Implications for the Supercontinent Cycle

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Research paper Contemporaneous assembly of Western Gondwana and ﬁnal Rodinia break-up: Implications for the supercontinent cycle

Sebastián Oriolo a,*, Pedro Oyhantçabal b, Klaus Wemmer a, Siegfried Siegesmund a a Geoscience Center, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Goldschmidtstraße 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany b Departamento de Geología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay article info abstract

Article history: Geological, geochronological and isotopic data are integrated in order to present a revised model for the Received 13 May 2016 Neoproterozoic evolution of Western Gondwana. Although the classical geodynamic scenario assumed Received in revised form for the period 800e700 Ma is related to Rodinia break-up and the consequent opening of major oceanic 6 January 2017 basins, a significantly different tectonic evolution can be inferred for most Western Gondwana cratons. Accepted 11 January 2017 These cratons occupied a marginal position in the southern hemisphere with respect to Rodinia and Available online xxx Handling Editor: R.D. Nance recorded subduction with back-arc extension, island arc development and limited formation of oceanic crust in internal oceans. This period was thus characterized by increased crustal growth in Western Keywords: Gondwana, resulting from addition of juvenile continental crust along convergent margins. In contrast, BrasilianoePan-African Orogeny crustal reworking and metacratonization were dominant during the subsequent assembly of Gondwana. Neoproterozoic The Río de la Plata, Congo-São Francisco, West African and Amazonian cratons collided at ca. 630 Collisional tectonics e600 Ma along the West Gondwana Orogen. These events overlap in time with the onset of the opening Pannotia of the Iapetus Ocean at ca. 610e600 Ma, which gave rise to the separation of Baltica, Laurentia and Metacratonization Amazonia and resulted from the final Rodinia break-up. The East African/Antarctic Orogen recorded the Introversion-extroversion subsequent amalgamation of Western and Eastern Gondwana after ca. 580 Ma, contemporaneously with the beginning of subduction in the Terra Australis Orogen along the southern Gondwana margin. However, the Kalahari Craton was lately incorporated during the Late EdiacaraneEarly Cambrian. The proposed Gondwana evolution rules out the existence of Pannotia, as the final Gondwana amalgamation postdates latest connections between Laurentia and Amazonia. Additionally, a combination of introversion and extroversion is proposed for the assembly of Gondwana. The contemporaneous record of final Rodinia break-up and Gondwana assembly has major implications for the supercontinent cycle, as supercontinent amalgamation and break-up do not necessarily represent alternating episodic processes but overlap in time. Ó 2017, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction which was extended to South America, Australia and Antarctica by Wegener (1915). The term Gondwana was first used in the geological literature to The amalgamation of Gondwana started at ca. 630 Ma and refer to a plant-bearing series in India and was afterwards extended to ca. 550e530 Ma, when subduction along its proto- extended to the Gondwana system (Feistmantel, 1876; Medlicott Pacific margin was already established (Dalziel, 1997; Cordani and Blanford, 1879, and references therein). Based on similarities et al., 2003; Meert and Torsvik, 2003; Cawood, 2005; Collins and in the PaleozoiceMesozoic geological and fossiliferous record of Pisarevsky, 2005; Cawood and Buchan, 2007). Likewise, Pannotia India and other continental masses, Suess (1885) proposed the was considered as a Late Neoproterozoic “short-lived” supercon- existence of a supercontinent and coined the name Gondwanaland, tinent that included Laurentia and Gondwanan domains, prior to Gondwana final configuration (Powell and Young, 1995; Dalziel, 1997). On the other hand, the break-up of Rodinia took place in e * Corresponding author. two phases at ca. 800 700 Ma and after ca. 600 Ma, being the later E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (S. Oriolo). coeval with the timing of Gondwana assembly (Cordani et al., 2003; Peer-review under responsibility of China University of Geosciences (Beijing). Cawood, 2005; Li et al., 2008). Late Neoproterozoic paleogeography http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2017.01.009 1674-9871/Ó 2017, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC- ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article in press as: Oriolo, S., et al., Contemporaneous assembly of Western Gondwana and final Rodinia break-up: Implications for the supercontinent cycle, Geoscience Frontiers (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2017.01.009 2 S. Oriolo et al. / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2017) 1e15 thus resulted from major geodynamic processes that might be a whereas the Congo Craton in Africa exhibits several distinct Meso- priori linked to the evolution of Rodinia, Pannotia and/or Gond- proterozoicmagmaticeventsatca.1.50,1.38and1.10Ga(Ernst et al., wana (Fig. 1). 2013). Despite being almost coeval with the timing of Rodinia as- Two end-member processes were proposed for the formation of sembly, the youngest event comprises gabbroenorite dykes that supercontinents, namely introversion and extroversion, depending resulted from intraplate magmatism (Ernst et al., 2013). on whether internal or external oceans of a supercontinent are A different situation can be observed in the Kalahari Craton, closed to form the next one, respectively (Fig. 2; Nance et al., 1988; which presents an ArcheanePaleoproterozoic nucleus surrounded Hartnady, 1991; Hoffman, 1991; Murphy and Nance, 2003, 2005, by Late Mesoproterozoic mobile belts. The northern (present co- 2013; Mitchell et al., 2012; Evans et al., 2016). Internal oceans ordinates) SinclaireGhanzieChobe Belt recorded arc-related mag- comprise juvenile crust that forms after break-up of the previous matism resulting in collision and subsequent post-collisional supercontinent and external ocean crust predates the previous magmatism at ca. 1.1 Ga (Kampunzu et al.,1998; Becker et al., 2006). supercontinent (Murphy and Nance, 2003, 2005). In terms of To the southwest, collision-related deformation and meta- paleogeography, introversion implies that the location of a super- morphism in the Namaqua Belt has been placed at ca. 1.20e1.18 Ga continent is the same of its predecessor, whereas the successor is (e.g., Miller, 2008; Colliston et al., 2015; Cornell et al., 2015), located in the opposite hemisphere in the case of extroversion although extension in a back-arc setting was alternatively consid- (Mitchell et al., 2012). In the particular case of Gondwana, an ered for this major tectonothermal event (Bial et al., 2015a, b). The extroversion model has been typically considered (Hoffman, 1991; southeastern margin of the Kalahari Craton, in turn, is bounded by Murphy and Nance, 2003, 2005, 2013; Evans et al., 2016). the Natal Belt, which recorded accretion of island arc complexes Based on a review of geological, geochronological and isotopic (e.g., Thomas, 1989; Jacobs and Thomas, 1994; Spencer et al., 2015). evidences, a revised model for the Neoproterozoic evolution of On the other hand, the Umkondo LIP intruded the Kalahari Craton Western Gondwana is presented in this work. Relationships with at ca. 1.1 Ga (Hanson et al., 2004) and was correlated with coeval Rodinia break-up and the evolution of the Terra Australis Orogen intraplate extensional magmatism in the Congo Craton (Ernst et al., are discussed, and implications for the supercontinent cycle are 2013). In contrast, Becker et al. (2006) interpreted this intrusion as analyzed as well. the result of post-collisional processes. Although it seems to be clear that the Río de la Plata, West African 2. Pre-Gondwana configuration and Congo-São Francisco cratons were not part of Rodinia (Fig. 1a), the position of the Kalahari Craton is still uncertain. However, even if Many contributions attempted to elucidate Late Mesoproter- being part of Rodinia, the Kalahari Craton might already rift away at ozoiceEarly Neoproterozoic paleogeography (e.g., Powell et al., ca. 700 Ma (Jacobs et al., 2008). Rifting at ca. 800e700 Ma gave rise 1993; Dalziel et al., 2000; Kröner and Cordani, 2003; Pisarevsky to the opening of a major oceanic basin between Laurentia and et al., 2003; Tohver et al., 2006; Li et al., 2008; Evans, 2009), eastern Gondwanan cratons and was succeeded by a second rifting which represents a key point to understand the history of Gond- event starting after ca. 610e600 Ma (Fig. 1a) that triggered the wana amalgamation. The assembly of Rodinia took place at ca. opening of the Iapetus Ocean between Laurentia, Baltica and Ama- 1.1e1.0 Ga and, although most authors agree on the fact that the zonia (e.g., Cawood et al., 2001; Meert and Torsvik, 2003; Li et al., Amazonian Craton was part of Rodinia (Dalziel et al., 2000; Tohver 2008). In any case, most reconstructions do not consider Meso- et al., 2006; Li et al., 2008; Evans, 2009), the participation of other proterozoic connections of the Congo-São Francisco and Kalahari western Gondwanan blocks is still under discussion. Kröner and cratons (e.g., Cordani et al., 2003; Meert and Torsvik, 2003; Tohver Cordani (2003) and Cordani et al. (2003) indicated that the Río de et al., 2006), which is further supported by detrital zircon data la Plata, Kalahari and Congo-São Francisco cratons were not part of from the Damara Belt indicating different provenance for passive Rodinia, which was further supported by Tohver et al. (2006) and margins of both blocks till the Early Ediacaran (Foster et al., 2015). Rapalini et al. (2013). In contrast, Evans (2009) included all blocks Hence, the Río de la Plata, West African, Congo-São Francisco and within Rodinia. Kalahari cratons did not interact with each other during the Meso- In the case of the Río de la Plata Craton, the pre-Brasiliano proterozoic and probably occupied a marginal position with respect geological record (i.e., older than ca. 650 Ma) is restricted to the to Rodinia during the Early Neoproterozoic (Fig. 1a). Paleoproterozoic. Basement rocks comprise mainly Rhya- cianeOrosirian gneisses and granitoids, which show Late Paleo- 3. The assembly of Gondwana proterozoic KeAr muscovite cooling ages and are intruded by Statherian mafic dykes (Cingolani, 2011; Oyhantçabal et al., 2011). Comparison of available data allows characterizing the amal- Paleoproterozoic rocks are covered by Neoproterozoic metasedi- gamation of the Río de la Plata and Congo cratons as one of the mentary rocks and only show local overprinting related to the earliest collisional events, which is constrained at ca. 630 Ma by Brasiliano Orogeny (Martínez et al., 2013; Oriolo et al., 2016a), 40Ar/39Ar and KeAr amphibole and mica data from the Dom pointing to lack of Mesoproterozoic events and isolation of the Río Feliciano Belt in Uruguay (Figs. 3 and 4a; Oriolo et al., 2016b). This de la Plata Craton during Rodinia evolution. In a similar way, the collisional event implied the docking of the Nico Pérez Terrane to West African Craton is made up of Archean and Paleoproterozoic the Río de la Plata Craton margin along the Sarandí del Yí Shear nuclei and lacks in rocks yielding ages between ca. 1.7 and 1.0 Ga Zone (Oriolo et al., 2015, 2016a). Consequent regional meta- (Ennih and Liégeois, 2008, and references therein). Although most morphism, crustal shortening and exhumation is recorded along paleogeographic reconstructions placed this block attached to the the belt between ca. 630 and 600 Ma (da Silva et al., 1999; Chemale Amazonian Craton (e.g., Cordani et al., 2003; Tohver et al., 2006; Li et al., 2011; Oriolo et al., 2016b; Philipp et al., 2016). Peraluminous et al., 2008), isolation of the West African Craton during the Mes- syncollisional leucogranites resulting from crustal anatexis at oproterozoic seems to be a more plausible scenario (Fig. 1a). 740e820 C and 8e9 kbar were succeeded by voluminous post- The Congo-São Francisco Craton, in turn, shows a protracted collisional magmatism between ca. 630e580 Ma (Oyhantçabal Mesoproterozoic evolution. In Brazil, the São Francisco Craton records et al., 2007; Florisbal et al., 2009, 2012; Basei et al., 2011; Philipp intraplate magmatism and sedimentation related to several exten- et al., 2013, 2016). sional events throughout the Late PaleoproterozoiceMesoproterozoic Further north, the Ribeira Belt records a protracted history of (Chemaleetal.,2012;Ribeiroetal.,2013, and references therein), minor terrane amalgamation (Figs. 3 and 4b; Heilbron et al., 2008).

Figure 1. (a) Rodinia reconstruction (modiﬁed after Meert and Torsvik, 2003). “Non-Rodinian” blocks are shown in yellow. Question marks indicate uncertain position of the Kalahari Craton. Note that location of the Río de la Plata and West African cratons are tentative due to the lack of StenianeTonian rocks. (b) Pannotia reconstruction for the Late EdiacaraneCambrian (modiﬁed after Dalziel, 1997). Western and Eastern Gondwana domains are shown.

AUePb SHRIMP zircon age of 612 13 Ma constrains a meta- 525e520 Ma as well (Schmitt et al., 2004; Heilbron et al., 2008; morphic event related to an Early Ediacaran collisional event Fernandes et al., 2015), with peak metamorphic conditions of (Bento dos Santos et al., 2010), although peak metamorphic con- >780 C and >9 kbar for the latter (Schmitt et al., 2004). Never- ditions of ca. 700e800 C and 9.5e12 kbar were attained after ca. theless, Meira et al. (2015) argued for a model of intracontinental 590 Ma (Bento dos Santos et al., 2010; Faleiros et al., 2011). Sub- deformation throughout the Ribeira Belt instead of multiple sequent terrane accretion took place at ca. 580e550 and collisional events.

Figure 2. Cartoons illustrating two end-member processes for the formation of supercontinents (modiﬁed after Murphy and Nance, 2003).

The Brasilia Belt, in turn, represents the western and southern scale dextral shear zones, i.e. the Transbrasiliano-Kandi Linea- margin of the São Francisco Craton. Peak metamorphic conditions ment and the Sarandí del Yí Shear Zone, separate cratonic areas to of ca. 825 C and 12 kbar were achieved at 617.7 1.3 Ma (ID-TIMS the west from metacratonic areas to the east (Fig. 5; Section 4). monazite) along the southern branch of this belt, thus constraining Likewise, Cryogenian magmatism and subsequent arc/back-arc the collision of the São Francisco Craton and the Paranapanema magmatism with subduction to the east after ca. 660 Ma are Plate (Figs. 3 and 4b; Campos Neto et al., 2010). recorded up to the collisional phase (Section 4; Goscombe and Gray, Contemporaneous collisional processes are recorded along the 2007, 2008; Rapela et al., 2011; Berger et al., 2014; Ganade de Transbrasiliano Lineament (Figs. 3 and 4b), which separates the Araujo et al., 2014a; Konopásek et al., 2014; Ganade et al., 2016; Amazonian Craton from the Borborema Province and the São Oriolo et al., 2016a). The subsequent collision gave rise to the Francisco Craton. Eclogite remnants reveal UHP metamorphism birth of Western Gondwana already at ca. 600 Ma and the conse- and associated crustal anatexis at ca. 625e615 Ma with peak quent amalgamation of African-derived crustal blocks to the South metamorphic conditions of ca. 770 C and 17 kbar resulting from American ArcheaneProterozoic nuclei (Fig. 4b; Rapela et al., 2011; continental collision (dos Santos et al., 2009; Ganade de Araujo Oriolo et al., 2016a, c). The West Gondwana Orogen, which was et al., 2014a). Dextral shearing along the Transbrasiliano Linea- previously deﬁned for northwestern Africa and central Brazil ment and post-collisional magmatism were afterwards recorded (Ganade de Araujo et al., 2014b), can be thus extended to the (Ganade de Araujo et al., 2014b). Uruguayan sector (Fig. 5). On the other hand, the amalgamation of Likewise, the Kandi Lineament separates the Saharan Meta- Western Gondwana was contemporaneous with the last events of craton and the West African Craton and represents the African Rodinia break-up, which were related to the opening of the Iapetus counterpart of the Transbrasiliano Lineament. Eclogites located to Ocean at ca. 610e600 Ma (Figs. 3 and 4c; Cawood et al., 2001; Hartz the west of the Kandi Lineament indicate peak metamorphic con- and Torsvik, 2002; Li et al., 2008; O’Brien and van der Pluijm, 2012). ditions of ca. 700e800 C and 30e33 kbar at ca. 617e605 Ma in the Although most Western Gondwana cratons were already Gourma region (Ganade de Araujo et al., 2014c), whereas peak amalgamated at ca. 600 Ma, the Kalahari Craton was lately incor- metamorphic conditions of ca. 650e750 C and 28e30 kbar at ca. porated (Fig. 4d and e). An early metamorphic event related to 615e603 Ma were reported for eclogites of the Dahomey Belt convergence along the Damara Belt was recorded at ca. (Figs. 3 and 4b; Ganade et al., 2016). On the other hand, eclogitic 600e590 Ma by 40Ar/39Ar phengite data (Lehmann et al., 2016). relics exposed in the Tuareg Shield to the east of the Kandi Linea- Convergence also triggered sinistral shearing in the Dom Feliciano ment record UHP metamorphism as well and yield peak meta- Belt (Oriolo et al., 2016a, b) and culminated with collision of the morphic conditions of ca. 650 C and 20e22 kbar achieved at ca. Congo and Kalahari cratons at ca. 530e520 Ma (Fig. 3; Gray et al., 625e620 Ma (Figs. 3 and 4b; Berger et al., 2014). 2006; Schmitt et al., 2012). Peak metamorphic conditions of ca. Despite being slightly diachronous, all collisional orogens be- 750e700 C and 5 kbar were attained at ca. 525e505 Ma, which are tween 630 and 600 Ma present some similarities (Fig. 3). Crustal- constrained by UePb monazite and SmeNd garnet isochrone data

Figure 3. Timing of Gondwana-related collisional events (red) summarized from available data. Sarandí del Yí Shear Zone/Dom Feliciano Belt (Oriolo et al., 2016a,b), Transbrasiliano Lineament (Ganade de Araujo et al., 2014a,b), Kandi Lineament/Dahomey Belt (Berger et al., 2014; Ganade de Araujo et al., 2014c; Ganade et al., 2016), Brasilia Belt (Campos Neto et al., 2010), Ribeira Belt (Schmitt et al., 2004; Heilbron et al., 2008; Bento dos Santos et al., 2010), Kaoko Belt (Goscombe et al., 2005; Goscombe and Gray, 2007, 2008; Foster et al., 2009), Damara Belt (Gray et al., 2006; Schmitt et al., 2012), Gariep Belt (Frimmel and Frank, 1998; Frimmel et al., 2011), East AfricaneAntartic Orogen (Jacobs and Thomas, 2004; Viola et al., 2008). Rodinia break-up after Meer and Torsvik (2003) and Li et al. (2008). Subduction along the Terra Australis Orogen after Cawood (2005) and Cawood and Buchan (2007). Note overlapping of the second stage of Rodinia break-up (i.e., opening of the Iapetus Ocean) and the assembly of Western Gondwana. See text for further explanation.

(Jung and Mezger, 2003). Syncollisional intrusions are recorded at margin during the Paleozoic, as in the case of the Pampean Belt ca. 530 Ma (Schmitt et al., 2012), whereas regional exhumation and (Fig. 4e; Dalla Salda et al., 1992; Dalziel et al., 1994; Rapela et al., cooling below muscovite closure temperature are recorded up to 1998, 2007, 2016; Siegesmund et al., 2010). ca. 460 Ma (Gray et al., 2006). Nevertheless, 40Ar/39Ar hornblende Hence, Late NeoproterozoiceCambrian collisions leading to the data from the Gariep Belt constrain an early collisional event along final Gondwana assembly and coeval subduction along the Terra the western Kalahari Craton margin (Frimmel and Frank, 1998), Australis Orogen suggest a coupling between internal collisional and giving rise to the closure of the Gariep-Rocha basin and deforma- marginal subduction processes, as indicated by Cawood and Buchan tion of post-collisional basins of the Dom Feliciano Belt at ca. (2007). Likewise, these processes seemed to be strongly linked to 550e530 Ma (Frimmel and Frank, 1998; Basei et al., 2000, 2005; the final stages of Rodinia break-up as well, particularly to the opening Frimmel et al., 2011; Oriolo et al., 2016b). of the Iapetus Ocean. The evolution of Gondwana emphasizes the On the other hand, collisional processes at 580e550 Ma were need to reevaluate the classical concept of the supercontinent cycle reported in the East AfricaneAntartic Orogen (Figs. 3 and 4d; Jacobs (Nance et al., 2014, and references therein), as supercontinent as- and Thomas, 2004; Viola et al., 2008; Fritz et al., 2013), indicating sembly and break-up do not necessarily represent alternating that the assembly of Western and Eastern Gondwana predates the episodic processes but may overlap in time (Condie and Aster, 2013). final incorporation of the Kalahari Craton into the former. On the On the other hand, the proposed Gondwana evolution (Fig. 4)rules southern Gondwana margin, subduction is also recorded along the out the existence of the supercontinent Pannotia (Fig. 1b; Powell and Terra Australis Orogen after ca. 580 Ma (Figs. 3 and 4d; Cawood, Young, 1995; Dalziel, 1997), as Laurentia, western and eastern 2005; Cawood and Buchan, 2007). Along this margin, several Gondwana were not part of a single supercontinent during the Late peri-Laurentian blocks were rifted away during the opening of the Neoproterozoic. Indeed, Laurentia and Amazonia connections just Iapetus Ocean and subsequently juxtaposed to the Gondwana represent remnants of the Rodinia assembly (Fig. 1a).

Figure 4. Schematic tectonic and paleogeographic evolution of main crustal blocks (WA: West Africa, RP: Río de la Plata, K: Kalahari, NP: Nico Pérez, SF: São Francisco, LA: LATEA, AS: ArabianeNubian Shield). Gondwana reconstructions modified after Meert and Lieberman (2004), Collins and Pisarevsky (2005), Tohver et al. (2006), Li et al. (2008), Pisarevsky et al. (2008), Pradhan et al. (2009) and Johansson (2014). Evolution of Laurentia, Baltica and Iapetus Ocean after Cawood et al. (2001), Hartz and Torsvik (2002) and O’Brien and van der Pluijm (2012). Terra Australis Orogen after Cawood (2005) and Cawood and Buchan (2007). ① northern East African Orogen, ② Dom Feliciano Belt, ③ Ribeira Belt, ④ Brasilia Belt, ⑤ Transbrasiliano Lineament, ⑥ Kandi Lineament/Dahomey Belt, ⑦ Kaoko Belt, ⑧ East AfricaneAntartic Orogen, ⑨ Damara Belt, ⑩ Gariep and Saldania belts, ⑪ Pampean Belt. As the onset of the final break-up of Rodinia (ca. 600 Ma) postdates the final assembly of Gondwana at ca. 550e530 Ma, the existence of Pannotia is ruled out. Late collisions in the Ribeira Belt (e.g., Schmitt et al., 2004; Heilbron et al., 2008) are not shown. See text for further explanation.

4. Gondwana crustal growth: from TonianeCryogenian island instance, basement inliers of the Andean chain present a Laurentian arc accretion to Ediacaran collision and metacratonization afﬁnity and were juxtaposed to the Gondwana margin during the Paleozoic (e.g., Brito Neves and Fuck, 2014; Rapela et al., 2016). Hf isotopic data from different BrasilianoePan-African belts Hence, Ediacaran zircons from these areas do not record the as- were compiled in order to analyze the crustal growth history of sembly of Gondwana sensu strictu but a coeval process in Laurentia Gondwana during the Neoproterozoic (Fig. 6a). In the last decade, (e.g., opening of the Iapetus Ocean; Rapela et al., 2016). For this most contributions that evaluate the crustal growth of Gondwana reason, the database of Fig. 6a comprises only isotopic data from using isotopic data consider global databases. Though extremely Neoproterozoic zircons of BrasilianoePan-African belts. useful, global databases may led to misinterpretations if the Data reveal a fanning isotopic array (Fig. 6a) that points to geological and tectonic framework is not clearly understood. For increased continental loss towards the timing of Gondwana

Figure 5. Main crustal blocks and Neoproterozoic orogenic belts in South America and Africa, including location of the West Gondwana Orogen (modiﬁed after Gray et al., 2008; Liégeois et al., 2013; Brito Neves and Fuck, 2014; Ganade et al., 2016). BrasilianoePan-African belts are shown with white dots (① Dom Feliciano Belt, ② Brasilia Belt, ③ Dahomey Belt, ④ Ribeira Belt, ⑤ Kaoko Belt, ⑥ Damara Belt, ⑦ Gariep Belt, ⑧ East AfricaneAntarctic Orogen), whereas yellow stars indicate location of ophiolites and/or island arc complexes (1: Zambezi Belt, 2: São Gabriel Block, 3: Araguaia Belt, 4: Borborema Province, 5: Anti-Atlas Belt, 6: ArabianeNubian Shield). Note that most crustal fragments within the West Gondwana Orogen were affected by metacratonization. See text for further explanation.

assembly, thus indicating dominance of crustal recycling processes necessarily reflect crustal growth events (e.g., Roberts and Spencer, as expected for collisional orogenies (Collins et al., 2011; Roberts, 2015; Payne et al., 2016), they show marked differences in the crus- 2012). The isotopic array of Phanerozoic collisional orogens results tal evolution of different Western Gondwana domains (Fig. 7). from a negative correlation of εHf vs. age, which represents increased In the first place, the isotopic excursion towards negative εHf continental loss, and a positive excursion arising from arc magma- values (i.e., evolved Hf signature) is essentially defined by data from tism (Collins et al., 2011). While two main trends are also recogniz- belts related to the West Gondwana Orogen (Fig. 6a), which implies able in the Gondwana array, both show a negative correlation of εHf dominant reworking of ArcheanePaleoproterozoic continental vs. age (Fig. 6a). Hence, addition of juvenile material was clearly crust. Though present, basement remnants are significantly over- subordinated to crustal reworking during the assembly of Gond- printed by deformation, magmatism and metamorphism during wana, as further supported by dominant Archean to Mesoproterozoic the BrasilianoePan-African Orogeny, thus indicating the impor- Hf TDM model ages of zircons yielding BrasilianoePan-African UePb tance of metacratonization processes during Gondwana assembly ages (<650 Ma; Fig. 7). Differences in the slope can be explained (Figs. 4b and 5; Liégois et al., 2013). A similar trend is also evident considering the tectonic evolution of the different orogenic belts and for the Damara Belt, resulting from recycling of Paleoproterozoic the age of the reworked crust. Although LueHf TDM model ages do not crust (Fig. 6a; Milani et al., 2015).

Figure 6. Synthesis of isotopic data from Neoproterozoic zircons of BrasilianoePan-African belts (analytical data in Appendix 1). Arrows indicate trends of increasing continental crust reworking. (a) εHf vs. UePb zircon data (n ¼ 1495) recalculated after Be’eri-Shlevin et al. (2010), Matteini et al. (2010), Morag et al. (2011), Rapela et al. (2011), Abati et al. (2012), Ali et al. (2012, 2013, 2016), Frimmel et al. (2013), Ganade de Araujo et al. (2014a), Fernandes et al. (2015), Foster et al. (2015), Milani et al. (2015), Pertille et al. (2015), Ganade et al. (2016), Janasi et al. (2016) and Oriolo et al. (2016c). The timing of Gondwana amalgamation is indicated in yellow. Data were recalculated considering a constant decay l 176Lu ¼ 1.867 10 11 year 1 (Söderlund et al., 2004) and CHUR values of 176Hf/177Hf ¼ 0.282772 and 176Lu/177Hf ¼ 0.0332 (Blichert-Toft and Albarède, 1997). (b) U-Pb vs. d18O zircon data (n ¼ 241) after Ganade de Araujo et al. (2014a), Fortes de Lena et al. (2014) and Ali et al. (2016). The timing of Gondwana amalgamation is indicated in yellow and mantle values are shown between dashed lines.

gneisses of the São Francisco Craton show metamorphic overprinting at ca. 630e500 Ma (da Silva et al., 2005, and references therein). Coeval deformation and metamorphism of Mesoproter- ozoic sedimentary sequences (Süssenberger et al., 2014)aswellas shear zone activity and associated hydrothermal alteration are also reported (Teixeira et al., 2010). Further north (present coordinates), Paleoproterozoic gneisses of the Borborema Province show intense overprinting due to Brasiliano magmatism and metamorphism (Neves, 2003, 2015; Ganade de Araujo et al., 2014b), which is further supported by whole-rock SmeNd and zircon LueHf model ages of Neoproterozoic intrusions and migmatites (van Schmuss et al., 2011; Ganade de Araujo et al., 2014a). If compared with the paradigmatic Saharan and LATEA metacratons (Abdesalam et al., 2002; Liégeois et al., 2003, 2013), it is thus clear that South American counterparts show a very similar scenario of metacratonization during the BrasilianoePan-African Orogeny (Fig. 5). On the other hand, the second isotopic excursion towards less positive εHf values is defined by zircons from the ArabianeNubian Shield (Fig. 6a). The ArabianeNubian Shield comprises dominantly juvenile Late TonianeCryogenian continental crust (ca. 880e700 Ma), which is well-recorded by juvenile Hf signatures (εHf > þ6; Fig. 6a) and resulted from accretion of island arcs (e.g., Liégeois and Stern, 2010; Stern et al., 2010; Morag et al., 2011; Fritz et al., 2013). Zircon xenocrysts and LueHf data from Neoproterozoic zircons indicate limited contribution of pre-Neoproterozoic continental crust as well, which might result from the incorporation of subducted sediments derived from a proximal continental source (Stern et al., 2010; Morag et al., 2011; Ali et al., 2013). Alternatively, Be’eri-Shlevin et al. (2010) argued for a major crustal growth event at ca. 1.2e1.1 Ga. On the other hand, whole-rock SmeNd and zircon LueHf data from post-collisional magmatism recorded after ca. 650 Ma indicate reworking of older Neoproterozoic crust with addition of juvenile material to some extent (Be’eri-Shlevin et al., 2010; Liégeois and Stern, 2010; Morag et al., 2011; Ali et al., 2012, 2013, 2016). d18O combined with LueHf data also point to mixing of juvenile Ediacaran crust and slightly older Neoproterozoic supracrustal material (Fig. 6b; Ali et al., 2016). In the case of the Anti-Atlas Belt, zircon LueHf and UePb data reveals a bimodal distribution that fits both trends recognized for the West Gondwana Orogen and the ArabianeNubian Shield (Figs. 6a and 7). The excursion towards negative εHf values is further supported by detrital zircons from Late Neoproterozoic sequences that indicate contributions from Archean and Paleoproterozoic crustal blocks and Paleoproterozoic LueHf model ages (Fig. 7; Abati et al., 2012). The second trend, in turn, might result from the evo- Figure 7. Kernel density estimation curve and histogram of two-stage Hf model ages plotted using Density Plotter (Vermeesch, 2012). Only zircons from BrasilianoePan- lution of an intraoceanic arc between ca. 760 and 700 Ma (e.g., African belts yielding UePb crystallization ages younger than 650 Ma are included. Bousquet et al., 2008; Triantafyllou et al., 2016), being thus com- Data source as for Fig. 6 (analytical data in Appendix 1). Bin width: 50 Ma. Data were parable with the ArabianeNubian Shield. Juvenile crust contribu- l 176 ¼ 11 1 recalculated considering a constant decay Lu 1.867 10 year (Söderlund tion was also reported for Pan-African detrital zircons and was et al., 2004), CHUR values of 176Hf/177Hf ¼ 0.282772 and 176Lu/177Hf ¼ 0.0332 (Blichert-Toft and Albarède, 1997), depleted mantle (DM) values of interpreted as the result of arc magmatism along the northern 176Hf/177Hf ¼ 0.283225 and 176Lu/177Hf ¼ 0.038512 (Vervoort and Blichert-Toft, 1999) Gondwana margin during the Late NeoproterozoiceEarly Paleozoic and 176Lu/177Hf ¼ 0.015 for bulk Earth (Goodge and Vervoort, 2006). (Abati et al., 2012, and references therein). Hence, this subduction- related magmatism might be a possible explanation for the juvenile Pan-African crust of the ArabianeNubian Shield. In the Dom Feliciano Belt, post-collisional Ediacaran magmatism Despite being evident for the northern African margin, addition records recycling of Archean-Paleoproterozoic basement rocks of of TonianeCryogenian juvenile continental crust along the West the Nico Pérez Terrane and other minor crustal blocks, as indicated Gondwana Orogen is not clearly reflected by data (Fig. 6a). Never- by inherited zircons yielding Archean and Paleoproterozoic crys- theless, subduction with associated back-arc extension and devel- tallization ages and coeval whole-rock SmeNd and zircon LueHf opment of island arc complexes at ca. 850e750 Ma accounts for model ages (Oyhantçabal et al., 2007, 2009, 2012; Florisbal et al., addition of juvenile material in the Dahomey Belt (Ganade et al., 2012; Basei et al., 2013; Lara et al., 2016; Oriolo et al., 2016c). 2016). For the same period, a similar setting was indicated for the TheUePb monazite, 40Ar/39Ar and KeAr hornblende and mica ages Borborema Province (Ganade de Araujo et al., 2014a) and intra- also record shearing and metamorphism of the Nico Pérez Terrane oceanic subduction was reported in the São Gabriel Block (Fig. 5, basement at ca. 630e580 Ma (Oyhantçabal et al., 2009, 2011, 2012; Fortes de Lena et al., 2014, and references therein). d18O isotopic Oriolo et al., 2016b). In a similar way, ArcheanePaleoproterozoic data from these regions show mantle-like values for zircons

Please cite this article in press as: Oriolo, S., et al., Contemporaneous assembly of Western Gondwana and final Rodinia break-up: Implications for the supercontinent cycle, Geoscience Frontiers (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2017.01.009 10 S. Oriolo et al. / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2017) 1e15 yielding UePb ages of ca. 900e700 Ma and d18O > 6 for younger might however contribute, the Gondwana assembly Hf finger- zircons (Fig. 6b; Fortes de Lena et al., 2014; Ganade de Araujo et al., print is thus most likely associated with metacratonization pro- 2014a), also indicating juvenile crust addition and subsequent cesses, which in turn were influenced by the pre-collisional reworking of supracrustal material during the assembly of Gond- configuration of active margins and back-arc zones. wana, respectively. TonianeCryogenian island arc development and subduction with back-arc extension recorded in several 5. Implications for the supercontinent cycle Western Gondwana regions (Fig. 8) thus represented a period of relative significant crustal growth for Western Gondwana and Together with the development of intraoceanic arcs (Section 4), show a major contrast with coeval rifting and subsequent devel- ophiolite remnants between Western Gondwanan blocks record opment of major oceanic basins between Rodinian blocks. post-Rodinia oceanic crust formation during the TonianeCryoge- When compared with other supercontinents, the Gondwana nian (Fig. 5). Nevertheless, relicts of older oceanic crust are present assembly shows the most evolved Hf fingerprint, thus implying as well, such as the ca. 1.4 Ga Chewore ophiolite of the Zambezi Belt reworking of a great amount of old crustal material (Spencer (Oliver et al., 1998). et al., 2013; Gardiner et al., 2016). This has been attributed to In the São Gabriel Block of southeastern Brazil, TonianeCryo- the presence of single-sided subduction zones (Spencer et al., genian oceanic crust is recorded by ophiolitic sequences that 2013) or, alternatively, to enhanced subduction-erosion due to comprise metabasalts, amphibolites, magnesian schists, serpen- steeper subduction angles (Gardiner et al., 2016). However, most tinites, harzburgites and albitites (Hartmann and Chemale, 2003; of the BrasilianoePan-African magmatism was related to meta- Arena et al., 2016). Zircons yield UePb SHRIMP concordant ages cratonization processes, i.e., collisional to post-collisional mag- of 923 3 and 829.4 2.8 Ma for albitites of the Cerro Man- matism. Metacratonization results from the lack of a thick tiqueiras and Ibaré ophiolites, respectively, thus constraining the lithospheric mantle, which leads to craton remobilization during timing of the magmatism (Arena et al., 2016). Likewise, zircon trace an orogenic event, and is more likely to occur along the former element data and εHf values between þ8 and þ13 point to juvenile active margin due to subduction (Abdesalam et al., 2002; Liégeois mantle-derived magmas (Arena et al., 2016). et al., 2013). As previously described, most Gondwanan meta- Further north (present coordinates), slices of ophiolitic rocks are cratonized areas comprised the pre-collisional active margin and also present in the Araguaia Belt. The Quatipuru ophiolite is recorded back-arc extension as well (Fig. 8; Fritz et al., 2013; constituted by serpentinized peridotites intruded by mafic to ul- Ganade de Araujo et al., 2014c; Oriolo et al., 2016a). Likewise, tramafic dykes (Paixão et al., 2008). SmeNd data of the dykes back-arc development further promotes the removal of litho- provide a whole-rock isochrone age of 757 49 Ma, whereas εNd spheric mantle as a result of asthenospheric upwelling and, values between þ6.4 and þ6.9 indicate a juvenile mantle source consequently, back arc zones are favorable zones for strain (Paixão et al., 2008). localization during subsequent continental collision (Hyndman Cryogenian oceanic crust is recorded in the southern Borborema et al., 2005). Though single-sided subduction (Spencer et al., Province of Brazil as well. The Monte Orebe ophiolite comprises 2013) and enhanced subduction-erosion (Gardiner et al., 2016) basic metavolcanites, metacherts, garnetemica schists and minor lenses of amphibolites and metaultramafic rocks (Caxito et al., 2014). Based on geochemical and SmeNd data, a juvenile depleted mantle source can be inferred for the metabasalts, which also present a whole-rock SmeNd isochrone age of 819 120 Ma (Caxito et al., 2014). In a similar way, Cryogenian ophiolites are present in the Anti- Atlas Belt, Morocco. The Bou-Azzer ophiolite comprises serpentinites, metagabbros, metabasalts and minor metasedimentary rocks, which are intruded by arc-related granodiorites, diorites and tonalites (El Hadi et al., 2010, and references therein). Geochemical data reveal a MORB signature for the metabasalts, although a second group with island arc affinity was recognized as well (Naidoo et al., 1991). A UePb SHRIMP zircon age of 697 8 Ma obtained for a gabbro constrains the age of the ophiolite (El Hadi et al., 2010), which is further supported by ages of ca. 655e640 Ma of subsequent subduction-related intrusions (Inglis et al., 2005). On the other hand, the Tasriwine ophiolitic complex is mostly made up of metaultramafic rocks, metagabbros, leucogranites and mafic dykes (Samson et al., 2004, and references therein). Major elements and REE geochemical data reveal that leucogranites represent plagiogranites, which also present whole-rock εNd and zircon εHf values of ca. þ6.0 and þ14, respectively, thus indicating a mantle derivation (Samson et al., 2004). The age of the plagiogranites, in turn, is constrained at 762 2MabyUePb TIMS zircon data (Samson et al., 2004). In the ArabianeNubian Shield, the YOSHGAH ophiolite belt Figure 8. Sketch showing the geodynamic scenario for Western Gondwana blocks at records two Cryogenian events of oceanic crust formation at ca. ca. 750 Ma (modified after Fritz et al., 2013; Fortes de Lena et al., 2014; Ganade et al., 810e780 and 750e730 Ma (Ali et al., 2010, and references 2016; Triantafyllou et al., 2016). Subduction (blue) with associated back-arc extension therein). The YOSHGAH belt comprises serpentinites, isotropic and (red line), development of island arcs (green) and subordinated oceanic crust gener- layered metagabbros, pillow metabasalts and diabase dykes ation in internal oceans dominated in most Western Gondwana domains, thus contrasting with coeval rifting and major oceanic basin development recorded by Rodinian (Zimmer et al., 1995; Gahlan and Arai, 2009; Ali et al., 2010). In the blocks (not shown). RP: Río de la Plata Craton, NP: Nico Pérez Terrane. Gerf nappe, Zimmer et al. (1995) reported a N-MORB signature for

Please cite this article in press as: Oriolo, S., et al., Contemporaneous assembly of Western Gondwana and final Rodinia break-up: Implications for the supercontinent cycle, Geoscience Frontiers (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2017.01.009 S. Oriolo et al. / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2017) 1e15 11 pillow basaltic lavas and sheeted dykes based on major and trace Finally, the Kalahari Craton was incorporated during the Late element geochemical data. These rocks also show εNd EdiacaraneEarly Cambrian. The proposed Gondwana evolution between þ4.5 and þ8.8, further supporting a juvenile signature rules out the existence of Pannotia, as the final Gondwana amal- (Zimmer et al., 1995). SmeNd whole-rock isochrone ages of gamation postdates latest connections between Laurentia and 720 9 and 758 34 Ma were obtained for gabbros and basalts, Amazonia. Likewise, the contemporaneous record of final Rodinia whereas one gabbro yielded a SmeNd mineral isochrone age of break-up and Gondwana assembly has major implications for the 771 52 Ma (Zimmer et al., 1995). Kröner et al. (1992) reported supercontinent cycle, as supercontinent amalgamation and break- PbePb zircon evaporation ages of 741 21 and 808 14 Ma for a up do not necessarily represent alternating episodic processes but gabbro of the Gerf ophiolite and a plagiogranite of the Onib overlap in time. ophiolite, respectively. In turn, zircons from a layered gabbro from On the other hand, εHf vs. UePb zircon age data from different the Allaqi ophiolite present a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of BrasilianoePan-African belts show a fanning isotopic array indi- 730 6Ma(UePb LA-ICP-MS; Ali et al., 2010). Mineral chemistry cating increased continental loss towards the timing of Gond- and whole-rock geochemical data indicate that peridotites of the wana assembly as expected for collisional orogenies (Collins Allaqi ophiolite show compositions similar to fore-arc peridotites et al., 2011; Roberts, 2012). Reworking of mostly Archean and (Azer et al., 2013). Paleoproterozoic crust is recorded in the Damara Belt and the Hence, data indicate the presence of Cryogenian oceanic litho- West Gondwana Orogen, being closely related to metacratoni- sphere younger than Rodinia break-up, although remnants of zation of several crustal fragments in the latter, such as the Nico contemporaneous or even older oceanic rocks are present as well. Pérez Terrane, the São Francisco Craton, the Borborema Province The presence of older oceanic lithosphere could be explained by and the LATEA Metacraton. Remobilization of much younger geological evidence supporting that several cratons were not part crust and subordinated addition of juvenile Late Neoproterozoic of Rodinia (Section 2, Fig. 1a; Cordani et al., 2003; Kröner and continental crust took place along the northern African Gond- Cordani, 2003). Likewise, most Neoproterozoic ophiolites were wana margin. The Hf fingerprint of the assembly of Gondwana is associated with convergent settings, i.e. supra-subduction zones or thus controlled by metacratonization processes that, in turn, island arc sequences (Fig. 8; e.g., Samson et al., 2004; Ali et al., 2010; were strongly influenced by the pre-collisional location of active Azer et al., 2013; Fortes de Lena et al., 2014), thus suggesting that margins and back-arc zones. In contrast to crustal reworking they might represent limited events of extension of internal oceans during Gondwana assembly, crustal growth resulting from rather than the development of major Cryogenian oceanic basins addition of juvenile continental crust along convergent margins (Cordani et al., 2003; Johansson, 2014). The amalgamation of was dominant since the Late Tonian in several Western Gond- Western Gondwana thus resulted from introversion, which is wana regions. further supported by paleogeographic reconstructions indicating Finally, Late TonianeCryogenian oceans between Western that Western Gondwana assembly took place in the southern Gondwana blocks were closed during the assembly of Western hemisphere, where most cratons were positioned since Rodinia Gondwana, thus pointing to introversion. Nevertheless, pre- assembly (Fig. 1a; Meert and Torsvik, 2003; Li et al., 2008; Evans, Neoproterozoic remnants of oceanic crust are present as well and 2009; Evans et al., 2016). Nevertheless, extroversion can still be can be explained as the result of isolation of several Western considered valid for the amalgamation of Western and Eastern Gondwana cratons during the amalgamation of Rodinia. As extro- Gondwana based on paleogeographic reconstructions (Tohver et al., version is recorded during Western and Eastern Gondwana amal- 2006; Li et al., 2008; Evans, 2009), as indicated by Murphy and gamation, an alternative model of combined introversion and Nance (2003). Consequently, the assembly of Gondwana resulted extroversion is proposed for the assembly of Gondwana. from a combination of introversion and extroversion. Acknowledgements 6. Concluding remarks S. Oriolo thanks DAAD for a long-term PhD scholarship (A/12/ After assembly during the Late Mesoproterozoic, Rodinia un- 75051). Craig Robertson is greatly acknowledged for discussions derwent rifting at ca. 800e700 Ma leading to the opening of a and literature exchange regarding the origin of the term Gond- major ocean between Laurentia and Eastern Gondwana cratons. In wana. The authors also want to thank M. Santosh and R. D. Nance contrast, most Western Gondwana cratons occupied a marginal for their suggestions and editorial work as well as J.-P. Liégeois, R. position in the southern hemisphere and recorded a different Strachan and two anonymous reviewers for their invaluable evolution during the same period, including subduction with back- comments. arc extension, island arc development and limited formation of oceanic crust in internal oceans. Hence, paleogeographic re- Appendix A. Supplementary data constructions for the TonianeCryogenian, which classically consider a geodynamic scenario related to Rodinia break-up, need Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http:// to be reevaluated. dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2017.01.009. The first collisional event during Gondwana assembly is recorded at ca. 630 Ma between the Río de la Plata and Congo-São Francisco cratons, which was succeeded by the assembly of the References Amazonian and West African cratons to this early Gondwana nu- Abati, J., Aghzer, A.M., Gerdes, A., Ennih, N., 2012. Insights on the crustal evolution cleus up to ca. 600 Ma along the West Gondwana Orogen. These of the West African Craton from Hf isotopes in detrital zircons from the Anti- events are coeval with the onset of the opening of the Iapetus Atlas belt. Precambrian Research 212e213, 263e274. e Abdesalam, M.G., Liégeois, J.-P., Stern, R.J., 2002. The Saharan Metacraton. Journal of Ocean at ca. 610 600 Ma, which gave rise to the separation of e fi African Earth Sciences 34, 119 136. Baltica, Laurentia and Amazonas and resulted from the nal Rodinia Ali, K.A., Azer, M.K., Gahlan, H.A., Wilde, S.A., Samuel, M.D., Stern, R.J., 2010. Age break-up. The East African/Antarctic Orogen records the subse- constraints on the formation and emplacement of neoproterozoic ophiolites quent amalgamation of Western and Eastern Gondwana after ca. along the Allaqi-Heiani Suture, South Eastern Desert of Egypt. Gondwana Research 18, 583e595. 580 Ma, contemporaneously with the beginning of subduction in Ali, K., Andresen, A., Manton, W.I., Stern, R.J., Omar, S.A., Maurice, A.E., 2012. U-Pb the Terra Australis Orogen along the southern margin of Gondwana. zircon dating and Sr-Nd-Hf isotopic evidence to support a juvenile origin of the

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