes some negative effects. It results in vile acts such as crime, exploitation, drug abuse, child trafficking and violence such as murder and rape. Furthermore, child prostitution has resulted in the spread of venereal diseases all over the country. More so, prostitution of children shortens their childhood, makes severe physical and psychological health risks, and robs her of internationally recognized human rights. It also results in unwanted pregnancies which results in abortion and early child births which have severe physical and long term effects.

In African context, children who were identified as prostitutes were found but mostly among those with too much western influence, (Punch, 2006). The legal status of child prostitution in Africa differs from country to country. In most of the countries in Africa, child prostitution is prohibited because children are a protected group of population. However, prostitution of children is frequently common in practice and partially driven by the extensive poverty in many

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African countries in the sub-Sahara. This is also one of the drivers for the prevalence of AIDS in Africa as alluded by UNICEF (2015). It is viewed as an immoral and un-cultural practise in both rural and urban setups and is considered as an unacceptable behavior. The practice of child prostitution has evolved from being predominant among urban areas to compounds and rural services centres. It is argued that children have been a protected group and was not part of prostitution during this evolution.

In Zimbabwe child prostitution was an unpopular profession and this was because the Zimbabwean law restricted prostitution through various sections of the law. Marriages Act Chapter 37 now 5:11 prohibits women to solicit for sex i.e. to loiter for the purposes of prostitution and the Criminal Law (Codification and Reform) Act Chapter 9:23 Section 70 prohibits sexual intercourse of performing indecent acts with young persons. More so, Sexual Offences Act of 2001 entails that a person convicted of prostituting a child under the age of 12 years is subject to a fine of up to $6 or imprisonment of up to 7 years. The Children’s Act chapter 5:09 also protect children from all forms of exploitation and abuse.

According to UNICEF (2015), prostitution in Zimbabwe and related acts including procuring, and keeping a brothel, are illegal but thriving mainly due to famine and poor economic conditions. Mugaise (2015) further argue that in the post-independence there were major efforts to remove sex work in post-independence Zimbabwe by rounding up hundreds of women and children and detaining them till they could prove they were not involved in the trade, otherwise they were sent to resettlement camps.

Over the past few years there has been a marked rise in prostitution in both urban and rural areas in Zimbabwe which can be substantiated by newspaper reports from recent years. The dire economic and social conditions have forced many young girls into sex work. Jerera Growth Point which has seen a marked rise in prostitution between 2014 and 2016 was not spared. Conspicuously Jerera has been a fire brand of young girls who pose as prostitutes numbering to about eighty if an informal survey by the District Child Protection Committee (DCPC) would be considered. This research therefore seeks to explore the factors leading to the rise in child prostitution in Jerera and the effects which have been posed to the children in prostitution.

1.3 Statement of the Problem Child prostitution is a profession which brings guilt and shame to any society leading to discrimination, stigmatisation, and forcing some governments including Zimbabwe to adopt a

4 criminalizing approach as a means to reduce its existence. There is an increase by 30 percent in the number of girl children who are getting into prostitution before the age of 18 years irrespective of the interventions by government and other stakeholders in Zimbabwe, regionally as well as internationally (Mavhinga, 2015). Zimbabwe has enacted a deliberate policy to cater for the protection of children named the Children’s Act Chapter 5:06. While there is this deliberate attempt to protect children from all forms of harmful practices, there has been a marked rise in child prostitution in Jerera between 2014 and 2016 and this has seen a birth of a brand of young prostitutes named “Tokwe - Mkosi”. This is despite the point that child prostitution deprives girls’ rights of education and opportunities, endanger their physical as well as their mental health and increase the risk of exploitation and sexual violence (UNFPA, 2012). There is need to dig deeper why these children are engaging into prostitution while there are efforts to protect them from all forms of harmful practices.

1.4 Aim The aim of this study is to investigate into the factors causing child prostitution and the consequences of this profession with specific reference to Jerera Growth Point between 2014 and 2016 after the Tokwe - Mkosi disaster.

1.5 Objectives  To establish causes of child prostitution in Jerera.

 To explore the effects of child prostitution on the children and to the community of Jerera.

 To identify ways in which child prostitution can be minimized.

1.6 Research Questions  What are the major causes of children engaging into prostitution in Jerera?

 What are the consequences of prostitution to the children and to the community of Jerera?

 What strategies can be implemented to minimize child prostitution?

1.7 Significance of the Study Little information has been written on the issue of child prostitution particularly in rural areas like Jerera. It is therefore imperative to research on the causes and effects of child prostitution in Jerera. This study will assist the government of Zimbabwe to come up with informed programming and interventions to combat child prostitution.

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This study will also help the children, both boys and girls to appreciate the effects of child prostitution as well as rescue them from the destruction caused by child prostitution.

This study will also help other stakeholders like Department of Child Welfare, Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, Ministry of Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development and Department of Youth Development etc to direct their programming in relation to the fight against child prostitution.

It will assist policy makers and Child Protection Practitioners undertaking their work. The research will allow Child Protection Committee and policy makers to build on local customs and instructions to ensure there is sustainable child protection. Using my social work knowledge, the Department of Social Welfare will use the findings to help young girls in rural areas to find ways to help themselves at individual and community level hence girl child advancement.

The study will help to direct future researches on the topic. Nevertheless, the study is not fault- finding but seeks to provoke scholars into more enquiries pertaining to practical approaches that can be used in reducing child prostitution.

1.8 Definition of Key Terms. Child

The Convention on the Rights of the Child Article 1 defines a child as anyone below the age of 18 unless stipulated otherwise by laws applicable to the child. The African Charter on the Welfare of Children defines the same child as anyone below the age of 18. However, the cultural definition according to customary practice in Zimbabwe states that a person is regarded to still be a child if he or she remains under parental authority rather than chronological age (UNICEF, 2015). Therefore, the researcher defined a child as anyone below the age of 18.

Child Prostitution

According to the United Nations (2005), child prostitution refers to the act of engaging or offering the services of a child to perform sexual acts for money or other considerations with that person or any other person. According to the Convention on the Rights of the Child’s Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, prostitution refers to the act of obtaining, procuring or offering the services of a child or inducing a child to perform sexual acts for any form of compensation or reward. The child as

6 a victim of exploitation even if apparent consent is given is the emphasis of both definitions. Convention No 182 of the International Labor Organization (ILO) describes it as the use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution.

Sex-worker

According to The Worst Forms of Child Labor Convention (1999), sex worker is a person who performs sexual acts for any form of reward or compensation. In this study, the sex worker refers to an individual child who is involved in any sexual activity to get money or any valuable item. The other term which was used interchangeably for sex-worker is prostitute.

HIV and AIDS

HIV stands for Human Immune-Deficiency Virus and AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome and it means a person’s immune system will no longer be able to defend the body from serious infections and diseases (UNICEF, 2015).

1.9 Conclusion The introductory chapter highlighted a number of issues as far as child prostitution is concerned. Thus it focused on the background of the study, statement of the problem, aim of the study as well as its significance. Moreover, research questions were pointed out and the objectives of the study. In the chapter, the definition of key terms was addressed. The forth coming chapter is going to address the theoretical frame work and review of the relevant literature as well as different studies conducted on child prostitution globally, regionally and in Zimbabwe.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction This chapter provides a cross overview and examination of previous research findings as well as current information relating to child prostitution. The theoretical framework consists of the systems and the social learning theory in explaining the causes of child prostitution. The chapter will also review the literature relating to each objective in the study and will critically evaluate the writings of the previous studies uncovering the strengths, weaknesses and the gaps

7 which the current research seeks to fill. The chapter will also discuss child prostitution globally, regionally and in Zimbabwe. The conclusion has been included to give the summary of the whole chapter.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.2.1 Systems Theory Systems approach provides a wide spectrum of issues that explain child prostitution through various systems within the society. Thus, it views child prostitution from the cultural system, religious system and the political system. Haralambos and Holborn (2008) define a system as an organised whole made of components that interact in a manner distinct from their interaction with their entities that endures over some period of time. According to Bateson (2003), systems theory is an interdisciplinary theory about the nature of complex systems in nature, society and science and is a framework by which one can investigate or describe a group of objects that work together to produce some results. The proponent of the theory (Parsons, 1951) views the ecological environment as a product of the environment. This means that human development is profoundly influenced by the events and activities occurring in settings which a person is staying.

Divorce or home broken up by death of one or both of parents by prolong illness or insanity, desertion or rejection may make it difficult for the children to have any parental affection, guidance and discipline. When family bond is disturbed, this inevitably affects children from the normal setup and the obvious state of their environment. Girls raised under such families usually fall into prostitution due to unhappy environment at home. More so, within the context of a family especially single headed families, the single parent left might have engaged in prostitution as a survival means and hence development of a culture of prostitution as a survival strategy which also lead the young generation of girl to engage into prostitution as their survival strategy.

2.2.2 Social Learning Theory The social learning theory views child prostitution from the learning perspectives where by the children practising child prostitution learn it from others through various learning platforms and methods. According to Bandura (1997), people learn through observing other’s behavior, attitudes and outcomes of those behaviors. More so, it is argued that most human behavior is learned observationally through modelling (Bandura, 1973). Modelling involves a socialization process in which the language, mores, vocational activities, educational, religious and practises

8 of culture taught to each new member through reinforcement. For people to learn they must be in a position to perform responses displayed through reinforcement. Holt (2008) posits that prostitution is learned behavior for both girls and boys hence girls and boys who grew in households where their parents or one of their parents were doing prostitution are more likely to normalise prostitution later in their lives.

More so, according to Bandura (1997), the learning is associated with the attention process and the retention process. On the attention process a person cannot learn much by observation if he or she does not attend to or recognises the essential features of the model’s behavior. Retention process is of the idea that the person may not be influenced by the model’s attitudes without memorising such behavior. Therefore, the learning process should have attention and retention to have an impact. The social learning however, focuses on learning of behavior without considering the aspect of economic and other social issues that cannot be learned but that are caused due to situation such as poverty and unequal distribution of opportunities which amplify child prostitution.

Hence, the social learning theory stresses that girls become prostitutes through interaction and association with other prostitutes, peer groups, clients, steerers and procurers, in some cases pimps. Feltoe (2004) is of the view that girls who practise prostitution are 3 times to have witnessed prostitution between their parents or guardians.

2.3 Causes of Child Prostitution Several issues have been put on discussion by different researchers concerning the causal factors of child prostitution nationally, regionally and internationally. This is based on the idea that what can be regarded as child prostitution at one time and place cannot be defined the same due to differences in culture, ideology and religion. According to Dodsworth (2000), there are push and pull factors commonly associated with entering into child prostitution.

2.3.1 Pull factors 2.3.1.1 Basic needs

According to Sanders-McDonagh and Neville (2012), children engage themselves in commercial sexual activities mainly to meet the basic needs of life such as food, accommodation, clothing, drugs, and money to buy goods and services. This type of engagement in sex work is often described as ‘survival sex’, where people engage in sex work

9 as a last resort, to provide shelter, food, or fund severe addictions in a ‘work-score-use’ cycle (Sanders, 2007).

2.3.1.2 Freedom and independence

Bindel, Breslin and Brown (2013) posit that freedom and independence is also another pull factor leading into child prostitution. Bindel et al. (2013) argue that many children engage into prostitution so that they become free to do whatever they want with no hindrance from their parents and guardians. Many children want to control their lives and depend on their selves with little interference.

2.3.1.3 Sense of power and control

A sense of power and control in contrast with previous abuse experiences is another factor leading to child prostitution as alluded in the research by Davidson (2008). Some children want to control their lives and do not want to live under the rules of their guardians. This results in them having a sense of power in their lives. In his research it is indicated that 60 per cent of the children interviewed previously experienced sexual, emotional and physical abuse hence they opted for sex work as a means to escape that abuse.

2.3.2 Push factors 2.3.2.1 Poor Economic Conditions

It is noted in the research by Mugaise (2015) that the dire economic situation of Zimbabwe has pushed many children into prostitution. Owing to limited job opportunities in the countries many parents have moved out searching for jobs hence leaving their children with no proper guidance which has made them more vulnerable to prostitution. Lack of capital to start income generating projects has made most of these young girls who has left school to resort into selling their bodies, (Ncube, 2012). Mugaise (2015) reported that these child prostitutes failed to resume with education or dropped out of school and prostitution has become the only profession at their disposal. The high levels of unemployment in Zimbabwe (more than 90per cent) are blamed for the rise of child prostitution in the country. The absence of industries leading to lack of employment opportunities in Zimbabwe has made young girls to opt for illegal deals as a mode of generating income.

2.3.2.2 Failure to pay school fees

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Moyana (2012) argues failure to pay school fees is also another push factor. According to Moyana (2012), 40 per cent of girls who are expected to sit for their “O” Level examinations either drop out over the failure to pay school fees or they fall pregnant. Most of the companies, mines and big industries have closed resulting in retrenchment of workers. Unemployed parents find it difficult to pay tuition fees for their children hence limited chances for uneducated children to get jobs in their future lives which increase the chances of them to engage into sex work as a survival means. More so, children not going to school are more prone to anti-social behaviors.

2.3.2.3 Absenteeism and disinterest in school

Nkala (2013) notes that absenteeism and disinterest in school is closely associated with teenage prostitution. Nkala (2013) connotes that children and teens that lack the interest in the school are very prone to prostitution. He further argues that by the virtue of these children being away from a learning institution, this will provide them with the tools to combat negative aspects of society, and become very imprudent and misguided. Accordingly, such children are viewed as defenceless targets hence they are more prone to sexual abusers. Students who bunk lessons have high chances of engaging into sex industry because they experience boredom and they don’t have the knowledge and the education about reproductive health (Dalla and Rochelle, 2011). According to Nkala (2013), 80 per cent of children who lack interest in school will end up engaging in prostitution. Nkala (2013) argue that absenteeism and disinterest in school leads to low education. His research indicates that one-third of interviewees had left education at the age of 14 years or younger. Seventy per cent of respondents had no training or formal qualifications. Poor education means less power in the labor market meaning fewer opportunities to earn an income.

2.3.2.4 Unfavorable social conditions

The unfavorable social conditions including poverty, chronic illness, desire to ease, freedom from traditional practices and malnutrition leads children into prostitution thus according to the research by Hughes (2004). All these unfavorable conditions force some young girls into prostitution. Hughes indicates that 95 per cent of the children interviewed in Masvingo reported that poverty and hunger was the major reason why they engaged into prostitution.

2.3.2.5 Sexual abuse

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According to Goodlin (2009), sexual abuse and running away also results into child prostitution. Goodlin (2009)’s previous research estimates that 50-84 per cent of prostitutes experience sexual abuse, thus indicating that those who are sexually abused are at a higher risk for prostitution, especially among females. Therefore sexual abuse is often cited as an important correlate of prostitution (Daka, 2001). Daka (2001) found that the combination of early sexual abuse and destructive, improper parenting skills generally steered to running away from home and increased involvement in antisocial behaviors including prostitution. Those children who are victims of sexual abuse will run away as the means to escape the abuse and this will result into prostitution in order for them to survive on the streets. Daka (2001), states that homeless runaway, or abandoned children are frequently pushed into prostitution and actively recruited by pimps and traffickers. Studies of runaways reveal that over half of the children were victims of sexual or physical abuse at home, 60 per cent had parents who abused alcohol and/or drugs, 25 per cent had been raped, and almost all came from dysfunctional families (Alexandra, 2014). Punch (2006), found that 74 per cent of runaways had been sexually abused before age of 14 and Kalof, Dun and Dieth (2008), in their study found that 78 per cent of girl prostitutes had been sexually molested and 90 per cent had been physically abused earlier in their lives before becoming prostitutes.

2.3.2.6 Discrimination

Fitzpatrick, Bramley and Johnson (2012) also indicate that discrimination can also lead to prostitution. Fitzpatrick et al. (2012) argue that discrimination comes in different ways such as stigmatisation, racism and prejudice. Social inclusion can be prevented due to discrimination hence leading to vulnerability and marginalisation. For some migrants, discrimination results in feelings of loneliness and isolation, which is usually experienced by people who move to foreign countries where family support and other social networks may be lacking. In addition, discrimination can limit the access to services like health and education services and employment which may force migrants to adopt other ways to survive such as sex work (Bindel et al, 2013). Sex work engagement may occur as a means to find alternative forms of income and survival (Fitzpatrick et al, 2012).

2.4 Effects of Child Prostitution

2.4.1 Negative effects to the child sex worker 2.4.1.1 Physical, sexual and verbal violence

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Goodlin (2009) indicates that child sex workers usually experience physical, sexual and verbal violence from their abusers, including pimps, dealers and customers. This is supported by Spice (2007) who argues that violence is a prominent feature in the lives of sex workers in almost all sex work settings. Goodlin (2009)’s research indicates that almost three quarters of the children horrific testimonies that they were beaten, kicked, burned with cigarettes and raped for refusing to work. A research by Spice (2007) in the United States indicates that physical violence is the single greatest threat facing child prostitutes. A study by Harding (2005) which examined the experiences of female sex workers in Nottingham, found that all of the children interviewed had experienced some form of violence, whether physical, emotional or sexual.

2.4.1.2 Poor physical and mental health

The consequences of physical violence can often lead to poor physical health, as well as poor mental health due to trauma (Goodlin, 2009). At its most extreme, death can also result from violence against sex workers. An example of this is the high profile case of Steve Wright who murdered five sex workers in the area of Ipswich around 2006. In addition, a study by Ward and Day (2007) which examined the lives of 130 sex workers over a 15 year period in Thailand discovered that two of their cohort had been murdered over the 15 year period.

2.4.1.3 High risks of contracting HIV and AIDS

Nkala (2013) revealed that children who are commercially sexually exploited are also at great risk of contracting HIV and AIDS and they are even more vulnerable than adults because their tissues and mucous membranes are more fragile. Exploited children are often not in a position to demand the condom use and even many of them have little or have never received any information about safer sex. Lemmey and Tice (2000) allude that most children and young adolescents are not sufficiently developed physically to engage in penetrative sex. He further argues that physiologically immature reproductive tract in pre-menarchal girls is much less capable of resisting invasion and subsequent damage by sexually transmitted micro-organisms. The sexual activity is often violent, and this can cause internal damage, destroying the normal vaginal and infection barriers and putting children at greater risk than adults for contracting Sexually Transmitted Disease (Nkala, 2013). The study revealed that 85 per cent of the children in Kenya interviewed were infected with HIV and AIDS and 10 per cent never get tested.

2.4.1.4 Psychological effects

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The psychological effects of sexual abuse plague children for the rest of their lives (Moyana, (2012). From his study, it is indicated that children who have been exploited typically report feelings of shame, guilt and low self-esteem. For some of them, they even do not believe they are worthy of rescue. Some children suffer from stigmatization or the knowledge that they were betrayed by someone whom they had trusted. It is also indicated that some children suffer from nightmares, hopelessness, sleeplessness and depression. To cope, some children attempt suicide or turn to drug abuse. Moyana (2012) found that 65 per cent of those involved in sex work had inflicted self-harm. They also suffer from inferiority complex and lack confidence in dealing with other people and they are often looked down upon in the community and have severely limited opportunities to develop and reach their full potential (Lemmey and Tice, 2000).

2.4.1.5 Effects on the mental health Child prostitution has also effects on the mental health of children (Kalof et.al, 2008). In his study he assessed 193 female children on-street and off-street sex workers in Zurich to identify potential patterns of mental health issues. In the study it was found that high rates of anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder and stress were experienced by these children due to the high levels of violence they faced. The study also found other mental disorders including psychosis and schizophrenia. Jeal and Salisbury (2013) claim that the effect of a single year of engagement in sex work is likely to have the same impact on mental health as an entire life of experiences prior to involvement in sex work. Research into the mental health of sex workers in Switzerland found sex workers often suffered from mental health problems, including depression, anxiety and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder which can also negatively impact on physical health.

2.4.1.6 Social stigma

Furthermore, sex work is associated with high levels of social stigma which is said to arise from an attribution of shame, particularly applying to women and children (Scambler, 2007). From this view point, sex work is problematic, indecent and a violation of women’s rights which undermines the formal economy (Sterntahl, Williams, Musick and Buck, 2010). Scambler (2007) indicates in his study that stigmatisation occurs in all aspects of the life of children from clients, general public, healthcare and other service providers, and police. Sterntahl et al. (2010) further allude that stigma especially in most parts of Africa can result in

14 reduced contact with health services and other providers of support, increased stress leading to mental health problems, and feelings of isolation; contributing to social exclusion.

2.4.2 Negative effects to the society 2.4.2.1 Increase in crime rate and deviant behaviors

According to Jeal and Salisbury (2013), increase in crimes and other deviant behaviors in the society also results from child prostitution. According to his research in UK, 81 per cent of children involved in prostitution have been associated with incidents of robbery worldwide. 59 per cent of child prostitutes have been victims of violence and 43 per cent have endured physical abuse.

2.4.2.2 Increase in venereal diseases

Ncube (2012) also indicate in his research in Kenya that child prostitution results in health hazards and severe increase in venereal diseases like HIV and AIDS. He indicated that this is the reason why there is high prevalence of HIV and AIDS in Africa. Three- quarters of the children practising prostitution in England reported to be infected with HIV and AIDS.

2.5 Ways in Which Child Prostitution Can Be Minimized 2.5.1 Educating and empowering girl child

A variety of programs are implemented to educate and empower women and the girl child so as to break the cycle the poverty. Girls’ empowerment, social, cultural, legal reform and policy action are needed in-order to end child prostitution (UNFPA, 2012). In such countries such as Korea and Taiwan, decreasing poverty effectively decreased child prostitution by enabling these countries to advance education, upsurge employment and provide better healthcare for the whole nation (Moyana, 2012). Successful programs have offered economic and educational opportunities to young girls and their parents/guardians by employing girls with the specific goal of avoiding prostitution, giving financial incentives to parents who keep their daughters in school, feeding children during school to decrease family expenses (Moyana, 2012). Kalof et.al (2008) argue that besides reducing prostitution and protecting young girls from HIV infection which leads to physical harm and illness, keeping girls in school enhances their earning potential and socio economic status. Educated girls can contribute to the health and welfare of their family and marry men of their own choice and age (Dube, 2013). Educated girls also contribute to development of the country.

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2.5.2 Skills training

It is indicated by Jeal and Salisbury (2013) that skills training also help to reduce child prostitution. Equipping young girls with a variety of skills needed in life will enhance self- reliance thus according to Dube (2013). In the case of being orphans or failing to find a good care taker, young girls with their skills will engage in self-employment like carpentry, greeting cards making, candle making, spices, mat making, handicrafts, tailoring, vehicle repairing etc. This enables them to provide shelter, food and other basic needs and hence reduces the chances of them engaging into sex work as a means of survival.

2.5.3 Awareness campaigns

Goodlin (2009) alludes that governments need to take responsibility through media campaigns and educational outreach programs because reluctant enforcement renders laws against child prostitution ineffective. Local, regional and national governments can also educate children about their sexual rights and also to negotiate for safer sex. The implementation of health outreach programs can also be done for both boys and girls and include comprehensive sexual reproductive health studies in their curriculum starting from primary school (Nguyen, 2015).

2.5.4 Enforcement of Legislation on child protection

According to Goodlin (2009), the enforcement of laws on child protection is vital for child prostitution to be effectively dealt. He further argues that the formulation of acts and laws on its own does not help to address the prostitution of children and reluctant enforcement renders laws against child prostitution ineffective. Hence, implementation and enforcement of those laws should be ensured.

2.5.5 Empowerment models

Empowerment models of social work are appropriate for young people whose experiences have left them with a sense of powerlessness and dependence on abusive lifestyles thus according to Oliveira, (2000). According to Foster (2011) and Oliveira (2000), the approach needs to be non-judgemental and person-centred which allows people to regain a sense of control over their experiences and helping them to increase their options for the future. Such intervention cannot be imposed, and must be on terms acceptable to the individual.

Global Overview on Child Prostitution

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Child prostitution is a fact of life in many parts of the world. Prostitution is illegal under international law and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Children, Article 34, states that, ‘the state shall protect children from sexual exploitation and abuse including prostitution and involvement in pornography’.

The problem is most severe in South America and Asia but prostitution of children exists globally in undeveloped as well as developed countries. According to the International Centre for Research on Women (ICRW) (2015), there is an increasing number of child prostitutes in other parts of the world like North America, Africa and Europe.

A study carried out by ICRW (2015) revealed that 10 million girls were engaged in child prostitution globally in 2002. In 2016 they have increased to 13 million. Greece has a population of 2900 children involved in child prostitution and it is reported that over 200 are below the age of 12. India has about 120000 children engaged in prostitution. The report indicated that the practice of child prostitution is in part, a reaction to severe harsh economic and social conditions and generally concentrated in the poor regions of the developing world and in low income immigrant communities in developed countries.

According to the Trafficking in Persons Report of 2010, each year 12.3 million adults and children are trafficked worldwide for prostitution and 40 thousand to 50 thousand of those are trafficked into the United States. Thirty per cent of this population is children below the age of 18. Children who are victims of sex trafficking are of different ages, socio-economic statuses and ethnicities from all over the world, are used for prostitution purposes. Venkatraman (2003:47) suggests that, “no neighbourhood in the world is immune to human trafficking activity”.

Regional Overview

In many countries, children i.e. those below 18 years are restricted to practise prostitution yet most governments enforce their laws loosely. For example, 44 per cent of the prostitutes in Niger are children, Cameroon has 30 per cent of children, Mali has 35 per cent, and Mozambique has 46 per cent of children involved in prostitution (UNICEF, 2015). Zambia has a population of 70 thousand children involved in prostitution according to UNICEF, (2015).

Many countries in Africa criminalize prostitution which makes sex workers in Africa more vulnerable. According to ICRW (2015), there is no country in Africa where prostitution is entirely decriminalized. In Africa, the exchange of sexual payment for monetary payment is

17 illegal. ICRW (2015) further alludes that all activities related to prostitution like soliciting, facilitating or living off the earnings of prostitution which includes brothel ownership and pimping are also illegal. African countries which criminalize both prostitution and procurement of prostitution include Eritrea, Angola, Gabon, Guinea, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Tanzania, Rwanda, Namibia, South Africa, Somalia, Uganda and Zambia.

In some countries in Africa prostitution itself is not explicitly criminalized, however, procurement and solicitation in public places is often times illegal, rendering it nearly impossible for sex workers to legally engage in prostitution, despite the fact that the exchange of money for sex is otherwise legal (ICRW, 2015). These countries include Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe. In Africa Senegal is the only country which legalises and regulate prostitution.

Different children gave different reasons on why they engage in sex work as a profession. Several child workers in Africa engage in the trade due to economic stressors (Mugaise, 2015). Many countries in Africa have poor economic conditions followed by little financial support from the nuclear family, extended family members and relatives. Closure of many industries and instability in the informal sector like subsistence farming and petty trading has resulted in most of the children in Africa to view sex work as the only left option for survival.

Prostitution is not an accepted act in many countries in Africa hence children involved into prostitution face deep social stigma and discrimination which affect their human rights since they cannot effectively advocate for those rights (Choruma, 2007). Lemmey and Tice (2000) argue that African societies promote the stigmatization of sex workers by often casting them as vectors of disease at odds with the sexual mores of conservative societies. Most of the African hospitals and health centres stigmatises people who are involved in prostitution including children which discourages them from seeking essential health services.

Furthermore, in African countries the child prostitutes often face physical and sexual abuse and rarely receive the protection from the state (UNICEF, 2015). For older sex workers there is a general perception that gender based violence is part and parcel of sex work and not a crime from which they should be protected (Choruma, 2007). The statistics involving gender-based violence in African countries very rarely include occasions in which the woman at issue is a sex worker.

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African children engaged in prostitution also face sexual and physical abuse from their clients. Children have little voice on their clients hence many clients refuse to wear condoms during sexual intercourse which exposes these children to contracting STI like HIV and AIDS, syphilis etc. This is due to lack of enforcement on legislation pertaining child protection in most countries in Africa. Moyana (2012) alludes that these children encounter vicious beatings and sexual assaults from their clients.

Overview of Child Prostitution in Zimbabwe The incidence of child prostitution is very prevalent in Zimbabwe and the cause is deeply rooted with poverty (UNICEF, 2015). A study carried out by the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACERW) (2012) revealed that Zimbabwe along with Guinea Bissau, Mauritania, Mali, Nigeria, Uganda, Burkina Faso, Niger and Nigeria had the high prevalence of child prostitution. Zimbabwe ranks among the top ten on the continent (UNCEF, 2015).

Data collected by UNFPA (2012) ranks Zimbabwe’s prevalence of child prostitution at 52per cent. In February 2012, Zimbabwe was reviewed by the Committee on the Elimination of all Forms of discrimination against Women (CEDAW). The Committee revealed the prevalence of child prostitution as mainly caused by poverty and harsh economic conditions in Zimbabwe. Prostitution is also one of the biggest results of children who leave school early (Dube 2013). Studies by Human Rights Watch in 2015 revealed that the gap in the law, extreme poverty, poor access to education and poor socio economic conditions fuel child prostitution in Zimbabwe (Mavhinga 2015).

The Human Rights Watch Study (2015) also revealed that household wealth also influenced the prevalence of child prostitution in Zimbabwe. Girls from the poorest households that is 20per cent were more than four times likely to engage into child prostitution than girls from the richest families (Mavhinga, 2015). Almost 70 per cent of Zimbabweans are classified as poor, living on less than $1 per day.

Prostitution in Zimbabwe, including solicitation, procuring, keeping a brothel and being under 18 years is illegal but thriving (Ncube, 2012). The act of prostitution in children is criminalized, reported cases of arresting children and charging them for vagrancy to appease the offended majority of law is common. However, commercial sex workers in Zimbabwe including

19 children are viewed in Growth points and towns in hotels, night clubs and brothels searching for clients. Despite the law prohibiting child prostitution, the activity is predominant. Even in broad daylight, child workers are seen wandering around foyers in hotels waiting to serve their clients. It is noticed that due to the Zimbabwe’s dire economic situation many children have been forced into sex work. Owing to limited job opportunities and lack of capital to start income generating projects, most of these teenagers resort to selling their bodies (Ncube, 2012).

2. 6 Research Gap Most of the literature reviewed was focusing on child trafficking, child marriages and other forms of child exploitation in urban areas; therefore the research seeks to fill the gap through understanding the causes of child prostitution in a rural context. The study will also look on the effects of child prostitution on the lives of children involved and to the community at large. It also seeks to establish strategies which can be implemented to minimize the profession.

2.7 Conclusion Chapter two has highlighted the theoretical framework concerning child prostitution which is systems theory and the social learning theory. The literature review has also been highlighted and is related to the objectives of the study. Information has also been included pertaining global, regional findings and also findings in Zimbabwe concerning child prostitution. The next chapter seeks to explain the research methodology of the study.

CHAPTER 3:

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction This chapter sought to highlight the methods which were used to conduct the research. The chapter represents a series of activities that were implemented by the researcher. It is in this chapter where the research design, study population, sample, data collection, findings, data analysis processes are discussed.

3.2 Research Design The researcher used a case study when she selected Jerera Growth Point. It is applicable in addressing the reasons leading to rise in child prostitution in Jerera. A case study can be defined as a strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular

20 phenomenon with its real life context using sources of evidence (Rafael and Schutt, 2013). According to Creswell (2013), the case study helps to find data in depth. It also improves the interaction of the researcher and the participants and the phenomena being researched. For the purposes of this research, Jerera Growth Point was used as a case study instead of assessing all the growth points where there are child prostitutes.

3.3 Study Population

3.3.1 Study area Jerera Growth Point is in Zaka District which lies in the agro-ecological region 4 and 5 with most of the communities relying on seasonal peasant farming because of erratic rains. It has approximately two hundred and fifty prostitutes of which eighty are under the age of eighteen thus according to the District Administrator statistics, (2015). Zaka District is one of the seven districts of Masvingo Province and is located 86km South East of Masvingo town. The whole population in Zaka district is approximately 200,000 people (2012). The district offices including the District Child Welfare are also located in Jerera Growth Point. The rainfall pattern in Jerera and the community around Jerera Growth Point is sparse. Deforestation and stream bank cultivation has turned large parts of Zaka district into a desert. Over the past two decades the people of Zaka have had to rely on CARE International for food support to supplement their meagre crop yields. There are no industries in Jerera Growth Point which results in high unemployment rates. The population density in the district is more than 65 persons/ km2, which is quite high for a mountainous area where subsistence farming is the main economic activity. It is the most densely populated rural district in the province and probably in the whole country.

3.3.2 Target population The target population is the entire aggregation of the respondents that meet the designated set of criteria (Engel and Schutt, 2013). Therefore, target population refers to the general population to which the researcher intends to make generalization from.

This study targeted eighty child prostitutes in Jerera. The study also targeted 12 key informants consisting of 2 Child Welfare Officers, 2 Youth Development Officers, 3 Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development Officers, 2 members from Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, 2 members from the Ministry of Health and Child Care and 1 police officer. The total population from the sample drawn hence involved 15 children and 6 key informants.

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3.4 Sample

3.4.1 Sample size A sample is defined as a selected number of cases in a population (Willman, 2009). It can also be defined as a subset of a population that is used to study the population as a whole (Engel and Schutt, 2013).Therefore, a sample is the set of elements that are researched on so as to generalise the population.

According to Rubin and Bubbie (2007), a sample of between 10-20 per cent of the population can be used for generalisations in a study. Therefore, in this study a sample of 15 participants drawn from a list of children in prostitution was supposed to be used. However, on the day of data collection the sample came down to 14 child prostitutes because generally the child prostitutes did not want to make their profession known so 1 denied to reveal information hence could not reach the targeted number of participants.

Six key informants were supposed to be interviewed however 5 key informants were purposively sampled because the members from the ministry of Youth were not willing to be interviewed. They consisted of 1 Child Welfare Officer, 1 Women Affairs Gender and Community Development Officer, 1 member from Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, 1 from Zimbabwe Republic Police and 1 member from the Ministry of Health and Child Care.

3.4.2 Sampling techniques 3.4.2.1 Snowball sampling

Selection of the children practising prostitution was done using snowball sampling. The researcher used snowballing sampling technique which ensured that those children involved in prostitution were chosen. Snowballing according to Rubin and Babbie (2007) is where by each person with desired attributes is asked to suggest additional people with the same attributes. To create a snowball sample, the researcher used 2 steps which are as follow i) the Child Welfare Officer helped the researcher to have access to 2 children practising prostitution since some of them are their clients and they know them; and ii) using these 2 children to discover more respondents and so on until the desired sample size was met.

3.4.2.2. Purposive sampling

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Rubin and Babbie (2007) posit that the main goal of purposive sampling is to focus on particular characteristics of a population that are of interest to the researcher. It is done where the researcher select participants due to characteristics they have which make them relevant to the study hence six key informants were purposively selected considering their importance in the study. They consist of 1 Child Welfare Officer, 1 Youth Development Officer, 1 Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development Officer, 1 member from Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, 1 member from the Ministry of Health and Child Care and 1 police officer. These key informants are all concerned with the welfare of children hence they were selected.

Purposive sampling was used because it allows for the effective use of time and resources since only relevant data is collected (Bryman, 2012). More so, the results of purposive sampling are usually more representative of the target population and can provide researchers with the justification to make generalizations from the sample that is being studied.

3.5 Data Collection

3.5.1 Data collection techniques The key informants’ face to face interview and a questionnaire were the major instruments used to collect data for this study. This was done so that these two methods would complement each other so as to ensure that adequate and accurate data was gathered from the sample population. The interviews ranged from 30 to 45 min each and they were recorded in writing. Open ended questions were employed during the interviews which allowed for testing reliability of responses. The questionnaires were given to the child prostitutes in Jerera District so that they take their time to answer and also they will be doing this in anonymity.

3.5.2 Data collection tools 3.5.2.1 Questionnaires

One of the main data collection tools which the study used is the questionnaire since all the elements that is the research participants were able to read the written items. Bryman (2012) views that questionnaire is a document which is methodologically planned containing a set of sequential questions intentionally created to obtain answers from research informants, principally for data collection purposes. The questionnaires were given to the children in prostitution to ensure efficient and quick data capturing since child prostitution is a behavior attached to a lot of stigma. Most of the children do not want to be asked face to face questions

23 because they suspect that they may be sued and some of them are shy. Questionnaires aimed at assuring confidentiality of participants since they answered them in anonymity. The questionnaire comprising of open and close ended questions was thus distributed to the research participants. Collection of these questionnaires was also easy to the researcher since participants could also post them.

3.5.2.2 Face to face Interview Guide

The face to face interview guide was used for the key informants from different departments which are Department of Child Welfare, Ministry of Women Affairs Gender and Community Development, Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, Zimbabwe Republic Police and the Ministry of Health and Child Care. According to Bryman (2012), interview is an interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee in which the interviewer orally asks questions to an interviewee a set of questions to obtain data. Open ended questions were used so that the researcher will be able to get more information out of the key informants since they provide a wider depth into the responses given by the respondents thus according to Cohen and Crabtree (2011). The researcher used an interview guide so that she would be guided during the interview and would not deviate from the interview objectives which are to establish the causes, effects and the ways to reduce child prostitution. The face to face interview guide made the researcher to be prepared ahead of time and appeared competent during the interviews since questions were set in advance.

3.5.3 Data collection procedure Before collecting data the researcher went to the secretary to collect the document which shows that the researcher is a student at Bindura University. The researcher took the letter to the ward 19 councillor where Jerera Growth Point is located in Zaka and the councillor granted the researcher permission to go into the field. The councillor referred the student to the target population. The student briefly explained the main agenda of the research and consent forms were distributed to the respondents and the researcher explained the consent forms clarifying on the issue of incentive. The interviews were conducted with-in fourteen days to all the targeted population and the questionnaires were done during the three day period.

3.5.4 Pre-testing After designing the research instruments, the researcher pre tested them before using them for validity and reliability in collecting adequate data. Bryman (2012) notes that pre-testing is a process which entails a preliminary and critical examination of the understanding of each

24 question or aspect in research in research instrument and its meaning understood by the respondents. According to Creswell (2013), the purpose of the pre-test is to refine the interview guide so that the respondents will have no problems in answering the questions and there will be no problems in recording the data. It also enables the researcher to do some assessments of the questions’ validity and reliability of data that is going to be collected.

As far as this study is concerned, the questionnaire was administered to two girls who practiced prostitution but who were not part of the study. They all managed to satisfactorily answer the questions. There were no complains raised by anyone of them and they did not complain that the questions were hard to respond. However, their issue of concern was the maintenance of their confidentiality. The researcher guaranteed them that there were no names put on the interview schedules hence codes were used for the respondents.

3. 6. Findings

3. 6.1 Presentation of findings According to Rakotsoane (2012), data presentation refers to the examination of words rather than numbers. It is a way of putting data in a simpler form in a way which is easy and more understandable for readers. According to Whittaker (2012), presentation of findings of data is done in the prose form which lends itself into being discussed immediately. It provides a coherent and concise narrative that contains quotes that demonstrate themes without repeating them (Whittaker, 2012).

Data was presented in narratives which is easy to be used by various users of the findings. Micro soft drawn tables, bar graphs and pie charts were also used in presentation of statistical data on the demographic information of respondents.

3. 6.2 Analysis of findings According to Rakotsoane (2012), analysis of data involves working with data, organising it, breaking it down, synthetizing it, searching for pattern, discovering what is important and what is to be learned and deciding what a researcher will tell others. Whittaker (2012) argues that it is a process of making sense of what people would have said, identifying patterns and understanding meanings.

Thematic content analysis was used in the study. Thematic analysis is a six stage data analysis model which requires the researcher to familiarize with the data, create initial codes, searching

25 for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes and finally producing the report (Whittaker, 2012). Thematic content analysis entails coding of data from in-depth interviews and group interviews according to themes. These themes were based on both relevant literature and data recorded during interviews. Therefore, data recorded during interviews with key informants was analyzed based on themes.

3. 7 Ethical Issues Willman (2009) posit that the notion of ethics is quite a complex construct that is characterised with certain values and beliefs that influence the research approach. Thus he views research ethics as principles of doing right or wrong at a given time and at a particular place. The ethical considerations were drawn so that the researcher will be in a position to establish trust between the informants and to respect them for a sound decision during the research.

3. 7.1. Confidentiality

Confidentiality is an ethical consideration in research which safe guard the sharing of information by the researcher to the third parties without the knowledge of the respondents (Zina, 2012). Thus, it protects the respondents so that their identities cannot be linked to the information that they provide and will not be publicised or divulged without their permission. Confidentiality was ensured through safe keeping of the raw data, no names were put on raw data and interviews were done privately with the key informants during the study. Participants only put their signatures on consent forms. The researcher also made sure that the collected information was kept on unidentified place by other parties.

3.7.2. Informed consent

The participants were informed about the research study so as to have a full understanding of the requested involvement, time, the topic to be covered and the risks associated. Zina (2012) views informed consent as a process of three main issues which are the provision of the information by the researcher, the understanding of the information by the potential participant and making a response to information. In a different view, Engel and Schutt (2013) view informed consent from four core principles which are explicit act of verbal or written agreement. Therefore, a consent form was prepared showing the requirements of the study (see appendix A). Participants were told about the general nature of the study and the consent forms describing the study, assurance that participants will not encounter any risk, what to expect and what was expected of them. In line with these informed consent principles the researcher used

26 both written and oral consent to participants which was expressed in Shona since it was the understandable language by most respondents.

3. 7.3. Anonymity and privacy

Engel and Schutt (2013) view anonymity as the principle that guide the researcher not to identify the respondents by their names in research output whilst privacy refers to safe, conducive, private and physical location to conduct the research and ensuring anonymity and confidentiality. To assure this the researcher employed pseudonym and removed the information that identifies the respondents by their names. Thus the real names of the respondents were not used to identify the data. The information collected in the course of the study was not publicised hence privacy was assured. This helped to give the respondents the freedom to say what they want without fear and hesitation.

3.7.4. Protection from harm

Willman (2009) claims that the ethical principles of beneficence and non-maleficence emphasize the importance of researchers balancing the desire to protect the respondents from psychological harm. The issue of child prostitution is sensitive to some of the children involved in it hence the researcher took measures to avoid harm through informed consent. The respondents were told briefly about the research and its impact to those who were not comfortable to participate so as to avoid psychological harm.

3.7.5. Honest and Openness

Engel and Schutt (2013) argue that results should be presented as they are even if the researcher was not expecting them. The findings from the study were not distorted by the researcher’s personal pressures since this ethic requires the researcher to be honest and open in both presenting findings and disclosing methods. The researcher avoided disclosing only positive results but rather she produces and disclosed results as they are. According to Creswell (2014), when reporting, sharing and storing data, the researcher must avoid plagiarism, falsifying authorship and disclose information that would harm participants. This was achieved thorough analyzing and presenting data as it was provided by study participants.

3.8 Feasibility After the analysis of data, the student presented the letter form from the university with the stamp of ward 19 Councillor where Jerera Growth Point is located as a proof to indicate that

27 she was granted the permission to carry out the research. The consent forms played a very crucial role during the research due to the fact that the research went smoothly and participants were motivated by the informed consent as explained by the student and volunteerism to participate was well guaranteed.

3.9 Delimitations The study was limited to study child prostitution that is children between 0 and 18 years looking at the multiplicity of factors that contribute to child prostitution in Jerera. The study also investigated the effects of child prostitution. The study was conducted in Jerera which is the most central and highly populated growth point of Zaka. Due to the fact that the study was carried out at Jerera Growth point, the data obtained may not represent the whole population.

3.10 Limitations Some respondents saw the study to be sensitive and hence became suspicious of their involvement especially considering that prostitution is a criminalized trade in which those deemed to be involved are prosecuted through the courts of law. More so, prostitution is a phenomenon which is shameful and those children involved are discriminated and stigmatised in our culture. The researcher assured the research participants that the findings of the study would not be reported on the basis of individual identities but rather on the overall reports of respondents. Another limitation is that there might have been some interviewee who reveals only socially acceptable views. During the gathering of qualitative data, some interviewees might have been defensive when asked questions relatively to sexual work. To overcome this problem, the researcher assured them that the data would be treated confidentially and that anonymity would be guaranteed through the use of pseudonyms (Creswell, 2013).

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CHAPTER 4

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION.

4.1 Introduction This chapter is going to outline the data presentation, analysis and discussion of the data gathered from the participants on causes, effects and ways to minimize child prostitution. The research was both qualitative and quantitative in nature and it employed case study as a research design. The findings for this study emanated from the face to face interviews which were done to the 5 key informants and questionnaires from the 14 children engaged in prostitution who returned the questionnaires. The chapter will also highlight on the demographic information, level of education, level of income of study participants and findings based on each objective and the conclusion.

4.2 Presentation and Analysis of Findings

4.2.1 Demographic profile of respondents 4.2.1.1Participants’ Age and Gender

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Table 4:1: The Age and Gender Profile of the Study Participants.

AGE RANGE MALES FEMALES FREQUENCY 0-12 0 4 4 13-17 0 9 9 18+ 0 1 1 n=14

Table 4.1 above shows the distribution of participants and their age ranges. A total number of 13 children involved in prostitution answered the questionnaires during the research study. One (1) girl who was 19 years old was also issued questionnaire since she also entered prostitution at 16 whilst she was still a child so the researcher wanted to investigate on the reasons which pushed her into the profession. The table reflects that females are the only people involved in prostitution in Jerera as 14 females answered the questionnaire against zero males. Spice (2007) stated that girl child is the most affected group with sexual exploitation as compared to boys and this is in relation to the research results because in Jerera females are the only group involved.

The distribution above shows the differential vulnerability of girls to the impact of prostitution as they are mostly involved in prostitution. The age groups of 13 to 17 years consists the highest numbers of children practising prostitution. Most of the children who were left as breadwinners after the Tokwe- Mkosi disaster resorted into prostitution to take care of their siblings and their selves and they consisted between 13 to 17 years.

4.2.1.2 Study participants’ level of education

Fig4:1. Distribution of the levels of education of study participants

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Level of Education of Participants

Secondary Education 2 No Schooling 4

Primary Education 8

n=14

Fig 4.1 shows that only 2 girls attained their secondary education. Eight (8) attained only primary education and they represent a largest number of the study participants. They could not proceed to secondary education due to some of the reasons listed below in 4.2.2. From the study, 4 girls never went to school also due to lack of tuition fees and unfavorable social conditions. Moyana (2012) argue that, low educational attainment, low attachment to school and low inspirations are all risk factors resulting in prostitution.

4.2.1.3 Study Participants’ Area of Origin

Fig4:2. Frequency Distribution of the Area of Origin of Victims

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Area of Origin of Participants 12 10 8 6 4 number of children

2 NumberofChildren 0 Zaka Outside Zaka Area of Origin n=14

Fig 4.2 above shows the area of origin of the study participants. Ten children came from other districts outside Zaka which are Mwenezi and Chivi. From the study, this was caused by the Tokwe-Mkosi disaster experienced in 2014 which left many households homeless and even poorer hence most of the children moved to nearby growth points. Only 4 children are the residents of Zaka who engaged into prostitution due to peer pressure, poverty and pleasure thus the majority came from other districts.

4.2.1.4 Study Participants’ Level of Income

Fig4: 3. Distribution of the level of income of the study participants

LEVEL OF INCOME OF PARTICIPANTS

With other sources of income 2

With no other sorces of income 12

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Fig 4.3 shows the different level of income of the respondents. From the study, only 2 participants get monthly income. One respondent said that she is a housekeeper and gets 50 dollars per month and the other one reported that she sells vegetables at the market. She said that during the past years she got around 55 dollars per month but due to money shortages in the economy and increased competition at the market she now gets between 20 and 30 dollars per month. From the study, peer pressure pushes these children into prostitution as they see their peers engaging in to the profession. The rest of them which is 12 participants only rely on prostitution and have no other sources of income. According to Mugaise (2015), this is why they engage into prostitution so that they buy food, shelter and other basic items.

4.2.2 Causes of child prostitution in Jerera The theme had 8 sub-themes which include: harsh economic conditions, poor social conditions, effects of disasters, peer pressure, pleasure, family disorganization, abuse, failure to pay school fees.

4.2.2.1 Harsh economic conditions

When asked about the causes of child prostitution, 12 study participants highlighted that poor economic status aligned with unemployment in the country is leading them into prostitution. One participant replied;

“Amai havaende kubasa, baba vakashaya saka hupenyu hwatiomera sevana nekuti mari haipo kunyange yekutitiende kuchikoro“.

[My mother is unemployed and father deceased so life is tough for us as there is even no tuition fee for us].

Some parents even left their children without proper guidance searching for better living conditions and employment outside the country. Another participant responded that;

“Mhamha na baba vakaenda Joni kunotsvaka basa tikasara tiritega vana pamba”

[Both mom and father left for South Africa in search of jobs and we were left alone]

The above sentiments were also supported by a key informant from the Department of Child Welfare who highlighted during the interview that;

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“The poor economic status and high unemployment rates in Zimbabwe has resulted in a lot of antisocial behaviors including prostitution. We have recorded many cases of children in conflict with the law as a result of poor economy“.

There is a positive relationship between poor economic conditions and child prostitution where the harsh economic conditions results in increased rate of child prostitution. The above findings are also supported by Mugaise (2015) who states that the dire economic situation of Zimbabwe has pushed many children into prostitution. Mugaise (2015) further posits that poor economic conditions implies low employment rates hence, owing to limited job opportunities in the countries many parents have moved out searching for jobs, leaving their children with no proper guidance which has made them more vulnerable to prostitution. Therefore, this implies that the country’s poor economic status results in child prostitution.

4.2.2.2 Poor social conditions

Many children highlighted poverty and hunger as one of their main concern pushing them into prostitution. Eleven (11) participants responded that their parents could not fight severe hunger due to consecutive years of bad harvests. These 11 participants also highlighted that, being in absolute poverty led them to be involved in prostitution as a way of sourcing basic needs like food, clothes and shelter.

One of the responses was;

“Gore rapera mabarwe akatsva mumunda uye mai havana kupinda mu Care saka tinofamba tichipemha chikafu kunevamwe. Zvatinowana mukupemha zvishomanana dzimwe nguva tinotoshaiwa“.

[We experienced bad harvests last year and our parents did not have a chance to be registered under CARE International for food. We move around begging but the food we get is insufficient and some days we even come back empty handed]

The other respondent said that;

“Baba vakura havachakwanisi kushanda kuti vatenge chikafu. Vakambotengesa mombe gore rapera kuti tiwanekurarama but still mari ne chikafu chacho hapasisina saka ini ndakazongoonawo yekutamba kuti ndirarame“.

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[My father is old aged and can no longer work for us. He sold his cows sometime last year but still the money and the food have vanished so I engaged into prostitution to survive]

In support of the above, one key informant from the department of Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development, responded that;

“ZIM-VAC has reported Zaka on the top list of districts affected with poor harvests in Zimbabwe since it received little rainfall“.

A key informant from the Department of Social Welfare responded that;

“Many households survive on 0 0 1 meal per day which inflicts a tough situation to many children. “

The above sentiments imply that poor social conditions mainly poverty and hunger are causing children into prostitution. The finding is in line with Hughes’ (2004) assertion that poverty is the causal factor that drives young people to engage in antisocial behaviors like prostitution. He added that, poverty is one of the characteristics of Africa and it is in Africa where there is highest number of orphaned children due to HIV and AIDS hence most of them are poor and engage in prostitution as the only method of survival.

This shows that, children are involved in prostitution due to difficulty situations such as hunger, illness and poverty. Maslows (1970) in Maolosi (2013) stated that when individuals fail to acquire basic needs they engage in other means to access these needs.

4.2.2.3 Family disorganization

Family disorganization was found as one of the major causes of child prostitution. Out of the 14 participants who were used during the study, 13 of them indicated that family disorganization resulted in them being involved in prostitution. When family bond is disturbed, this inevitably affects children from the normal setup and the obvious state of their environment. The respondents asserted that, during family break up, 7 were left with their mothers, 2 with their fathers, the other 2 were left alone and 2 were staying with their relatives. The following are the responses from the two participants;

“Baba vakaenda ku Joni kunotsvaka basa, Havana kumbodzoka kubva 2010 mai vakasara voroorwa nemumwe murume. Takasaratiritega vana, ini ndini muhombe saka

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havasikutumira mari yechikafu ndikokusaka ndakazotsvaka nzira dzekuti ndirarame uye kutengera vanin’ina vangu chikafu“.

[Father left for South Africa and he never came back since 2010. We were left with our mother who got married again and left us. I am left being the breadwinner of the family and the parents are not sending us money and that is why I have engaged in prostitution so as to survive].

The other participant responded that;

“Mai vakashaika nekuda kwemafashamu emvura, baba vakazoroora mumwe mukadzi. Zvino mainini havatide pamba vanotinyima chikafu uye havadi kutibhadharira mari ye fees. Baba hapana zvavanombotaura saka ndakazotiza pamba nekuti pakangapasingagarike“.

[Mother died in the Tokwe-Mkosi floods, and father later remarried another wife. His wife does not like us, she neither pays school fees for us nor gives us food. Father is silent about the situation so I ran away from home and engage myself in my own way of survival]

From the study, the researcher found out that disorganization of the family due to death, divorce or search of jobs results in lack of parent affection to the children. These children lack proper parenting skills if the parents are not available. It also indicated that family disorganization results in children being abused usually by their step mothers if their real mothers have divorced with their fathers. Some parents leave for South Africa searching for greener pastures leaving children with no proper guidance which exposes children to the anti-social behaviors of the society. This factor is in line with Parsons (1951)’s systems theory which says that human development is profoundly influenced by the events and activities occurring in settings which a person is staying. The theory also argue that divorce or home broken up by death of one or both of parents by prolong illness or insanity, desertion or rejection may make it difficult for the children to have any parental affection, guidance and discipline hence the children will be negatively affected.

4.2.2.4 Failure to pay school fees

From the study, 12 participants highlighted that their parents could not pay school fees for them so they could not proceed with their education. All children who indicated that they never went to school they gave reasons that it was due to lack of school fees. Those families who were affected by the Tokwe- Mkosi disaster also could not make it to pay school fees for their

36 children as they struggled to provide food and shelter. One participant who attained her primary level said that she could not proceed to form one due to lack of school fees. She responded that;

“Mai vakati mari yekusecondary yakawandisa hatikwanisi kuibhadhara nekuti vanin’ina vako vanodawo kuenda kuchikoro. Ndaingogara pamba kusvika ndazoenda kunotsvaka basa mu Jerera. Musi wandasvika ndakashaya basa uye ndandisina pekuvata ndopandakazopinda mubhawa ndikakechwa nemumwe murume ndikazonorara kumbakwake. Kubvaipapo ndavakuita zvechipfambi“.

[Mother said that school fees for secondary education were too high and she couldn’t afford it since she also had to pay fees for the fellow siblings. I stayed at home until I walked out searching for a job. I could not find one, and I did not have anywhere to sleep so I entered a nearby bar and I was hooked by a man. I slept at his homestead and since then I have been doing prostitution].

The other respondent cited that;

“Baba vakati havachawani mari yekuti ndiende kuchikoro nekuti vaitenga chikafu nekugadzirisa mamwe ma birth nekuti zvese zvakaparadzwa nemvura“.

[Father said he can no longer afford paying school fees since he is struggling to provide food and acquire new birth certificates and national ids for the family].

In support of this a key informant from the Ministry of Primary and Secondary education responded that;

“We find almost three quarters of the class with fees not paid for the current term and some of them did not pay for the previous term. More so, BEAM only covers a few number of pupils hence a large number of pupils is affected“.

The finding above shows that if children are not going to school due to several reasons like failure of their parents to pay fees, they will engage in prostitution mainly due to peer pressure. According to Moyana (2012), quite a large number of girls who are expected to sit for their “O” Level examinations either drop out over the failure to pay school fees or they fall pregnant.

4.2.2.5 Abuse

When asked about the reasons why these children engage into prostitution, 5 children said that they were facing sexual, emotional and physical abuse from their guardians at home. These 5

37 children were part of the 13 children who belongs to disorganised families. They argued that they opted into engaging prostitution as means to escape abuse at home. One participant had this to say:

“Ndakasara ndichigara natete mushure mekunge vabereki vaenda ku South. Tete vaindishungurudza, vaigara vachindirova pasina mhosva yandaita, nekundinyima zvekudya. Basa rese repamba ndini ndaiita uye vairambidza vana vavo kuti vandibetsere. Ndakazotiza kumba ndikatanga kungofamba ndisisina kwekugara kusvika ndazotanga kuita zvekukechwa ndichipiwa mari“.

[I have been staying with my aunty since my parents left for South Africa. I experienced beatings for no reasons, she did not give me food and I did all household chores beyond my control. I ran away from home and started wandering with nowhere to stay until I engaged into prostitution].

This is supported by one key informant from the Department of Child Welfare who responded that;

“We handle a lot of cases concerning the abuse of children in the surrounding community. Many children are sexually abused hence in some cases we institutionalise those victims of abuse if there are no relatives willing to stay with the child“.

These findings concur with Goodlin (2009) who said that sexual abuse and running away also results into child prostitution. Daka (2001) also found that the combination of early sexual abuse and destructive, improper parenting skills generally steered to running away from home and increased involvement in antisocial behaviors including prostitution. Therefore it is evident that children who face abuse will be involved into prostitution later in their lives as a means to escape that abuse.

4.2.2.6 Peer Pressure

Seven (7) study participants indicated in their responses that they have engaged in prostitution as a result of their friends and those whom they associate with. Some of these children were part of those who were no longer going to school due to lack of school fees. One participant cited that;

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“Vamwe vangu vandinotengesa navo pamusika vanoita zvechipfambi after work. Rimwe zuva vakandikoka kuenda kubhawa asi ndakapedzesera ndakuona kunakidza kwazvo. Kusvika parizvino ndinoita zvechipfambi“.

[When they have come from the market, my fellow vendors go to the bar to do prostitution in the evening. One day they invited me to the bar and at last I developed interests in the profession until now um doing prostitution].

Another response was;

“Shamwari dzangu dzainditengera mazep, mabhisvo nezvimwe zvinonaka asi ini ndaizvishaya. Vakazondiudzakuti kana uchidawo mari tijoine. Ndakatanga kutoita zvechipfambi tichienda tese neshamwari dzangu“.

[My friends buy me zap nax and biscuits of which I can’t afford them on my own. Lastly, they told me to join them so as to enjoy the benefits. Since then, I am into prostitution together with my friends].

From the above study, it is indicated that support and influence from others has great significance in leading children into prostitution. Children reported that they had support and influence from their peers about the benefits of engaging into the act like having access to money, being independent and having full control of their lives and other benefits. The influence about all these benefits attracts children to engage in prostitution. This is another gap left in the literature but the study has revealed peer pressure as a pull factor into prostitution.

4.2.2.7 Impact of the disaster.

From the study carried out, it is revealed that 10 study participants came outside Zaka, they came from Mwenezi and Chivi. They reported that the flooding of the Tokwe-Mkosi dam left them homeless, being orphans and most of their belongings were destroyed. Hence, they had to move away to look for better living and homes. The finding is hence supported by the following responses;

“Imba yedu yakaparadzwa nemvura tikasara tisisina pekugara saka ndakaona zvrinane kuti ndiende kuGrowthpoint kunotsvaka pekugara“.

[Our house was destroyed by the floods and we were left homeless so I found it worthy to go to Jerera to look for shelter].

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“Nzara ndiyoyakanyanya kundirwadza nekuti chikafu chese chakapardzwa mumvura uye chataipiwa chaive chisingakwani nekuti takawanda. Kuita chihure kwaivanane kuti ndiwane mari yekutenga zvandinoda“.

[Hunger affected us because the rest of the food we had was destroyed by water and the food which we were given from the donors was not adequate for the rest of the family. I had to resort into prostitution so as to get money to buy food].

The other one said that;

“Amai nababa vese vakayeredzwa nemvura, ndikasara ndirini mukuru ndichichengeta vanin’ina vangu 3. Ndakashayarubatsiro rwekuchengeta vanin’ina vangu so ndakazouya kuno kujerera kuti ndizvichengete pamwe nevana vamai vangu“

[My both parents died in the floods and I was left the breadwinner of the family taking care of my three siblings. I had nowhere to get help so I finally came here in Jererar so that I can take care of myself and my young siblings].

One of the Police Officer who was interviewed said that;

“We have experienced an increased number of these young girls since after the Tokwe- Mkosi disaster. The number almost doubled due to the children from districts affected by the floods“.

The above sentiments imply that the impacts of the Tokwe- Mkosi disaster had led many children to engage into prostitution for survival. Those 10 participants reported that they were left homeless, orphans, and with no food as everything they had was destroyed in the floods. This type of engagement in sex work is often described by Bindell et al. (2013) as ‘survival sex’, where young people engage in sex work as a last resort, to provide themselves with what they need. The literature left a gap hence the study has revealed effects of natural disasters as another cause of prostitution.

4.2.2.8 Pleasure

From the study only 2 participants answered that pleasure led them into that profession. Those who entered prostitution for pleasure responded that;

“Ndakatanga kurara nevakomana ndiri grade 7. Ndinonzwa kunakidzwa nekuita chipfambi uye kurara nevanhu vakasiyana siyana“.

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[I had my first sexual encounter when I was grade7. I enjoy doing prostitution and sleeping around with different men].

Therefore, the above sentiments imply that some children may enter prostitution only for sexual pleasure although they are few. However, this finding was contrary to Mugaise (2015) who highlighted that children engage into prostitution so that they meet their basic needs like shelter, food and to get money.

4.2.3 Effects of child prostitution in Jerera Growth Point The theme have six subthemes which includes effects which are physical, sexual and verbal violence, psychological effects, effects on their social life, increase in crimes to the society, unwanted pregnancies and drug addiction.

4.2.3.1 Physical, sexual and verbal violence.

All the 14 respondents in the study claimed that child prostitution has meant violence in their lives in various forms. All the participants reported that they face physical, sexual, and verbal violence. This finding is supported by the following responses;

“Sometimes ndinosangana nevarume vanoita sex zvehasha, ndinopedzesera ndakurwadziwa nechibereko“.

[I sometimes have violent sexual encounters, and I end up having pain in the uterus].

The other two participants answered that;

“Some of maclients andinosangana nawo anondirova, kukava kana kusiyavandituka nekuti vanoziva hapana chandingavaita since ndiri mwana mudiki. Ndinowanzosangana nedambudziko iri pandino claimer mari yangu after sex. Dzimwe nguva handitopiwi mari yacho“.

[I got beaten, kicked and shouted at by some of the clients I meet because they take advantage that I am still a child. I usually face this problem when I ask for my payment after sex and sometimes they refuse to pay].

“Most of maclients havadi kushandisa macondom vanondimanikidza unprotected sex. Ndinopedzesera ndabvuma nekuti ndinenge ndichida mari“.

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[Most of the clients I meet refuse to use condoms and they force me unprotected sex. I agree to have sex because all I want is money].

These views have been supported by one key informant from Police who said that;

“We have attended to many cases of children who have been bitten, kicked or pushed over the wall by their clients. We have faced a sharp rise in the cases of conflicts between the children and their clients“.

One nurse from the department of Health and Child Care reported that;

“We are really tired of treating these young girls who come bleeding and with severe wounds due to fights with their clients“.

The findings above indicate that there is a positive relationship between child prostitution and sexual, physical and verbal violence. These findings concur with Spice (2007) who argues that violence is a prominent feature in the lives of sex workers in almost all sex work settings. He indicates that physical violence is the single greatest threat facing child prostitutes. Goodlin (2009)’s research indicates that almost three quotes of the children’s horrific testimonies around the world are that they were beaten, kicked, burned with cigarettes and raped for refusing to work.

4.2.3.2 Psychological effects

Eleven (11) out of 14 respondents who answered the questionnaires cited having psychological problems due to the profession. They argued that the violence they face impose some psychological effects in their lives.

Some of the respondents reported that;

“Ndikafunga about my HIV status ndinonzwa kutya because ndarara nevarume vakawanda vanoramba kushandisa ma condom. Zvinogara zvichindinetsa mupfungwa kuti ndakamira sei“.

[I get frightened each time I think about my HIV status because I have slept with many men who refuse to use condoms. I always get troubled in mind when I think about my HIV status].

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“Ndinonzwa kusvoda kana ndikafunga kuti vanhu vanofungei pavanondiona, so in most cases ndinozvitarisira pasi zvakanyanya. Ndinotonzwa kutya kurara nevamwe varume nekuti vanozopedzesera vakundituka kana kurova kana ndavakuda mari yangu“.

[I feel shy when I think how people in my community think about me so in most cases I look down upon myself. I even feel afraid to sleep with some men because they end up shouting at me or even beating me when I ask for my pay].

One key informant from the Department of Child Welfare cited that;

“We have been providing psychological counselling to some of these girls who came at the department because some of them have inflicted self-harm“.

It can be articulated from the findings above that the children involved in prostitution in Jerera are facing psychological effects. This goes hand in hand with Lemmey and Tice (2000) who say that, some children suffer from stigmatization or the knowledge that they were betrayed by someone whom they had trusted. They also indicate that some children suffer from nightmares, hopelessness, sleeplessness and depression. Moyana (2012) supported the views above saying that these children also suffer from inferiority complex and lack confidence in dealing with other people and they are often looked down upon in the community and have severely limited opportunities to develop and reach their full potential

4.2.3.3 Effects on their social life

From the study, 13 children out of 14 who answered the questionnaires cited that they face a lot of stigma from the surrounding community including service providers and they also face some social challenges in their lives. The finding is supported by the following responses;

“I have been an outcast. All my friends vandakakura navo havachada kutamba neni, uye handichabvumidzwa kushanya kuhama dzangu and I feel lonely“.

[I have been an outcast. All my friends whom I grew up with no longer want to associate with me. I am no longer allowed to visit my relatives and I feel lonely].

“I was rejected nehama dzangu, I lost all my friends and society inonditarisira pasi zvakanyanya“.

[I was rejected by my relatives and I lost all my friends. The society looks down upon me]

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“Kana ndikazivikanwa kuti ndiri pfambi, zvinonetsa kuwana aceess kune mamwe ma services muno mujerera like kuchipatara“.

[If people know about my profession it will be hard to have access to some of the services in Jerera like services at the hospital].

From the findings above it can be noted that child prostitution has a negative impact on the social life of child sex workers. These findings concur to the findings by Scambler (2007) who says that sex work is associated with high levels of social stigma which is said to arise from an attribution of shame, particularly applying to women and children. Sterntahl et al. (2010) further allude that stigma can result in reduced contact with health services and other providers of support, increased stress leading to mental health problems, and feelings of isolation contributing to social exclusion.

4.2.3.4 Unwanted pregnancies

Eight (8) children used during the study reported that due to their little knowledge about family planning methods they have unexpectedly fell pregnant. The following responses are of two participants one who reported that she did abortion and the other one gave birth.

“Ma clients edu haawanzi kuda kushandisa ma condom saka nekudaro ndakaita mimba muna March. Ndakafunga kubvisa mimba nekuti ndaizoshaya kuti ndoenda sei kubhawa nemwana. Ndakarwadziwa zvikuru pandakabvisa mimba uye ikezvino ndinogara ndichirwadziwa chibereko ndichiburitsa mvura inonhuwa. Ndakutya kuti pamwe ndakaora chibereko sezvo ndisina kuenda ku hospital“.

[Most of our clients refuse condom use so I mistakenly got pregnant in March last year. I did abortion because it was going to be hard for me going to meet my clients with a baby. I undergone severe pain during the abortion and now i feel pain in my womb and I release odour discharge. I am afraid if my womb developed some problems since I didn’t go to the hospital].

The other responded said that

“Ndakaita mimba ndikazvara mwana wangu. Ndakaita excessive bleeding uye ndakadambuka ndikaiswa ma stitch akawanda. Utano hwangu hauna kunaka kubva zvandakazvara mwana uye kuhospital vanoti I developed what they call fistula and l can no longer control my bladder zvinova zvinondishungurudza. After 2 months I lost my baby“.

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[I got pregnant and gave birth to my baby. I did excessive bleeding and was stitched many stitches. I am not in good health condition ever since I gave birth and the doctors say that I developed what they call fistula and I can no longer control my bladder which hurts me. After two months l lost my baby].

The above findings indicate that there are high chances of children in prostitution to fell pregnant and this result in abortion which impose long term effects on their health. There are high chances of the mother, baby or both to die during birth. The study indicated that many children who fall pregnant do abortion because they argue that those babies will hinder them from doing sex work. This is the gap which has been left in the literature.

4.2.3.5 Increase in crimes to the society

The study also indicated that the practise of child prostitution impose crimes to the society. All of the 14 children answered that they have experienced severe sexual, verbal and physical violence as indicated in 4.2.3.1. Some children reported that they are raped and often fight with their clients. One of the key informants from ZRP cited that;

“We have encountered a severe increase in the crime rate here in Jerera due to the practise of child prostitution. Most of the clients take advantage of these young girls to rape and beat them. We have handled many cases of murder, rape, theft and insult which involve young girls in prostitution“.

It is evident from the findings above that child prostitution has imposed a high crime rate. This have been supported by Jeal and Salisbury (2013) who in his research indicated that 81 per cent of children involved in prostitution have been associated with incidents of robbery worldwide, 59 per cent of child prostitutes have been victims of violence and 43 per cent have endured physical abuse.

4.2.3.6 Drug addiction

Eleven (11) children from the study indicated that they became addicted to drugs. Some participants responded that;

“Ndinogara ndichinwa zvinodhaka so that handisvodi kufamba kuvanhu. Ndikarishaya doro ndinofunganya zvakaipa zvakawanda pamusoro pebasa rangu“.

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[I take drugs so that I won’t get shy moving around to people. I f I don’t take drugs, I develop negative feelings about my profession].

The other participant responded that;

“Kuti ndisanyanya kuita stress nekushungurudzwa kwandinoitwa nevamwe varume vandosangana navo, ndinogara ndakadhakwa nembanje uye doro“.

[I take drugs to fight the stress imposed on me by some of my clients].

It can be deduced from the findings above that drug addiction amongst child sex workers is also one of the prominent effects of prostitution. Moyana (2012) points that children abuse drugs so as to cope to the psychological effects which affect them but he did not specify on drug addiction as the effect affecting these children. Drug use amongst child sex workers in Jerera is used for self-medication i. e. to help mask some of the negative feelings associated with sex work, including distress, anxiety and experiences of selling sex which leads in drug addiction. This is another gap which has been left by the literature on effects of child prostitution.

4.2.4 What are the ways in which child profession can be minimized in Jerera This theme has six sub themes which include educate and empower women (vocational training), skills training, legislation enforcement to protect children from prostitution, raising awareness in schools and community, corporal punishment and re unification with the family.

4.2.4.1 Educate and empower women (vocational training)

Four key informants from different departments that is the Department of Child Welfare, Department of Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development, Ministry of Education, Sports, Arts and Culture and the ZRP cited educating and empowering girls and women as a vital strategy in addressing child prostitution. Some of the responses are as follow;

“Children should be provided with the adequate knowledge about the long term effects imposed by the profession they are engaged in and knowledge on reproductive health“.

Officer from the Women Affairs Ministry responded that:

“Women and children should also be empowered so that they have voice in their own lives“.

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This is supported by Kalof et al. (2008) who argue that besides avoiding prostitution and protecting young girls from HIV infection which leads to physical harm and illness, keeping girls in school or vocational training also enhances their earning potential and socio economic status.

4.2.4.2 Skills training

From the interview conducted to the key informants, it was indicated by all of them that that skills training is another strategy in addressing prostitution in children. One key informant cited that

“More skills should be provided to the children to enhance self-reliance. If they have required skills for them to survive they won’t engage in prostitution to find money“.

The finding is supported by the literature which says that equipping young girls with a variety of skills needed in life will enhance self-reliance thus according to Dube (2013). In the case of being orphans or failing to find a good care taker, young girls with their skills will engage in self-employment like carpentry, greeting cards making, candle making, spices, mat making, handicrafts, tailoring, vehicle repairing etc.

4.2.4.3 Enforcement of Legislation to protect children from prostitution

It was also indicated during the interviews with 4 key informants that the formulation of acts and laws on its own does not help to address the prostitution of children. Hence, implementation and enforcement of those laws should be done. One of the respondents cited that;

“There is really a need to strictly enforce legislation to protect these children from practising prostitution“.

This is also supported by (Choruma, 2007) who says that policy formulation should be enhanced with proper implementation for it to be helpful.

4.2.4.4 Raising awareness in schools and community

Three key informants who were interviewed highlighted that social institutions that are children’s environment including the family, school, the community and the peers have great impact on the behavior of a child. In support, some of the responses were that;

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“Children should be taught about safer sex in all forms of socialisation. The community should be taught about the negative effects imposed with the profession so that they treat their children in good manner to avoid run aways. Children should be taught of better opportunities in their lives and how prostitution and impede them from reaching that far“.

Another key informant from the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education cited that;

“Children in schools should be encouraged to have interest in school work and not to abscond from their lessons as this expose them to practising unethical behaviors. Education also helps girl child to make better decisions in their lives“.

From the finding above it can hence be concluded that raising awareness in schools and communities is a strategy to reduce child prostitution in Jerera because these are the areas where children get lot of their socialisation. It is alluded by Nguyen (2015) that the implementation of health outreach programs can also be done for both boys and girls and include comprehensive sexual reproductive health studies in their curriculum starting from primary school.

4.2.4.5 Corporal punishment

Two key informants who were interviewed during the study responded that corporal punishments are helpful in addressing child prostitution in Jerera. One key informant from the Zimbabwe Republic Police indicated that;

“We usually take these young girls at night from the bars and place them in Base where we beat them, pour cold water on them while sleeping on the floor. We make them clean the clinic yards and do hard jobs“.

There is no literature which indicated that corporal punishment can help to reduce prostitution hence this study has revealed that child prostitutes are bitten by the police and punished so that they go back to their homes.

4.2.4.6 Re unification with the family.

When asked about strategies to curb child prostitution in Jerera, 3 key informants indicated that reunification with family members also helps to reduce prostitution of children.

One key informant from the Department of Child Welfare cited that;

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“We have attended cases where reunification of a child to her family members has been successful. However, a conducive environment should be created at home so that the child stays there and don’t engage in the profession again“.

Those children who ran away from their homes and who are willing to go back will be assisted to reunite with their families. The staff will contact the runaway / thrown away child through phone or letters or personal visits and will try to create an atmosphere conducive for a cordial reunion. After creating an atmosphere which is conducive, the parents will be invited to a drop- in centre to make a formal request to the organization to send back the child. After signing a form both by the parents and the child he or she will be handed over to the parents to take to their home. This strategy has been left in the literature hence this study has filled the gap.

4.3 Conclusion The chapter has presented and discussed the research verdicts. Data was presented and analyzed in track with the aims and objectives of the study using pie charts, tables, bar graphs and description of the data gathered from questionnaires and during face to face interviews with the study participants. The chapter established findings on the causes, effects and ways to minimize child prostitution in Jerera Growth Point. The next chapter will major in summarizing the findings, conclusion and make possible recommendations.

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction This chapter is going to out pack the summary, conclusions and recommendations of the research findings. The summary will briefly explain chapter 1 up to chapter 4 and giving the findings. Nine conclusions are going to be drawn basing on the study findings. Recommendations will also be given based on the finding from the research study and in relation to areas that need to be improved so as protect the welfare of children as well as the community.

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5.2 Summary Chapter 1 contains the background of the study which indicates the historical background of child prostitution, statement of the problem, objectives, purpose of the study, significance of the study and the conclusion. The statement of the problem is the motive behind the study which made the researcher to carry out the research. There has been an increase in child prostitution despite the enactment of the laws by the government. Most of the researches on child prostitution where conducted in urban communities and hence the broad aim of the study is to establish the causes of child prostitution in Jerera Growth Point. Objectives of the study involve establishing the causes of child prostitution, to explore the effects of child prostitution and to identify strategies to minimize child prostitution. Moreover, the chapter indicates the significance of the study which is vital to the child workers, child protection practitioners, stakeholders like Department of Child Welfare, Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education etc., policy makers, future researchers and the community at large.

Chapter 2 reviews the literature and the theoretical framework on child prostitution. The study used the Systems Theory and the Social Learning Theory to explain the causes of child prostitution. The literature reviewed on the causes, effects of child prostitution and ways to minimize child prostitution. On the first objective the literature revealed that there are pull and push factors causing child prostitution. The literature reviewed poor economic conditions, unfavorable social conditions, to have a sense of power and control, failure to pay school fees, disinterest in school, peer pressure, pleasure, effects of disaster, discrimination in the society leading to loneliness. The literature also indicated that there are negative effects of child prostitution to the children and to the community. The effects indicated are contraction of STIs, social stigma, physical, emotional and verbal violence, unwanted pregnancies, increase in crime rate in the society, psychological effects and mental health problems. The strategies to minimize child prostitution includes vocational training and empowerment of women and girls, skills training, policy and law enforcement and awareness raising in the community and at school.

Chapter 3 contains the methodology used in data collection. The research used Jerera Growth Point as the case study with a target population of eighty child prostitutes. The sample size contains 15 child prostitutes and 6 key informants one from each department i.e. the Department of Child Welfare, Youth Development Department, Ministry of Women Affairs Gender and Community Development, Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, Zimbabwe Republic Police and Ministry of Health and Child Care. The study also used

50 snowball and purposive sampling. The research was both qualitative and quantitative in nature and used questionnaires and face to face interviews to collect data. The ethical issues are also included in the chapter which includes informed consent, privacy and confidentiality, protection from harm and honesty and openness.

Chapter 4 involves presentation of findings. The data was presented in form of tables, pie charts and bar graphs. The demographic profile indicated that only girls are involved in prostitution in Jerera. Most of these children totally rely on prostitution and do not have any other sources of income. A large number of these sex workers came from outside Zaka due to the effects of Tokwe Mkosi floods. It is also indicated that a very few participants have attained their secondary education. The data collected indicated that the major causes of child prostitution in Jerera Growth point are poor economic conditions, unfavorable social conditions, peer pressure and effects of the Tokwe Mkosi disaster. The effects these children face include physical, verbal and emotional violence, unwanted pregnancies and drug addiction. The research also revealed the strategies which involve family reunification, corporal punishment and awareness raising in schools and community helps to minimize child prostitution.

5.3 Conclusions 5.3.1 Poor economic conditions (unemployment, failure to pay fees)

The study concludes that the harsh economic conditions prevailing in the country are forcing children into prostitution. The economy characterised with low employment rates leads children into sex work due to lack of jobs. Parents are also finding it hard to raise the tuition fees for their children since it is hard to find jobs.

5.3.2 Poor social conditions (hunger, poverty, family disorganization)

Unfavourable social conditions also lead children into prostitution. Zaka has been experiencing continuous years of poor harvests since 2014 which resulted in hunger. Hunger combined with unemployment has resulted in poverty which most of the children have failed to endure. Parents leaving their children searching for jobs, displacements and deaths due to the disaster have disturbed the family bond which exposes children into prostitution. .

5.3.3 Peer pressure

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From the study it can also be concluded that peer pressure has leading children into prostitution. Young girls with most of them who did not proceed to the secondary level, have been influenced by peer pressure to engage into sex work to fight off poverty.

5.3.4 Negative impact of disaster

The Tokwe-Mkosi disaster has affected many households in Chivi leaving people homeless and with no other basic needs like food. Many children moved to nearby growth points including Jerera looking for shelter, food and money. Some children were left as orphans after the disaster with the duty to care for their siblings which forced them to engage in prostitution as a survival means to take care of the remaining family members.

5.3.5 Effects on social life

It is concluded from the study that prostitution has an impact on the social life of children. Many children have lost their friends and this has resulted in loneliness. These children also face social stigma in the societies they live. This reduces their participation in the society.

5.3.6 Physical, verbal and sexual violence

Children in prostitution face physical, verbal and sexual violence from their clients where they are beaten, kicked, shouted at and even forced to do sex when they are not willing. This impedes their rights as children and these clients take advantage knowing that they are children and can take little legal action about it.

5.3.7 Effects on the psychological health

Psychological problems are faced by children in prostitution. The violence which these young girls face affects their mind and they are often ashamed by their profession. They sometimes feel afraid to meet some of their clients being afraid to be harassed.

5.3.8 Legislation enforcement as a strategy

The formulation of laws and Acts to protect children should be accompanied by strong enforcement to ensure effective reduction of child prostitution. Children found loitering after 6 pm should be arrested and brought back to their homes.

5.3.9 Skills / vocational training

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The study concluded that skills training is another strategy to minimize prostitution of young girls. It helps to equip young girls with adequate skills and knowledge to initiate their own projects. Skills training enhance their self-reliance and at the same time empower them which reduce their chances of engaging into child prostitution as a survival strategy.

5.4 Recommendations 5.4.1 Government assistance

Government and other NGOs should fund young girls so that they initiate income generating projects and to get capital to start self-employment.

5.4.2 Enforcement and monitoring of legislative laws to protect children

The laws and policies formulated to protect children should be enforced and monitored to ensure effective functioning of those laws and frameworks in protecting children. Children found loitering after 6 pm for sexual solicitation should be arrested and brought back to their places.

5.4.3 Multi sectoral approach to ensure protection of young girls

Government sectors of the economy, NGOs and other Civil Society Organizations should partner together in the safety of children during planning and implementation of laws and legislations pertaining children. Environment should be favorable to physical and psychological health development of children including political, ecological, social, technological, legal and geographical environment.

5.4.4 Raising awareness

There is need for awareness campaigns to sensitise the community about child prostitution and the repercussions of it. The Child Care Workers should also take part in educating children in the community about reproductive health, their rights and effects of engaging in child prostitution. More so, people should be warned earlier about any upcoming disaster so that they take preventive measures in time. People with greater risks to a disaster should be displaced from that areas and put in a safe area. This is done so that people are not affected by disasters to avoid negative effects which the disaster might cause.

5.4.5 Linkage to resources

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Social workers should link vulnerable children with parents who cannot pay them school to donors and facilities which can pay for them. This helps to keep children in school and to educate young girls. Children should also be linked to organisations which help with capital for project initiation.

5.4.6 Advocacy for the rights of children

The rights of children should be observed and included in all legislative frameworks. This includes rights to safer sex.

Recommended areas of study

5.4.7 An investigation into challenges being faced by child sex workers in their profession

5.4.8 A study into the efficacy of legislative laws to ensure child protection

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: INFORMED CONSENT FORM

I volunteer to participate in a research project that is being conducted by a student from Bindura University of Science Education, Munzwa Patience who is pursuing a Bachelor’s Degree in Social Work. I understand that the main agenda of the project is to gather information for academic purposes. The information is on the research topic “Socio Economic Factors Leading to The Rise of Child Prostitution: The case of Jerera Growth Point from 2014 to 2016 (after the Tokwe-Mkosi disaster)”.

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My participation on this project is voluntary and no remuneration or benefits will be provided before or after participation. Due to the fact that participation is based on voluntary basis, withdrawal or discontinuation of participation can be done at any time without an interrogation or a penalty. I understand that the time of the interview will be 45 to 60 minutes which may be accompanied by recording on paper.

I also understand that during the interviews the researcher will not be in a position to identify me by name in any of his reports or anywhere she is going to use the information obtained from the interview, therefore my confidentiality as a participant is guaranteed.

I have read and understood the explanation provided to me and I have had all my questions answered to my satisfaction and I voluntarily opt to participate in the study.

Interviewer’s Signature …………………………………………………

Interviewee’s Signature ………………………………………………….

Date ……………………………………………………

APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR KEY INFORMANTS (Child Welfare Officer, Youth Development Officer, Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development Officer, member from Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, member from the Ministry of Health and Child Care and police officer).

Introduction

My name is Patience Munzwa, an undergraduate student at Bindura University of Science Education pursuing a Bachelor’s degree in social work. I am conducting a research with the topic “Socio Economic Factors Leading to The Rise of Child Prostitution: The case of Jerera Growth Point”. The study had a bearing in the management, programming and improvement of the studies used by various implementers providing child welfare services in

60 the district. Therefore, you have been selected to take part in this study. The data obtained from you will be kept confidential and will be used on this study only.

Questions

1. What is the name of your organization? 2. What type of clients do you serve at this organization? 3. What is your area of coverage? 4. For how long have you been implementing child welfare services in Zaka District? 5. What do you think are the key drivers of child prostitution in rural community? 6. What age groups do you view as the most predominant ones in practicing child prostitution? 7. What are some of the reasons given by children for engaging into child prostitution especially from 2014? 8. From your own experience what do you think are the negative impacts of child prostitution? 9. What are the strategies that you use in trying to reduce child prostitution? 10. How has been your experience in reducing child prostitution? 11. How effective are the measures that you take in trying to reduce child prostitution? 12. What are the challenges that you face in the implementation of measures to reduce child prostitution? 13. How is your relationship with other implementing partners?

THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION.

APPENDIX C: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDY PARTICIPANTS

Introduction

My name is Munzwa Patience a student pursuing a Bachelor’s Degree in Social Work at Bindura University. As part of my curriculum, I am undertaking a research project on the topic:-

‘Socio- economic factors leading to the rise of child prostitution: The case of Jerera Growth Point from 2014 to 2016 (after the Tokwe-Mkosi disaster).

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The study will help in understanding causes, consequences of child prostitution and strategies to minimize child prostitution. . Therefore, you have been selected to participate in this research and to give your views on the topic in discussion. Each question is going to help come up with results for the study. The information collected is strictly for academic purposes only and confidentiality of the respondents will be strictly observed.

You are kindly asked to tick the box or to provide your views in the space given for each question.

Your co-operation will be greatly appreciated.

Section A: Demographic data

a) Age 1-12[ ] 13-17[ ] 18+ [ ]

b) Sex Female [ ] Male [ ]

c) Level of education attained Primary [ ] Secondary [ ] No schooling [ ]

d) Do you have other sources of income Yes [ ] No [ ]

If yes state the monthly income and source………………………………………………...

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………………………………………………………………………………………………. e) Where did you come from? (Specify District) Zaka[ ] Outside Zaka[ ]

…………………………..

(f) Do you stay with your parents? Both [ ] Single [ ] None [ ]

If no, where are they?………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………..

Section B a) Is prostitution your profession?

………………………………………………………………………………… b) For how long have you been in the profession?

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………. c) What led you into choosing that profession?

…..……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………… d) On average if the month is good, how much do you get in a period of a month from your clients? [ ] e) Have you ever been tested for HIV? No [ ] Yes [ ]

If the answer is no, give reasons

………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………

63 f) What are the challenges and the consequences that you face in your profession? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………….. g).Do you foresee yourself leaving the profession at any time? NO [ ] YES [ ]

If the answer is no, give reasons

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………. h) Do you have anything you feel you want to tell me about your profession?

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………….. i) Given an option, what other income generating projects would you want to be involved in?

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………

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APPENDIX D: APPROVAL LETTER

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